Influences of Three Presidents of the on Multicultural Education

A Series of Research Studies in Educational Policy Third Installment: Examining Presidents John Quincy Adams, , and Harry S. Truman

By H. Prentice Baptiste & Emil J. Michal, Jr.

Introduction sachusetts, the University of Washington occupied the office of President of the in Seattle, the University of Wisconsin at United States. There are, however, connec- The recognition, development and Madison, the University of Houston, and tions that can be made among them. One implementation of multicultural education New Mexico State University are actively thread was the political backgrounds of in this country is a relatively new and engaged in educating students to become these men. Each would reflect the begin- emerging idea (Apple, 1979; Banks, 1977; multicultural educators (Gay, 1994). nings, evolution, and change of political Burnett, 1994; Delpit, 1992; Frazier, 1977; National professional organizations parties in this country. Garcia, E, 1994; Grant, 1977; Hunter, such as the National Council for the Social Adams and Roosevelt were both men 1974; Kallen, 1970; La Belle, 1976; Pai, Studies, the National Council for the Ac- who did not maintain only one political 1984). Prior to the middle of the previous creditation of Teacher Education and the party affiliation but moved between par- century, the concept of addressing and pro- National Education Association have de- ties as their consciences and circumstances viding a meaningful educational experience clared their commitments to multicultural dictated. Indeed, Adams is listed as be- for all students, including students of color, education. In 1990, the National Associa- longing to three different parties: Whig, was non-existent. tion for Multicultural Education was National Republican, and Federalist In recent years, through the work of formed to further the development of (Remini, 2002). numerous educators (Banks, 1993; Banks, multicultural education (Gay, 1994). Roosevelt, while elected president as J. & Banks, C., 2004; Baptiste, 1979/1986/ While these efforts by educators are a Republican, went on to initiate an en- 1994; Bennett, 1995; Boyer & Baptiste, important, the commitment of this country tirely new national political party, the Pro- 1996; Garcia, R.L., 1982; Gay, 1988/1994, to multicultural education in American gressive or Bull Moose Party (Auchincloss, 2004; Gollnick & Chinn, 1990; Nieto, schools and on the international scene has 2001). Only Truman maintained a lifelong 1992), not only has the concept of not been significant (Spring, 2000). Part of affiliation with one party, the Democratic multicultural education begun to become this absence must be attributed to the lack Party (McCullough, 1992), as party affili- a reality, it has become a driving force in of support and leadership from the Presi- ation had become a dominant theme on curricular development. dent of the United Sates and his adminis- the political landscape by the middle of Colleges of education of several major tration. Through the policies and actions of the 20th century. universities, such as the University of Mas- each President’s individual administration, Another thread to bind these men is the role of multicultural education in this their social standing. Both Adams and country is affected, both positively and nega- Roosevelt were products of what would be H. Prentice Baptiste is a professor tively. In this paper, three presidents, John considered upper-class social status in this of multicultural and science education Quincy Adams, Theodore Roosevelt, and country and enjoyed the privileges, perqui- and Emil J. Michal, Jr., is a doctoral student, Harry S. Truman, will be examined as to sites, and advantages of that status both with the Department of Curriculum their roles in multicultural education. (Kunhardt, P., Jr, Kunhardt, P., III, & and Instruction While considering these three men, it Kunhardt, P., 1999). Adams came from the at New Mexico State University, may appear that there is no common theme rigorous, austere and religious background Las Cruces, New Mexico. connecting them other than that all of them of New England (Remini, 2002) and

SUMMER 2004 35 Roosevelt from the well-to-do of New York Seminoles for raiding into the United City (Auchincloss, 2001). Again, as a States. Adams defended Jackson’s actions, counter point, Truman was from literally arguing, “that the general was justified by middle America, coming from a farm in his action in that Spain was unable to po- Kansas (McCullough, 1992). While not on lice its territory and prevent rampaging ‘sav- the level of the previous two, Truman’s ages’ from killing American citizens” background was by no means one of depri- (Remini, p. 55). Indeed, Adams argued that vation. The dominant link among these Jackson’s actions “be justified as ‘defensive three, indeed among all presidents of this acts of hostility’” (Drinnon, 1997, p. 104). country, is that they are white Protestant This attitude of conquest continued in males. his authorship of the Monroe Doctrine. It Though similar in some attributes and was Adams’s belief that America pos- different in others, each man would exert sessed a unique and God-given call to take tremendous influence on events and devel- possession of the entire continent and the opments in this country and the world. Ar- doctrine was his way of expressing this eas affected would encompass every aspect belief. The effects on the people already on of people’s lives. By considering their back- the land did not concern Adams. It was grounds, their public lives and political ac- America’s Manifest Destiny to expand tions, their acts while president relating to westward and the people now on the land multicultural education or some anteced- were of no consequence (Remini, 2002). This ent, and the legacies of these acts, we can attitude towards what would now be hope to gain an insight into effects that each termed a minority people is an important of these Presidents of the United States has John Quincy Adams part of Adams’s legacy. had in the area of multicultural education. The presidential election of 1824 was system that had established a republican a very contentious affair that involved elec- John Quincy Adams frame of government” (Remini, p. 22). toral vote trading and deals of convenience This viewpoint identified Adams as a (Remini, 2002). Adams felt he should be The son of the second President of this Federalist, an ally of Alexander Hamilton, chosen the next President in the same man- country, John Quincy Adams came from a and placed him in opposition to the ner as the previous Secretaries of States, Puritanical, New England family of sev- Jeffersonian Republicans of that time. Madison and Monroe, were chosen Presi- eral generations in American and was ex- Adams’s political career had its ups and dent. His background for the office is de- pected to, “add to the family’s illustrious downs in state and national levels as he scribed by Bemis: record of accomplishment” (Remini, p. 2). won some elections and lost others. He Traveling with his father throughout Eu- soon demonstrated a lack of party loyalty He led no party, controlled no politi- rope as a youth and educated in the clas- cal machine, nor did he have per- as he would oppose measures and resolu- sonal magnetism or other qualities sics in various private schools, by the time tions from both political parties while in necessary to build one. All he had to he reached the age of sixteen, “he had be- office (Remini, 2002). Adams became so stand on politically was his distin- come something of a celebrity among the estranged from the Federalists that he at- guished lineage, his character, his social elite [of Europe]. He was a skilled tended a Republican congressional caucus large experience with affairs at home linguist, a classicist of sorts, a superb con- in 1808 (Remini, 2002), an act that truly and