Women and Global Leadership Report of the Women’s Leadership Conference of the

April 2004

Women and Global Leadership Report of the Women’s Leadership Conference of the Americas April 2004 Foreword he numbers of women occupying senior leadership positions in foreign and economic policy making Tin the Western Hemisphere have dramatically increased in the past two decades. In increasing numbers, women occupy top posts in international organizations and in foreign, fi nance, trade, and defense ministries in national governments. These impressive gains, however, have been uneven across countries and institu- tions—and still lag behind women’s educational achievement and their participation in the workforce. As with politics in general, the highest circles of power still remain largely male-dominated. Women are often held back by pervasive, subtle, and sometimes unacknowledged attitudes about their proper place and role in society. Nonetheless, women’s numbers and infl uence are growing. These are the major conclusions of a report commissioned by the Women’s Leadership Conference of the Americas (WLCA)—a joint initiative of the Inter-American Dialogue and the International Center for Research on Women. The report concludes with measures that leaders can implement to foster continued progress. Inter- national organizations and national governments should systematize and maintain gender-disaggregated statistics, and make them accessible to the public; they should be held accountable for setting goals and implementing policies and practices that promote gender equity at the highest levels; they should analyze the reasons for gender inequity at the upper levels, and come up with timetables and plans to remedy the situation; and international organizations and national governments should create infrastructures to provide families with adequate childcare options. In undertaking this research—which included data collection and more than fi fty interviews with women leaders throughout the hemisphere—we set out to generate information and analysis on the num- bers, roles, and infl uence of women in foreign policy agencies—and how they are evolving over time. Our interviews and surveys included who currently hold or have held senior foreign policy decision making posts in national governments—as heads of state, of central banks, and of ministries and secretariats responsible for the economy, fi nance, foreign affairs, trade, development, or defense—as well as in international institutions. The WLCA believes that the number of women in leadership is a concrete indicator of a government or institution’s progress (or lack thereof) toward fulfi lling their commitment to women’s equity. The WLCA has produced this report as part of its continuing efforts to monitor progress on promises made to women by leaders of governments and international institutions. The WLCA is a network of some 100 women leaders drawn from throughout the hemisphere, dedi- cated to expanding the numbers and enhancing the contribution of women in top leadership positions in and the —and, in so doing—to help improve opportunities for all women in the region. The group’s commitment to this mission is based on the conviction that leadership does matter, and that women in positions of power and infl uence will contribute in critical ways to the broader expansion of women’s rights and opportunities in all sectors. This report would not have been possible without the sustained support of the Ford Foundation and the Inter-American Development Bank. Special thanks are in order to Virginia Bouvier, currently at the Institute of Peace, for directing the research and writing the report.

Peter Hakim Geeta Rao Gupta Joan M. Caivano President President Director Inter-American Dialogue International Center for Women’s Leadership Conference Research on Women (ICRW) of the Americas (WLCA) 1 En Route to Power: Women and Global Leadership in the Americas

By Virginia M. Bouvier1 for the Women’s Leadership Conference of the Americas

he Women’s Leadership Conference of the Americas (WLCA)— T jointly sponsored by the Inter-American Dialogue and the International Center for Research on Women—is pleased to present this report on the participation of average 56 percent in national cabinets, women in foreign policy making in the 75 percent in lower houses of congress, Western Hemisphere. Over the years, the and 200 percent in senates across the work of the WLCA has been predicated region. That progress, however, has been on the belief that the number of women uneven. It refl ects both remarkable gains in political leadership is an important in some countries, and setbacks in others. indicator of a country’s progress toward Women have not achieved parity with women’s equity. In previous publications, men at the reins of power in any country the WLCA has documented the dramatic in our hemisphere. To put Latin America progress women have made in reaching in perspective, however, these trends are positions of power in national legisla- similar in developed countries—in 2002, tures and cabinets, and in local executive the representation of women in parlia- posts. For example, in the decade ending ments was 15 percent in non-Nordic Eu- in 2000, women’s participation grew on rope, 14 percent in the United States, and

1 Special thanks to all the women we interviewed for their time, patience, and inspiration. Kelly Alderson, Jessica Beckwith, Kimberlea Close, Rita Cooley, Louise Langhoff-Roos, Anaise Manuel, and Gillian Morejon of the Inter- American Dialogue; and Daniela Ligiero, of the University of Maryland, helped to compile the statistical information and to transcribe and summarize some of the interviews. Estela Sanidad and Jim Huttlinger provided data from the World Bank. Joan Caivano provided the original conceptualization for this project and the ongoing guidance and encouragement for its execution. Finally, the Ford Foundation and Inter-American Development Bank provided 1 critical support. minister, and two as minister of defense. “Solutions emerge from just sitting together. The record is no better in the United Many times it is the outsider who brings States, where, throughout its history, an answer.” there has only been one female secretary of state, two U.S. trade representatives, IVONNE JUEZ DE BAKI, MINISTER OF FOREIGN TRADE OF and never a female secretary of treasury ECUADOR, AND FORMER AMBASSADOR TO THE UNITED STATES or defense. Only in rare instances has female representation in the upper ech- elons of leadership reached either of the 14 percent in the world overall—com- minimum goals set by the United Na- pared with 15 percent in Latin America. tions of 30 and 50 percent for 2003 and So we see women’s rate of attaining po- 2005, respectively. litical power in Latin America is on par The same trends are evident not only with world norms. in national governments, but also within Our fi ndings in the fi eld of foreign international institutions that promote policy are consistent with the larger equality and good governance. Common picture for women in political power sense would suggest that the leaders of overall. In increasing numbers, women these organizations have a responsibility are capturing leadership positions in for- to act on their institutional commitment eign and economic policy in the Western to equity when making decisions to hire Hemisphere. They occupy top posts in or promote. national governments and international The scope of our research was organizations throughout the Americas. limited. It is impossible to speculate, Yet, despite progress, gender inequity based on the numbers alone, why some persists. Only a small percentage of wom- countries are doing better than others. en have broken the barriers to top power In addition, the statistics presented here in the fi eld of international relations, al- offer only a snapshot of reality. The per- though they are advancing toward equity centages can readily change with a new at the middle and lower rungs of these administration, the appointment of one institutions. For example, in the United more or less, or a reconfi guration Nation’s offi ce devoted to trade and de- of the total number of national cabinet velopment issues (UNCTAD), 31 percent positions. The important message to take of staff are women, but at the higher away is that while there has been dramatic levels, women’s representation declines, progress over the past two decades, the and there are no women in the top four gains have been uneven across countries positions. In the Western Hemisphere, and institutions—and still lag behind the record varies tremendously by coun- women’s educational achievement and try, institution, department, and rank. In their participation in the workforce. This all of Latin America and the Caribbean, situation may be changing as women cur- thirteen women have served as foreign rently “in the pipeline” move up. These 2 3 minister, fourteen as fi nance or economy trends bear careful observation, however, because evidence from the U.S. corporate “I entered the ministry of fi nance with this idea sector—where women have been “in the pipeline” for some time—suggests that that I think many women of my generation women are still not reaching corporate had, of being a “super-woman” and of showing boards to the extent warranted by their that one could do everything perfectly—be a participation at lower levels of the mana- gerial hierarchy. (I had very small children at that time), Under the auspices of the Women’s be a housewife, take care of the family, and at the Leadership Conference of the Americas, more than fi fty interviews were con- same time, this would not take one whit away ducted throughout the hemisphere with from how good you are professionally. But what women leaders in the fi eld of foreign happened is that I realized that I was putting my policy making. (See Appendix I for list of interviews.) These conversations—sup- family at risk. …so I quit. Did I fail? No, I did not. plemented by data collection—under- It is not that I cannot do the job. It is that society score both the enabling factors and the barriers to the advancement of women does not provide conditions under which we can in the international arena. Our sample do our jobs with tranquility and leave our children is admittedly biased in favor of women at home with tranquility, even if we can count on who have achieved power. It is interest- ing and hopeful that some of the younger stable, supportive partners.” women we interviewed told us they did not feel gender discrimination. Others REBECA GRYNSPAN, FORMER VICE PRESIDENT OF AND were very much aware of their special FORMER MINISTER OF HOUSING AND VICE MINISTER OF FINANCE status as women in positions of power.