abroad, and his undoubted com- versationalist whose knowledge of litera- horrified his family and was a harbinger of petence for public office. No man has ture, the arts and science set him apart. later political party oscillations. ever been better fitted, as profes- Moreover, he was American, a rather sional public servant, for the Presi- Demonstrating exceptional diplomatic dency. No man has had less aptitude unique distinction in social circle at that skills by negotiating the Treaty of Ghent or inclination for the organization and time” (Remini, p. 14-5). to end the War of 1812 (Bemis, 1956) and command of political cohorts. (p. 11) This sounds very much like the Brit- in recognition of his intellect and social sta- ish gentleman that landed families of Vir- tus, Adams was selected by the newly Though a recognized and able states- ginia and other early states wished for elected President James Monroe to be Sec- man, Adams was still a neophyte politi- their sons (Wilkins, 2002). This would later retary of State. This was an important cian at a time when Presidential candi- contribute to Adams being labeled an “aris- position, as the Secretary of State was dates did not actively campaign for office. tocrat,” not in touch with the “democracy” viewed at that time as being a stepping He did clumsily attempt to ensure his elec- of this country (Nagel, 1997). stone to the office of President. Adams ac- tion. He suggested that his opponents, The entry of Adams into politics took cepted and is credited with being “the great- Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and John place after he returned home from Europe, est secretary of state to serve that office” Calhoun, be sent on missions to Europe or completed his education at Harvard, (Remini, p. 50). Latin America, had his wife give a lavish settled in Boston, and began practicing law While Secretary of State, Adams ball to entice Jackson to be his Vice Presi- (Remini, 2002). In his spare time, he re- would be involved in two important docu- dential candidate, was an “anonymous” sponded to The Rights of Man by Thomas ments: The Florida Treaty and the Monroe source for information praising his efforts Paine with a series of essays called “Let- Doctrine. The first was the culmination of to various editors, and began socializing ters of Publicola” (Remini, 2002). In these over twenty years of efforts by American at every opportunity to advance his candi- essays, “Adams warned against dema- administrations to dislodge Spain from dacy among the influential circles in Wash- goguery and insisted on protection of indi- Florida. The final part of the process in- ington at that time (Remini, 2002). vidual rights. In America, he said, those volved actions of Andrew Jackson’s incur- Opposing Adams were four Demo- rights are protected under a constitutional sion into Florida to pursue and punish cratic-Republicans: John Calhoun, Henry

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 36 Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jack- son. For the remaining twenty years Jefferson, and others had also done noth- son. Calhoun would withdraw to be named of his life, he reflected on his presi- ing to break the cycle of allowing slavery to Vice President. The Electoral College vote dency with distaste, convinced that continue in America (Wilkins, 2002). did not give any of the candidates a major- he had been the victim of evildoers. After his defeat for reelection, Adams His administration was a hapless fail- ity and was split 99 for Jackson, 84 for ure and best forgotten, save for the would, as a Congressman, become an elo- Adams, 41 for Crawford, who had suffered personal anguish it cost him. (p. 296) quent and forceful opponent of slavery and a debilitating stroke prior to the vote a hero to abolitionists of that time (Remini, 2002), and 37 for Clay. Without a Even with this rather gloomy estima- (Remini, 2002). His opposition to the Gag decision, the election would be decided in tion of Adams’s administration, there can Rules designed to prevent anti-slavery pe- the House of Representatives, where Clay, be some analysis of his attitudes and ac- titions from being introduced to Congress not allowed to be considered for the presi- tions regarding people of color and, by im- became more and more strident with time dency because of his fourth place finish, plication, multicultural education. Granted, (Remini, 2002). While his arguments were was essentially going to decide the elec- for Adams, the term “multicultural” might in defense of the constitution and the rights tion as Speaker of the House. more likely invoke references to Latin and of free speech, the applications were in op- Clay provided the support for Adams Greek, rather than Native Americans, position to slavery. This apparent contra- to be elected president and Adams awarded Mexican American, and African Americans, diction to his lack of action concerning sla- the support by naming Clay Secretary of but there are some identifiable thoughts very while President can be resolved by State (Bemis, 1956). The apolitical Adams on his part about people of color that would recognizing his pragmatic nature. had participated in one of the biggest po- best be termed benign neglect as Adams His first allegiance was of preserving litical trade offs in American history that would do nothing to change the prevalent the country and the Constitution at all would split the Democratic-Republican treatment of people of color in this country costs, but his Puritanical upbringing pro- Party into the Democrats of Jackson and during his administration. vided the moral compass to recognize the the National Republicans that supported For Adams, the development and ex- abhorrent nature of slavery to the point Adams. Andrew Jackson complained loudly pansion of the nation to the west was the that an enlightened citizenry, perhaps prod- and campaigned unceasingly to reverse the paramount issue and the most desirable ded by martial law, would bring liberty to results of the election that he viewed as approach was a, “humane policy of Indian Black persons (John Quincy Adams, Mem- being stolen from him (Bemis, 1956). The removal [that] would transfer the tribes to oirs). In an amazing bit of foreshadowing, constant and unremitting attacks by Jack- the west of the Mississippi, educating and Adams would express his convictions son and his supporters would be Adams’ civilizing them, perhaps eventually assimi- about slavery in light of the Missouri Com- legacy for his political maneuvering. lating them into the body of citizenry” promise, by writing in his Diary that: Once elected, Adams’s dream for the (Bemis, p. 62). Writing in his diary, Adams expresses his sentiment about the in- If slavery be the destined sword in betterment of the nation was a grand vi- the hand of the destroying angel sion to promote knowledge with, “[a] na- tended role of Native Americans: which is to sever the ties of this tional bankruptcy law, [a] national univer- ...while I was there Mr. Calhoun union, the same sword will cut in sity, [a] national astronomical observatory, came, with a deputation of five sunder the bonds of slavery itself. A [a] national naval academy, national re- Cherokee Indians. This is the most dissolution of the Union for the cause search and exploration, and a new depart- civilized of the tribes of North of slavery would be followed by a ser- ment of the Interior to administer increas- American Indians. They have aban- vile war in the slave-holding States, ing national business” (Bemis, p. 76). The doned altogether the life of hunters, combined with a war between the and betaken themselves to tillage. two severed portions of the Union. recipients of this enhanced knowledge were It seems to me that its result must undoubtedly to be Americans like himself, These men were dressed entirely according to our manner. Two of be the extirpation of slavery from male, white and of