I. Women in National Foreign lem Brundtland (Norway), and Margaret Policy Decision Making Thatcher (Great Britain) were elected Posts—The Numbers to head their governments in the 1960s Nine women have served as heads of state through the 1980s; and at least twenty- in Latin America and the Caribbean, and two other women, including the current one in .2 This is impressive given president of , have been elected that the United States has never had a as heads of state since the 1990s. female president or even come close to It is also noteworthy that, since the electing a woman to the highest politi- 1990s, more women have competed cal offi ce. In the rest of the world, Indira to attain the presidency in the Western Ghandi (India), Golda Meier (Israel), Hemisphere than ever before. In the Corazon Aquino (Philippines), Gro Har- United States, however, no woman has

2 Of the nine, three were married to past presidents—Juan Perón, Cheddi Bharat Jagan, and Rodríguez de Arias 2 Madrid, who served as president of Panama. 3 the 2000s, presidential candidates includ- ”There is always a personal respect, and in ed Ivonne Juez de Baki in Ecuador; Elisa some cases, a special bond of affection. The Carrió in Argentina; Ingrid Betancourt, great challenge is to maintain both the respect Cecilia López Montaño, and Olga Duque de Ospina in Colombia; Gladys Teresa and the affection while adding to them a Notario Cortaza in Paraguay; and Rose- professional and intellectual appreciation of anne Sarney in —who was favored to win until she was forced to withdraw what a female ambassador has to say.” her name amidst charges of corrup- MARGARITA ESCOBAR, AMBASSADOR OF TO THE OAS tion. In 2001, Lourdes Flores Nano was a strong presidential contender in Peru; and in 1998, Noemí Sanín ran a competi- tive race for president of Colombia. ever achieved either the Republican or In the 1990s and earlier, seventeen Democratic nomination as candidate for women in the region—in Argentina, president. In 2000, Elizabeth Dole was a , Bolivia, Canada, Costa Rica competitive candidate for the Republican (4), Dominica (2), Ecuador, Guyana (2), nomination, and this year there was only (2), and Nicaragua—served one woman in the wide Democratic fi eld as vice president of their country. Seven of candidates—Carol Moseley Braun— other women assumed the position in but she stands no realistic chance of the past three years in Barbados, Costa gaining her party’s nomination. In Latin Rica, Dominica, the Dominican Repub- America, women ran for president in at lic, Honduras, , and least twelve countries in the 1990s, and in Venezuela.

WOMEN AS HEADS OF STATE IN THE AMERICAS Date Country Title Name 1974-1976 Argentina President Mariá Estela (Isabel) Martínez Cartas de Peron 1966-76, Barbados Prime Minister R. Nita Barrow 1986-87 1979-1980 Bolivia President Lidia Gueiler Tejada 1993 Canada Prime Minister Kim Campbell 1980-1995 Dominica Prime Minister Eugenia Charles 1997 Ecuador President Rosalia Arteaga Serrano De Fernández de Córdova 1997-1999 Guyana President Janet Jagan 1990-1991 Haiti President Ertha Pascal-Trouillot 1990-1997 Nicaragua President Violeta Barrios de Chamorro 4 1999- Panama President Mireya Moscoso Rodríquez 5 WOMEN AS VICE PRESIDENTS IN THE AMERICAS Date Country Title Name 1972-74 Argentina Vice President, President of María Estela (Isabel) Martínez Cartas the Senate de Perón 1994-03 Barbados Deputy Prime Minister Billie Miller 2003- Barbados Deputy Prime Minister Mia Amor Mottley 1979 Bolivia Acting Deputy Head of State, Lidia Gueiler Tejada President of the Congress 1993-97 Canada Deputy Prime Minister Sheila Maureen Copps 1986-90 Costa Rica Second Vice President Victoria Garrón de Doyan 1994-98 Costa Rica Second Vice President Rebeca Grynspan Mayfi s 1998-02 Costa Rica First Vice President Astrid Fischel Volio 1998-02 Costa Rica Second Vice President 2002- Costa Rica First Vice President Lineth Saborío Chaverri 1980-89 Dominica Deputy Head of State, Marie Davies-Pierre Speaker of the House of Representatives 1990-95 Dominica Deputy Head of State, Neva A. Edwards Speaker of the House of Representatives 2000- Dominica Deputy Head of State, Alix Boyd Knights Speaker of the House of Representatives 2000- Dominican Vice President Milagros Ortiz Bosch Republic 1996-98 Ecuador Vice President Rosalia Arteaga Serrano de Fernández de Córdova 1985-91 Guyana Second Vice President, Second Viola Harper Burnham Deputy Prime Minister 1997 Guyana First Vice President, Janet Jagan Prime Minister 1993-97 Honduras Third Vice President Guadalupe Jerezano Mejía 1998-02 Honduras Second Vice President Gladys Caballero de Arévalo 1998-02, Honduras Second Executive Armida Villela de López Contreras 2002- Vice President 1995-97 Nicaragua Vice President Julia de la Cruz Mena Rivera 2002- Trinidad Deputy Head of State, Linda Baboolal and Tobago President of the Senate 2000-02 Venezuela Executive Vice President Adina Mercedes Bastidas Castillo

4 5 Women Foreign Policy Offi cials Of the thirty-fi ve nations in the In Latin America Western Hemisphere, the twenty-four for According to the Inter-American Dia- which we collected data cumulatively have logue report, Women and Power in the 93 female ambassadors serving in the top Americas: A Report Card, from 1990 to fi fty-one countries counted for this study. 2000, female members in national cabi- (The fi fty-one countries chosen are those nets in the Americas grew from 9 percent in which all of the larger Latin Ameri- to 14 percent. By mid-2002, the propor- can nations maintain embassies.) The tion of women ministers grew again, to percentage of women ambassadors, 10 18 percent, with 68 women serving as percent, is lower than the percentages of ministers out of 386 cabinet positions. In female ministers in foreign and economic Barbados, , and Colombia women posts. In terms of ambassadorial appoint- currently head more than 30 percent of ments, no country has yet reached the 30 the government ministries. In the past percent UN target, but Panama comes two years, the percentage of female min- closest. Panama is also the only country isters has increased in fourteen countries, studied with a female head of state. Every declined in seven, and remained un- country in our study except for Trinidad changed in three countries. and Tobago has at least one female ambas- In 2002, of all ministerial posts deal- sador. Only four of the 34 Latin American ing with foreign and economic affairs and Caribbean ambassadors residing in (including heads of state, heads of central the United States—considered by most banks, and ministers of economy, fi nance, Latin American countries to be the top foreign affairs, commerce, trade, devel- diplomatic post—are women. Again, in opment, and defense), 12 percent (18 of comparative terms, Latin America is not 147) were held by women. This fi gure is doing so badly, as this is twice as high as less than the proportion of women in all the world average. ministerial posts, and it conceals tremen- Democratic development is not dous national variations. In Barbados, a reliable predictor of women’s par- Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, and Hon- ticipation at the highest political and duras, over 30 percent of the ministers in economic levels. Only three of the fi ve foreign and economic affairs were wom- countries with the greatest representa- en. In thirteen countries—Argentina, tion of women foreign policy offi cials Bolivia, Brazil, the , score high in the Freedom House survey Ecuador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, of political and/or civil liberties.3 Mean- Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Trinidad and while two are rated as only partly free. Tobago, and Uruguay—women held no Likewise, of those countries that rank ministerial posts dealing with foreign or near the bottom with regard to female international economic affairs. leadership, half score high on political

3 6 Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2003: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Lanham, MD: 7 Freedom House and Rowman & Littlefi eld, 2003. WOMEN MINISTERS IN LATIN AMERICA, 2000 TO 2002 Women Total Women as Women Total Women as Ministers Ministers % of Total Ministers Ministers % of Total Country 2000 2000 2000 2002 2002 2002 Latin America Colombia 4 17 24 6 13 46 Chile 5 16 31 5 15 33 Venezuela 4 14 29 4 15 27 Costa Rica 5 17 29 5 19 26 Honduras 3 18 17 4 16 25 El Salvador 3 13 23 3 12 25 Panama 3 12 25 3 13 23 Nicaragua** N/A N/A 8 2 12 17 Mexico* 2 22 9 3 18 17 Ecuador 1 15 7 2 15 13 Dominican Republic 2 22 9 2 17 12 Cuba 2 25 8 3 30 10 Argentina 1 13 8 1 11 9 Bolivia** N/A N/A 0 1 12 8 Guatemala 1 13 8 1 13 8 Peru 1 15 7 1 16 6 Brazil 0 19 0 0 19 0 Uruguay 0 14 0 0 15 0 Paraguay 1 12 8 0 11 0 Region 38 277 14 46 292 16