the upper social strata them spoke English with good pro- the whole continent; and, calamitous of the country. There would be no consider- nunciation, and one with grammati- and desolating as this course of ation for any one else other than this well cal accuracy. (p. 313) events in its progress must be, so defined and well off group. glorious would be its final issue, that, His status derived from a “minority Assimilation would be the attitude of for as God shall judge me, I dare not say election” (Hargreaves, 1985) doomed these Native Americans, after they relinquished that it is not to be desired. (p. 246-7) their homelands to the advancing stream lofty efforts, “of the National Government This statement and the passion that it evokes of settlers. His administration did noth- operating under a benign Providence to pro- would not be evident while he was President, ing to recognize and interact with Native mote and assist the “general diffusion of but would certainly explain his religious fer- Americans in any positive manner (Har- knowledge” and its application for the con- vor and later actions as a member of the greaves, 1985). tinuing improvement of American citizens House of Representatives. For African Americans, the “peculiar and of mankind (Bemis, p. 63). As ex- The second instance of notoriety that institution” of slavery was something that pressed by Nagel: involved Adams was the La Amistad inci- Adams would not actively address in any dent. Thirty-nine captive Africans aboard His four years in the White House proactive manner. For him, “‘slavery in a a Spanish ship destined to work on Cuban were misery for him and for his wife. moral sense is an evil, but as connected All that he hoped to accomplish was plantations rebelled against their captors with commerce it has its uses.’ Business thwarted by a hostile Congress. His and commandeered the ship, the La rated higher than morality so he left sla- opponents continually assailed him Amistad. Later captured by American very alone” (O’Reilly, p. 31). So, while occu- with what he claimed was the foulest forces, Spanish authorities sought the re- pying the office of president, Adams did slander. Consequently, while Adams turn of the ship and the captives. Before sought reelection in 1828, he did so not oppose slavery nor propose its aboli- the United States Supreme Court, Adams mostly from stubborn pride, and he tion. This act of denial was similar to those argued for the defendants’ freedom by evok- actually looked impatiently toward of previous Presidents. Washington, his certain defeat by Andrew Jack- ing the Declaration of Independence and

SUMMER 2004 37 making a passionate plea for human rights his “manly” outlook on life for himself (Remini, 2002). The Court ruled against (Charnwood, 1923; Brands, 1997). the government’s case and “declared the He soon made a name for himself on Africans freemen and dismissed as imma- the national scene with the spectacular terial the treaties involving slave trade” public relations coup of the (Remini, p. 148). (Dalton, 2002; Morris, 1979) and the While in office as President, Adams “Charge” up San Juan Hill during the did not exert any appreciable influence to Spanish-American War. Following the war, address the idea of multicultural educa- he was selected to run for governor of New tion, or even the antecedents of this con- York. His nomination was made possible, cept. He followed his personal dictates in however, only after extensive political ma- terms of what he considered important to neuvering and deal making (Auchincloss, the country and moral to his set of values, 2001; Brands, 1997). but there would be no attention paid to the During the campaign, he did his best to elimination of slavery or the recognition of turn the general election for the state house the worth of other groups of people. into a national referendum on the war and His contributions to multicultural the concept of expansion of the United education would come after he left the of- States throughout the world. Roosevelt felt fice or President and were prompted by a that this country must accept its destiny to personal vendetta against Jackson (Bemis, carry civilization and the American flag 1956; Hargreaves, 1985; Remini, 2002) and around the world (Brands, 1997). This might were in terms of protecting the constitu- be thought of as a call for a policy of pax tion rather than recognizing the value of Americana and he was ready to take the diversity. But his legacy of foreshadowing Theodore Roosevelt lead in this crusade. The lesson that a civil war should be recognized for the pre- Roosevelt learned from this experience, and diction of the momentous conflict that Roosevelt possessed the ways and means to one that he would consistently use later, was would come in a few short years to this accomplish his own personal goals, but he that there were times when arrangements nation. The ruling of the Supreme Court had difficulty recognizing that others start- were necessary and had to be done to ac- concerning civil rights for individuals pro- ing with less might not have the freedoms of complish certain goals. He, “perfectly un- vides another powerful antecedent of this choice and action that he enjoyed (Brands, derstood that a failure to deal with the [po- country’s history of multicultural events. 1997; Charnwood, 1923; Dalton, 2002). litical] machine would mean failure to make Due to his “frail” condition, Roosevelt any social progress at all, and he adopted Theodore Roosevelt was tutored at home throughout his entire the course of compromise quite openly” school age life (Brands, 1997). Traveling (Auchincloss, p. 36). Coming from a prosperous Dutch fam- with his family, he became convinced that His nomination as Vice-President ily that immigrated to New York City in industrious and civilized nations were de- was, in some measure, a political deal to 1644 and became part of the New York ar- sirable in international development remove him from the office of governor of istocracy, Roosevelt was part of the elite (Brands, 1997; Dalton, 2002). This convic- New York where he was too much of a “loose circle of this country. Stories about his tion of power as a source of “good” behavior cannon” to the political bosses (Lorant, childhood and his desire to develop a would dictate Roosevelt’s view of the world 1959). The assassination of President Wil- “manly” physique and character are well throughout his lifetime (Brands, 1997). Af- liam McKinley then unexpectedly moved documented and recorded (Brands, 1997; ter his “home schooling” ended, he attended Roosevelt and his sense of moral righteous- Charnwood, 1923; Dalton, 2002). These Harvard as was expected by his family given ness into the office of President. ideas would later contribute to his want- his background (Brands, 1997). He would Not afraid to decide what was good ing to live the life of the “outdoors man” in graduate and start a life of politics and gov- and what was evil, Roosevelt began to in- the West (Brands, 1997). ernment service in various capacities. terpret issues of the day as he saw them. The factors of praising, even perhaps As a New York Assemblyman, Civil His “” of socially progressive worshiping, strength of character, mind, Service Commissioner, New York City Board principles (Auchincloss, 2001) was a pro- and body as a primary driving attitude of of Police Commissioner, and Assistant Sec- nouncement of these views of right and Roosevelt will be important in this discus- retary of the Navy, Roosevelt showed a will- wrong. “The creation of a pure food and drug sion. His thoughts that, “a man, any man, ingness to engage in political fights over is- law, supervision of insurance companies in- [was] in total charge of his own destiny and sues that he deemed appropriate vestigation of child labor, an employers’ li- therefore capable of choosing the terms of (Auchincloss, 2001; Brands, 1997; Lorant, ability law for the