Caribbean Barbados** N/A N/A 13 5 16 31 Trinidad and Tobago** N/A N/A 11 5 23 22 Jamaica** N/A N/A 12 1 16 6 Region N/A N/A 12 11 55 20

Canada and the U.S. Canada 7 28 25 7 24 29 United States 4 14 29 4 15 27 Region 11 42 26 11 39 28 Totals/Averages: 49 319 14 68 386 18

Updated as of August 2002 elections. * Latest available data was from 1998. 6 **Summary data from Inter-American Dialogue, Women and Power in the Americas: A Report Card 7 (Washington, D.C.: 2001). N/A signifi es that data was unavailable. WOMEN AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SENIOR FOREIGN AND ECONOMIC POLICY OFFICIALS IN THE AMERICAS % ooff % of MMinistersinisters Ambassadors Average Postions Female that are Female that of Country Counted* Ministers Female Ambassadors are Female** Percentages Latin America Honduras 7 3 43 3 9 26 Colombia 6 2 33 8 16 25 Chile 6 2 33 6 12 23 Panama 5 1 20 10 23 22 El Salvador 6 2 33 1 3 18 Costa Rica 6 1 17 7 17 17 Venezuela 6 1 17 7 14 16 Cuba 8 1 13 5 10 12 Domincan Republic 6 0 0 6 15 8 Peru 6 0 0 5 10 5 Argentina 5 0 0 4 8 4 Guatemala 5 0 0 3 8 4 Nicaragua 6 0 0 2 7 4 Bolivia 7 0 0 2 6 3 Brazil 6 0 0 3 6 3 Ecuador 6 0 0 2 5 3 Mexico 6 0 0 3 6 3 Paraguay 6 0 0 1 3 2 Uruguay 5 0 0 1 2 1 Region 114 13 11 79 9 10

Caribbean Barbados 6 3 50 1 20 35 Jamaica 6 0 0 2 15 8 Trinidad and Tobago 6 0 0 0 0 0 Region 18 3 17 3 12 14

Canada and the U.S. USA 8 1 13 8 16 15 Canada 7 1 14 3 6 10 Region 15 2 14 11 11 13 Totals/Averages: 147 18 12 93 10 11

*Positions counted include heads of state, heads of central banks, and of ministries and secretariats responsible for the economy, fi nance, foreign affairs, commerce, trade, development and defense. Data is through elections of August 2002. **Number of female ambassadors to 51 selected countries, namely, Canada, USA, Barbados, Jamaica, Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras, Panama, El Salvador, Colombia, Mexico, Chile, Venezuela, Argentina, Peru, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Ecuador, Paraguay, Bo- 8 livia, Guatemala, Uruguay, Brazil, Germany, France, England, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Russia, Greece, Norway, , Switzerland, 9 Sweden, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Italy, Egypt, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, China, Korea, India, Japan, and Australia. Where the individual country lacks ambassadors to all 51 countries, the percentage is taken out of total possible posts. Data as of September 2002. WOMEN IN INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS (STAFF)‡ International Monetary Fund* Positions Women Percent Women Staff (Top 3 tiers) 29 6 21 Tier 1 2 1 50 Tier 2 2 0 0 Tier 3 25 5 20

World Bank** Positions Women Percent Women Staff (Top 3 tiers) 30 6 20 Tier 1 3 0 0 Tier 2 6 1 17 Tier 3 21 5 24

Inter-American Development Bank*** Positions Women Percent Women Staff (Top 3 tiers) 18 3 17 Tier 1 2 0 0 Tier 2 3 1 33 Tier 3 13 2 15

United Nations* Positions Women Percent Women Staff (Top 3 tiers) 63 10 16 Tier 1 2 1 50 Tier 2 29 6 21 Tier 3 32 3 9

* Data as of March 2003. ** According to The World Bank Annual Report, 2002. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, June 2002 and staff chart, February 2003, available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTABOUTUS/Resources/bank.pdf. *** December 2002. ‡ See Appendix for list of positions counted at each tier.