District of Columbia, his employment and incurring total re- 1959; Morris, 1979). His choices consistently and suits against railroad rebates,” sponsibility of his crimes” (Auchincloss, p. involved some abuse of power by an indi- (Auchincloss, p. 62) were all indicative of 16) would define his views on interactions vidual, business, or “trust” (Lorant, 1959), this consistency of viewpoint, that the in- between nations as well as individuals or a view that he would adhere to throughout dividual needs some protection from bad groups of people. his life. Any limitation or encroachment of circumstances and institutions to accom- This sense of self-determination, to ones ability to determine ones destiny would plish self-determination. This agenda make your own way in life, of an individual’s qualify as offending the spirit of fair play would be translated into notable legisla- control of events would consistently be a cen- and self-determination. tive acts, including: tral part of his views of life. Recognizing that Roosevelt would resign from the Navy he came from “comfortable” circumstances, Department to go into combat in the Span- the Elkins Law, against the railroads’ this is a view that makes some sense. ish-American War, a move predicated by practice of given rebates to favored customers; the creation of the De-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 38 partment of Commerce and Labor dent. Roosevelt was unable to travel to regiment without honor (Dalton, 2002). withits Bureau of Corporations, Tuskegee Institute to view Washington’s Subsequent testimony would clear the sol- which grew to regulate every busi- approach, “where self-help was preached diers and evidence showed that the citi- ness that crossed state lines; the as gospel and where students and faculty zens had fabricated the incident, but Hepburn Bill, which amended and vitalized the Interstate Commerce combined strenuous outdoor labor with Roosevelt would not rescind his decision Act and gave government the power their intellectual endeavours” (Brands, p. (Gould, 1991; Morris, 2001). This was a to set railroad rates; the Pure Food 422), an approach that Roosevelt would serious lapse in his interpretation of “good” and Meat Inspection Laws, which have been sure to support. So Roosevelt and “evil.” remedied some of the scandals of the invited Washington to the White House According to one author, Roosevelt was meat packing industry as exposed by whenever he was in town. Washington ac- given to numerous statements and obser- Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle; cepted and the fateful dinner occurred on vations that would not be considered posi- and the Employers’ Liability and October 16, 1901. tive concerning race. In Nixon’s Piano by Safety Appliance Laws, which lim- ited the hours of employees. The reaction by the Southern media O’Reilly, Roosevelt is describe as: and politicos to the meal was swift, vocal, (Auchincloss, p. 45) . . . obsessed with race. He carried a vociferous, and venomous. Roosevelt was gene hierarchy in his head and spent In addition, Theodore Roosevelt also surprised by the reaction and said he endless hours compiling and catalog- used the Sherman Antitrust Act to crusade would ask Washington to dine as often as ing “stronger races” and “weaker against actions of what he considered “bad” he pleased at the White House (Brands, races.” Negroes found themselves trusts. Being a big trust was not evil, in 1997). As a political reality, Roosevelt placed near rock bottom among the the eyes of Roosevelt. However, if any trust, would come to view this as a political mis- “most utterly underdeveloped.” “Suf- “sought to profit by restricting production step and never offered another invitation fered from laziness and shiftlessness” by trick or device, by plotting against com- to Washington or any other individual of and prone to “vice and criminality of petitors, by oppressing wage earners, or by every kind,” blacks threatened white color to eat at the White House. As ex- citizens and “race purity.” Roosevelt extorting high prices for a commodity made pressed in O’Reilly: studied the problem scientifically, in artificially scarce,” (Auchincloss, p. 50) the progressive manner, and con- then Roosevelt would go after the offender Dumbfounded by this “condition of violent chronic hysteria,” which he cluded that Negro “evils” were “more to restore a sense of moral correctness to explained by reference to the same potent for harm to the black race than the actions involved. The duty of govern- “combination of Bourbon intellect all acts of oppression of white men ment in his view was, “to force the bad ones and intolerant truculence of spirit... put together.” “[This]perfectly stupid [trusts] to become good by making them which brought on the Civil War, race can never rise,” he added on follow what he deemed to be the path of Roosevelt and his partisans recast another occasion. “The Negro...has been kept down as much by lack of Ôrighteousness’” (Lorant, p. 471). the Washington dinner. To minimize fallout from the breach of racial eti- intellectual development as by any- Roosevelt lived at a time when inter- thing else.” (p. 65) national events began to mold a sense of a quette they downgraded the dinner to a luncheon, told the press that the This dichotomy of views can possibly new beginning for the world. He wanted to Roosevelt women did not sit and eat carry America along with this sense of ad- with the black man, and reminded be explained to some degree by Roosevelt’s venture at the start of the century. He everyone that black women were not progressive view of every person being pushed to build the and welcome at the first lady’s weekly judged on their won personal merits, so complete the Pacific Cable. At this time, teas and biweekly musicals. (p. 69) that an African-American could attain a the first Model-T automobile, Marconi’s level of success as typified by Washington Spin doctors, as they are referred to today, trans-Atlantic radio transmission, sailing but the “scientific” side of him sided with were clouding the details of the event. of the United States fleet around the world, the “scientific” results of different abili- Roosevelt was determined to avoid any more and the first flight of the Wright brothers ties of various races. This success was an “mistakes” of this nature (Brands, 1997). (Dalton, 2002; Lorant, 1959) fueled this exception rather than a rule in Roosevelt’s Two other incidents might seem to in- sense of adventure. mind and superiority of the white race was dicate a positive approach to race on the The concept of universal education in something that would be basically unchal- part of Roosevelt. He appointed an African- this country may have been espoused for a lenged (Dyer, 1980). American, Dr. William D. Crum, as Collec- number of years but, in reality, it was only The political animal in him, recogniz- tor of the Port of Charleston, South Caro- available to the well-to-do that could af- ing the necessity of compromise and deal lina, and Minnie M. Cox as postmistress of ford the expense, which was Roosevelt’s making, would always entertain some in- Indianola, Mississippi. Both appointments background and support (Dalton, 2002). In dividuals of color for various federal posi- were met with opposition from locals, but his own way, Roosevelt did contribute to tions to secure support of Black voting Roosevelt held firm in his choices and did the idea of multicultural education with blocks come election time (Brands, 1997). not remove them from their positions his consistent view of an individual’s in- As a person, he felt pride, “in being man (Gould, 1991). While these events may give herent ability to define and reach self-de- enough to open his home to Black guests, a sense of positive actions about civil rights, termination. However, he did not play a to sit at a table and break bread with a other events gave a much darker picture. significant role in the efforts of African Black man in the executive mansion when The most famous of these is the Americans, Native Americans, or women governor of New York” (O’Reilly, p. 66), and “Brownsville Incident” in which an all- to be part of this reform movement dine with another while in the White Black Army regiment, the 26th Infantry (Hanson, 1999). House. He even bragged that his children, Regiment, was accused of engaging in a This lack of inclusion for diversity first “sat in the same school with colored chil- shooting riot in the south Texas town. shows in Roosevelt’s actions involving din- dren” (O’Reilly, p. 66). Yet this same man Roosevelt’s resolution of the incident was ing with Booker T. Washington in the would support segregation as a method of to summarily discharge every soldier in the White House soon after he became Presi- dealing with the race issue and discount

SUMMER 2004 39 lynchings of Blacks in the South as some- ing strong executive leadership in matters how justified because, “the man lynched of race” (Sinkler, p. 373). has been guilty of a crime beyond descrip- tions” (O’Reilly, p. 72). Harry S. Truman For Native Americans, Roosevelt’s views also have a sense of bipolar implica- Coming from Missouri, Truman was tions. As a product of his formative years viewed as a Southerner by some but not by living in the West, he “was no great enthu- others. The mind-set of a border state that siast for the American Indian — at least stretched back to antebellum Civil War while they were still in belligerent opposi- still dictated views of the nation. Raised tion to westward-moving white men” on a farm, attending the local schools and (Auchincloss, p. 96). Yet he had “a great re- marrying his Sunday School sweetheart spect for their reservations and origins once (McCullough, 1992), his was a background they had been quelled” (Auchincloss, p. 96). rooted in the nation’s “heartland.” Truman Indeed, Roosevelt set aside millions did not attend college and, after an unsuc- of public lands in the western states to cessful venture in a clothing business serve as reminders and opportunities for (Daniels, 1950), decided to try politics. His Americans to participate and enjoy the mentor was “Big Tom” Pendergast, a well- rustic life of the West that he so revered connected political boss in Kansas City (Lorant, 1959). He sought to preserve Na- (McCullough, 1992). Pendergast decided tive American tribal relics with the pas- that Truman had qualities that made him sage of the in 1906 and he electable, namely: farm background, war Harry S. Truman opposed attempts to steal tribal lands record and friendly personality (McCul- (Dalton, 2002). But Roosevelt vetoed bills lough, 1992). With the political machine’s help, Truman was successfully elected to been preyed upon by all types of ex- that granted land claims to Native Ameri- ploiters, from the installment sales- various positions in Kansas, ultimately cans and stopped monetary grants to them men of clothing, pianos, and furni- (Dalton, 2002). He remained committed to winning a seat in the United States Sen- ture to the vendors of vice. The ma- “civilizing” native people of the West ate in 1934 (McCullough, 1992). jority of our Negro people find cold (Dalton, 2002; Sinkler, 1971) through a Considering his background, Truman comfort in the shanties and tene- Carlisle school approach of assimilation was not inclined to be very positive in ments. Surely, as freemen, they are entitled to something better than (Hagen, 1997). terms of racial equality. He used “nigger” this. (McCullough, p. 247) Roosevelt’s view of women was even while referring to African-Americans more conservative, with an attitude that (McCullough, 1992) and “enjoyed the kind In a speech to the National Colored women were best suited to stay in the home. of racial jokes commonly exchanged over Democratic Association later that summer, An extensive education was not a require- drinks in Senate hideaways” (McCullough, Truman told a Black audience that every- ment for women and the serious business p. 246). As he served in the Senate, how- one benefited by providing educational op- of running a country and advancing in the ever, this view apparently began to be modi- portunities to African Americans. “When we world was best left to men and the strength fied as he became aware of racial discrimi- are honest enough to recognize each other’s of the male of the species. In his own words nation, persecution, and abuse. He still ac- rights and are good enough to respect them, in a letter to Hugo Munsterberg: cepted the doctrine of separate-but-equal we will come to a more Christian settle- (O’Reilly, 1995) but some ideas of equality ment of our difficulties” (McCullough, p. 247- The first requisite in a healthy race did start to become evident. 8). As “natural born American[s],” African is that a woman should be willing This change was due more to and able to bear children just as the Americans should have equality under the Truman’s belief in the ideal that America men must be willing and able to law (McCullough, 1992). work and fight. (June 3, 1901; Let- was a land of opportunity, even for those In the same speech, though, his idea ters, III, 86) perceived to be inferior, rather than a be- of separate-but-equal attitude was still lief in racial equality and integration. His evident as he remarked, “The highest types After his presidency, as a third party was a paternalistic attitude toward Afri- of Negro leaders say quite frankly that they candidate Roosevelt did champion the can Americans (Miller, 1986). prefer the society of their own people” women’s labor reform movement and suf- In the opening speech for his reelec- (O’Reilly, p. 146). These expressions should frage for women, but the primary motiva- tion to the United States Senate to an all- be viewed relative to the political neces- tion was his recognition of the twenty-five white audience in Sedalia, Missouri, in sity of courting the Black vote that led million potential votes for his presidential 1940, he said: Truman to make the public pronounce- aspirations (Dalton, 2002). ments that he did (McCullough, 1992; The sum total, then, of Roosevelt’s ef- I believe in the brotherhood of man, not merely the brotherhood of white Miller, 1986). forts for multicultural education would be men, but the brotherhood of all men Selected as a compromise candidate less than the sum of the parts. While a before the law... If any class or race for Vice President for the election of 1944, resounding progressive in many important can be permanently set apart from, Truman became President with the death areas, his record here is one of mixed sig- or pushed down below the rest in of Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945. nals and the bottom line is a dismal one. political and civil rights, so may any His administration was marked by mo- Any positive attributes are clouded by po- other class or race when it shall in- mentous international events. The defeat litical expediency and not meant to pro- cur the displeasure of its more pow- of Germany, the start of the United Na- duce meaningful change. “President erful associates, and we may say fare- well to the principles on which we tions, the dropping of two atomic bombs, Roosevelt was very hesitant about exert- count our safety... Negroes have the defeat of Japan, the start of the Cold

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 40 War with Russia and China, the creation proach involved the 1945 strike of the express his views on the Equal Rights of the nation of Israel, and the Korean War Washington Capital Transit Company. Amendment: were events that must be considered monu- FEPC Chairman Malcolm Ross prepared September 21, 1945: 12:15 p.m. — mental in scope for the world. The begin- a directive requiring that Capital Transit [Group of Women Sponsoring Equal nings of change in civil rights in this coun- stop denying jobs to African Americans. Rights Amendment] — A lot of hooey try would also be of considerable impor- “With no other explanation than an unspo- about equal rights. (p. 68) tance during his administration. ken bow to the white South, Truman or- Given his background, Truman’s views dered Ross not to issue this directive” It was the area of violence, though, to on race issues were something of an un- (O’Reilly, p. 149). African Americans, Native Americans, known as he took office. “No one had any While some individuals viewed the Japanese Americans, Jews, and Mexican idea of what to expect, as Roy Wilkins strike as an opportunity to confront segre- Americans (McCoy, 1984) that would noted, from, ‘an untested haberdasher from gation in the south, at that time Truman’s prompt a change in Truman’s view of ra- Klan country’” (O’Reilly, p. 145). Several logic was that the federal government’s cial problems. In 1946, he would meet with liberal, “New Deal” advocates, including seizure of the transportation system was a National Emergency Committee Against and Henry Wallace, not to enforce the aims of the FEPC but to Mob Violence headed by Walter White hoped that Truman would come out as a provide transportation for the citizens of (O’Reilly, 1995). Sponsored by the National strong advocate for civil rights. His actions, Washington (O’Reilly, 1995). In issuing Association for the Advancement of Col- however, would be more politically expedi- Executive Order 9664, Truman reduced the ored People, the purpose of this committee ent than meaningful in promoting racial FEPC to a fact finding committee with no was to address the widespread hate crimes equality. Truman would always be con- powers of compliance. The committee of violence against people of color, even men cerned about garnering the Black vote ceased to exist in 1946. and women in the military, that was ram- (McCullough, 1992), not necessarily al- However, due to many Americans be- pant at that time (O’Reilly, 1995). ways in a manner that would consistently lieving in the wartime promises of freedom A second group, headed by Paul advance civil rights. from oppression and minority leaders ef- Robeson, also met with Truman to address The approach that Truman consis- forts to gain equality, opportunity and pro- the rampant and indiscriminate lynching tently followed in terms of racial issues tection, Truman was forced into some ac- of African Americans, especially in the was to present a proactive picture initially tions to meet these demands. The creation South, that was taking place at that time. and publicly, but then to not push for imple- of the Indian Claims Commission to ad- Limited by what he could do legally, other mentation or action to carry out the goals dress financial grievances of Native Ameri- than have the Justice Department inves- stated for public consumption. “Thereaf- cans and the appointments of an African tigate allegations of violence with the small ter, Truman was invariably more forthright American as governor of the Virgin Islands hope of prosecution (McCoy, 1984), Truman in rhetoric if rarely in action. ‘The strat- and a Puerto Rican as governor of that is- settled on another solution. Truman estab- egy,’ White House aide Philleo Nash ex- land show that he was sympathetic to some lished the President’s Committee on Civil plained, ‘was to start with a bold measure form of attention to racial issues (McCoy, Rights by Executive Order 9808 (Ferrell, and then temporize to pick up the right- 1984) but these initial efforts were lim- 1983; McCoy, 1984; O’Reilly, 1995). wing forces. Simply stated, backtrack af- ited in scope. As bold a step as this was, there were ter the bang’” (O’Reilly, p. 147). Indeed, Truman did nothing to further political considerations in it for Truman. Thus, Truman’s administration was any sense of improving conditions or To go against the overt wishes of Southern initially style, not substance, in terms of achieving equality for Native Americans congressmen and senators was to go against racial policy. Speeches would be made, and women. In his own words in Where the the precepts of the Democratic Party that committees would be formed, promises Buck Stops, Truman wrote: included the Solid South. But Truman would be given, but limited actions would would tie the issue of civil rights to the Cold Our conscience was finally awakened be taken (McCullough, 1992). In newspa- War fight against Communism. To further thirty or forty years ago, and we’ve couple this connection, the members that per and media reports, Truman was pro- had two or three Indian agents in this active in appearance, but the lack of follow century who are really looking after were appointed to the Committee on Civil through to fulfill the promises made for a the welfare of the Indians. Now we Rights were required to take a loyalty oath different picture than was presented. Over have a large number of Eskimos in that was used at the time to monitor any time, this method of implementation would Alaska who are properly taken of, I subversive activities (O’Reilly, 1995). be modified to actually gain some notewor- think, and the Indians in New Mexico One of the major points of communist thy goals, such as desegregation of the mili- and Arizona have the best reserva- propaganda was to document racist atroci- tions in the country and are being tary services. But the overall agenda would ties that African Americans and other people protected. (p. 288) be a limited one (Miller, 1986). of color endured in this country (Cochran, The first area where this talk-but-not- He would also veto bills that he felt were 1973; O’Reilly, 1995). “How could the presi- act scenario would occur involved the Fair harmful to Indians. This paternalistic at- dent fight for world freedom while the na- Employment Practice Committee which titude leaves no doubt that Truman did tion denied basic freedoms to its own non- was created during World War II to moni- not have a proactive or constructive atti- white citizens?” (O’Reilly, p. 154). Another tor minority rights violations. Targeted by tude toward Native Americans. view of this global conflict involved diplo- Southern congressmen for elimination Towards women, Truman saw them as mats from Africa to the United Nations who (O’Reilly, 1995), Truman publicly expressed important as a block of votes but was in- were routinely denied access to food, hous- support for its continuance as a permanent sensitive to women’s issues of opportunity ing and rest room facilities as they traveled committee to investigate civil rights viola- and equality. He did not support the Equal from New York to Washington. tions but did nothing as President to make Rights Amendment and did nothing to The newly emerging nations of West- its continuation a reality. work for its passage (Miller, 1986). Indeed, ern Europe and the Pacific Rim saw this An example of this non-action ap- comments from his appointment book best country espousing human liberties yet its

SUMMER 2004 41 own African American citizens lived in fear This engagement was done at a time when equality in opportunity is the caveat of equal of being lynched. The “democratic” govern- this country “was not energized over civil opportunities in education. The Truman ment of this country with Truman at its rights” (Gardner, p. 73). Civil Rights Committee found that, as a head still tolerated a discriminatory set of But was there another agenda to nation, there was widespread lack of equal laws that kept a group of citizens in a per- Truman’s proposals? Was this a stance to opportunities for education for minority stu- manent state of second-class status in le- cultivate the African American vote away dents that had developed under the sepa- gal, economic, education, and job opportu- from the possible candidacy of New Dealer rate but equal doctrine that had been in nities (Gardner, 2002). The world did not Henry Wallace? Was it an attempt to keep place for years (Gardner, 2002). view these events in a positive light. the African American vote from going for With the placing of civil rights on a To maintain a perceived headway for the “traditional” home of the Republican national agenda, Truman was in a posi- civil rights, albeit because of the perceived Party and Thomas Dewey? Was the loss of tion as President to significantly improve threat of Communism and need of the Af- the Solid South considered an acceptable educational opportunities for people of rican American vote (McCullough, 1992; risk for gaining the minority vote? color in this country. Already in place was O’Reilly, 1995), Truman agreed to address Answers to these questions vary from the Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of a NAACP rally in front of the Lincoln Me- source to source (Cochran, 1973; Ferrell, 1944, commonly referred to as the GI Bill morial on June 29, 1947. He was the first 1983; Gardner, 2002; Miller, 1986; McCoy, of Rights, which provided support for ser- president to speak at an NAACP gather- 1984; McCullough, 1992) but the fact that vicemen and servicewomen to return and ing (Gardner, 2002; O’Reilly, 1995). His Truman had raised the civil rights issue attend school (McCoy, 1984). Created dur- speech was a turning point in the efforts on a national level and, as it turned out, in ing the Franklin Roosevelt administra- for civil rights as the “” of the a meaningful manner, cannot be denied. tion, it could have been a powerful instru- office of the President was used to identify A few months later, on October 29, 1947, ment to initiate significant changes in edu- the issue of civil rights in this country. His the results of Truman’s Commission on cation by issuing the precepts of statements included: Civil Rights were released. Entitled To Se- multicultural education that were just be- cure These Rights, the 178-page report de- ginning to be expressed. Our national government must show the way. This is a difficult and tailed four constitutionally guaranteed ba- The GI Bill of Rights would be a suc- complex undertaking. Federal laws sic rights that committee members felt were cess story as 2.2 million veterans would and administrative machinery taken for granted by Americans but totally attend college using the funds from this must be improved and expanded. lacking for people of color in this country program. Of that number only 70,000 Afri- We must provide the government (Gardner, 2002). Four fundamental rights can Americans and 60,000 women would with better tools to do the job... enumerated by the committee were: benefit from the program, not a diverse or Every man should have the right representative population for the nation. 1. The Right to Safety and Security to a decent home, the right to an Furthermore, many African Americans, education, the right to adequate of the Person medical care, the right to a worth- especially in the South, had to attend seg- 2. The Right to Citizenship and its while job, the right to an equal regated postsecondary schools of poor qual- Privileges share in making public decisions ity. Truman did nothing to alter the pic- through the ballot, and the right to 3. The Right to Freedom of Con- ture of the recipients of the GI Bill ben- a fair trial in a fair court. We must science and Expression efits. insure that these rights — on equal Truman did introduce legislation to 4. The Right to Equality of Opportunity terms — are enjoyed by every citi- provide federal aid to education (McCoy, zen... The support of desperate 1984) that would provide more opportuni- populations of battle ravaged coun- The first right was to address lynch- tries must be won for the free way ing of African Americans throughout the ties for students and initiated a meaning- of life. We must have them as al- country as well as the commonplace inabil- ful role of the federal government in the lies in our continuing struggle for ity of Black men to be judged by a jury of arena of public schools (McCoy, 1984). Like the peaceful solution of the world’s their peers throughout the South (Gardner, so many of his initiatives, it was defeated problems. They may surrender to 2002; Miller, 1986). in Congress by conservative forces so that the false security offered so tempt- The disenfranchisement of African while he publicly took a position of improv- ingly by totalitarian regimes unless Americans to the basic right of voting was ing the educational situation for all Ameri- we can prove the superiority of de- cans, Truman did not utilize the political mocracy. Our case for democracy covered in the second right. The poll tax, should be as strong as we can make requiring Black voters to explain portions muscle necessary to deliver any tangible it. It should rest on practical evi- of state constitutions before being allowed results (McCoy, 1984). dence that we have been able to to vote, and the continued discrimination The Commission on Civil Rights was put our own house in order. of service in the military were all well docu- directed by Truman to not only identify (Gardner, p. 35-6; O’Reilly, p. 154) mented by the committee (Gardner, 2002). rights for all Americans but also to recom- The third right addressed freedom and mend a comprehensive federal solution For the first time, the federal govern- expression and was a reaction to the grow- (Gardner, p. 49). To Secure These Rights also ment and, significantly, the President were ing concern of violation of civil rights re- contained thirty-five recommendations to be leaders in the fight for civil rights sulting from reactions to a perceived grow- that provided a bold, and to the South “ex- (Gardner, 2002; O’Reilly, 1995). Even ing communist menace in America plosive” (Gardner, p. 61), national solution though there was the linkage between civil (Gardner, 2002; O’Reilly, 1995). to civil rights abuse. Truman wanted the rights at home and the threat of Commu- The fourth freedom contains the idea committee to provide a framework for what nism abroad, the placing of the civil rights of providing to people of color opportunities was needed to remedy and eliminate per- at the forefront was an important state- for employment in emerging businesses and vasive racism and discrimination through- ment. While lacking in specifics (O’Reilly, industries and fair housing. Neither were out the United States (Gardner, 2002). 1995), the speech certainly set a public tone. in place at that time. As part of the idea of What the committee stated was, “the Na-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 42 tional Government of the United States sessions, equalized opportunities for resi- Court ruled that African American stu- must take the lead in safeguarding the civil dents in the United States to become natu- dents cannot be separated from other stu- rights of all Americans” (Gardner, p. 58). ralized citizens, ending discrimination in dents at the University of Oklahoma. The committee recommendations the military, and settle the evacuation Both rulings struck against the dogma would mean structural and permanent claims of Japanese citizens (Gardner, of separate but equal conditions in schools changes in the country’s segregated land- 2002; McCullough, 1992; O’Reilly, 1995). and provided important antecedents for the scape. Imbedded in the recommendations While definitely focusing on providing historic Brown v. Topeka Board of Educa- were the use of powers of the executive federal support for ending racial abuse for tion in 1954 (McCoy, 1984; O’Reilly, 1995). branch of the federal government to ad- African Americans, Truman included im- Indeed, while significant amounts of vance civil reforms and to attack the sta- proving civil rights of all Americans. When legislation or acts would not be passed dur- tus quo policies, i.e., separate but equal, of asked a few days after his speech to Con- ing his administration, Truman provided states’ rights politicians (Gardner, 2002). gress on civil rights as to what he had drawn the start of the civil rights movement by “The committee’s report ‘shocked the na- on as background, Truman replied the Con- engaging the problem of racial discrimina- tion with its documentation of lynchings, stitution and the Bill of Rights (McCul- tion and segregation on a national level. He of the denial of voting rights, of inequality lough, 2002). provided the concept of the federal govern- of educational opportunities, of discrimi- As sweeping as Truman’s proposals ment as being responsible for the protec- nation in our armed services’” (Gardner, p. were, opposition was just as pervasive, tion and attainment of civil liberties for all 64). The truly significant aspect of the both in Congress and in the nation. There Americans and his use of the federal courts committee’s work was: would not be passage of any significant would be a benchmark act for civil rights. points as outlined by Truman (only the that the committee’s report was revo- lutionary primarily because it explic- matter of Japanese evacuation would even- Summary itly called on this American president, tually be passed during Truman’s admin- These three men, John Quincy Adams, who was the product of a slave-own- istration) and a Gallup poll of fifteen hun- ing heritage, to take comprehensive dred Americans conducted in March, 1948 Theodore Roosevelt, and Harry S. Truman, federal actions on behalf of African showed that 82 percent of those polled, all occupied the office of President of the Americans — actions that, if taken, while not clear what ethnic groups were United States. The contributions of each would impact every phase of Ameri- represented, opposed Truman’s civil rights to that office and to the country are varied can life. [Committee Chairman program (Gardner, 2002). in scope and substance. In terms of their Charles] Wilson also knew that, Whether by political design, as believed effect on multicultural education, their in- equipped with the committee’s dividual legacies are also varied. thirty-five recommendations, it was by some (O’Reilly, 1995), or as a consequence Adams provided very little in this area now up to Truman to demonstrate of his growing into the role of President, as that he had the moral courage to lead felt by others (Gardner, 2002), it is clear as the concept of universal education for the country on a journey into the that Truman’s election in 1948 over Repub- everyone in the country was not even on uncharted civil rights frontier, a jour- lican Thomas Dewey is one of the greatest the radar screen. His was still a time when ney that had been stalled since Lin- upsets in political history in this nation’s slavery existed as a tolerated and abetted coln liberated America’s slaves eight history. While his policies were anathema institution in the country. There was no decades earlier. (Gardner, p. 64) to the body politic of Congress, he was liked thought of providing opportunities and edu- Whether Truman’s raising of the civil by the American people. “They know that cation to anyone except the privileged few rights issue and linking it to national se- he is a sincere and humble man and, in the of the ruling, white elite. This framework curity was a political strategy as suggested cliché often heard, that he is a man “trying would not change for several more admin- by some or the beginning of a revolution- to do his best” (McCullough, 2002). istrations. His later opposition to slavery ary use of the presidency by Truman to Truman proved that he was the elect- would come from a sense of preserving what change the country’s civil rights for people able candidate seen by Boss Pendergast he conceived as guaranteed constitutional of color as believed by others, the culmina- so many years before. In terms of real ac- rights, not as a goal of providing universal tion of this line of action was Truman’s complishments in civil rights, there were equal rights to everyone living in America. special message to Congress on civil rights two areas Truman did have successes. One Roosevelt would be a larger-than-life on February 2, 1948 (Gardner, 2002; was in the form of Executive Order 9981 to figure in many ways, but his record on race McCullough, 1992; O’Reilly, 1995). abolish the practice of segregation in the relations would also be a faint shadow of Truman’s civil rights proposal con- military and create the President’s Com- accomplishment. Roosevelt’s idea of a per- tained ten points that called for the estab- mittee on Equality of Treatment and Op- son making his way in the world and capi- lishment of a permanent Commission on portunity in the Armed Forces (McCoy, talizing on opportunities would still be lim- Civil Rights, a Joint Congressional Com- 1984; O’Reilly, 1995). The end of segregated ited to those who started with the advan- mittee on Civil Rights, a Civil Rights Divi- military units would be realized by the tages of money or a white skin. His pro- sion in the Department of Justice and a start of the Korean War. nouncements of support for African Ameri- Fair Employment Practices Commission. The second area of progress would be cans and Native Americans would always It provided federal protection against in terms of friend-of-the-court or amicus be within a personal context that some lynching, protected the right to vote, includ- curiae briefs filed by the Justice Depart- races are superior and have an obligation ing the elimination of the poll tax, called ment on behalf of African American plain- to succeed and rule. Any accomplishments for the end of discrimination in interstate tiffs challenging segregation in schools. In by people of color would be due to their play- travel, provided home rule and suffrage in Sweatt v. Painter, the United States Su- ing by the white book of rules and regula- Presidential elections for residents of the preme Court ruled that a separate law tions for success. District of Columbia, provided statehood school for African Americans was not equal Roosevelt did, however, possibly pro- for Alaska and Hawaii, provided greater to the University of Texas Law School and vide a model for later federal entry into self-governance for American island pos- in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, the securing civil rights for people of color in

SUMMER 2004 43 this country by using federal mandates to Press of America. rights: Moral courage and political risks. take over vast tracts of land from states in Baptiste, H.P. (1986). Multicultural education Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Univer- the West. Without knowing it, Roosevelt and urban schools from a sociohistorical sity Press. opened the window for recognition of the perspective:Internalizing multicultural- Gay, G. (1988). Designing relevant curricu- ism. Journal of Educational Equity and lum for diverse learners. Education and importance and validity of multicultural Leadership, 6, 295-312. Urban Society, 20, 327-340. education for people of color by establish- Baptiste, H.P. (1994). The multicultural envi- Gay, G. (1994). At the essence of learning: ing the dominance of the federal govern- ronment of schools: Implications to lead- Multicultural education. West Lafayette, ment in different realms. ers. In L.W. Hughes (Ed.), The principal IN: Kappa Delta Pi. 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Previous installments in this series of research articles on President of the United States and multicultural education appeared in the Winter 2003 and Spring 2004 issues of Multicultural Education.

The first installment in the Winter 2003 issue examined Presidents James Madison, Rutherford B. Hayes, and John F. Kennedy.

The second installment in the Spring 2004 issue examined Presidents Andrew Jackson, Woodrow Wilson, and Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Look for additional installments in the next issue and future issues of Multicultural Education.

SUMMER 2004 45