WOMEN IN INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS (STAFF): COMPARISON 2001 AND PRESENT 2001 2002/3 International Monetary Fund 15% 21% World Bank 18% 20% Inter-American Development Bank 18% 17% 8 9 and civil liberties, while the other fi ve the richest country in the hemisphere, rank as only partly free. the United States, is a mediocre performer Level of economic development is with 15 percent of the top foreign policy also not a useful determinant of women posts occupied by women. Nor is a low rising to the top foreign policy posts. level of economic development necessarily Many countries with high per capita an obstacle to women gaining power. El income—Canada, Argentina, Mexico, Salvador and Honduras have the tenth Trinidad and Tobago, and Uruguay—have and third lowest incomes per capita, but the lowest rates of female political and rank sixth and second in terms of wom- economic leadership in our study. And en’s foreign policy leadership.

WOMEN IN INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS (COUNTRY REPRESENTATIVES) International Monetary Fund* Female of Total Female Board of Governors 8 of 184 4% Executive Directors 2 of 24 8%

World Bank** Female of Total Female Board of Governors 12 of 183 7% Executive Directors 1 of 24 4%

Inter-American Development Bank*** Female of Total Female Board of Governors 4 of 46 9% Executive Directors 1 of 14 7%

United Nations* Female of Total Female Permanent Representatives 11 of 191 6% Security Council 0 of 15 0%

Organization of American States* Female of Total Female General Assembly 6 of 35 17% Permanent Council Representatives 4 of 33 12%

* Data as of March 2003. ** According to The World Bank Annual Report, 2002. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, June 2002 and staff chart, 10 February 2003, available online at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTABOUTUS/Resources/bank.pdf. 11 *** December 2002. II. Women in the Management “I was always, always being watched by my of International Institutions— The Numbers colleagues, at all levels. Men who were above me watched me to see if I would make a mistake, men Analysis of Women in International Institutions who were at the same level would watch me to

STAFF see if I could do things as well as they did, and of In the three international fi nancial institu- course my bosses, who were men, were always tions we examined—the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the World scrutinizing me and other women because they Bank, and the International Monetary were fearful of history’s judgment, ‘You made a Fund (IMF)—females represent less than mistake! You selected a woman!’” 21 percent at the three top tiers of leader- ship. It takes relatively few appointments to ROSARIO GREEN, AMBASSADOR OF MEXICO TO ARGENTINA, change the comparative rankings of these FORMER FOREIGN MINISTER OF MEXICO, AND FORMER AMBASSADOR institutions. For example, in 2001, women TO THE UNITED NATIONS enjoyed the greatest access at the senior staff levels of the World Bank and IDB (both at 18 percent), followed by the IMF (15 per- managing director. The president of the cent). By early 2003, staff changes resulted World Bank has always been a man. in fewer women in top staff positions at One of six managing directors under the the IDB (17 percent) and slightly higher president is now a woman; and fi ve of the representation at the World Bank (20 per- top twenty-one staff positions at the next cent) and a fairly signifi cant jump at the level of senior management are fi lled by IMF (from 15 to 21 percent). This is due to women. Thus, six of the top thirty posi- the appointment of Anne Krueger as fi rst tions (20 percent) are held by women. deputy managing director after 2001, and At the United Nations, 16 percent of the the addition of a new position among the top three tiers overall are women. The senior ranks occupied by a woman (Claire deputy-secretary general is a woman; 21 Liuksila, director of the Offi ce of Technical percent of the senior management group Assistance Management). Currently, the is female; and 9 percent of the heads of all differences at the staff level among the three other UN agencies are women. institutions are statistically insignifi cant, all Country Representatives hovering around 20 percent. While no woman has ever been In the three international fi nancial in- president of the Inter-American Devel- stitutions, female representation at the opment Bank, two of the three most re- staff level (around 20 percent) is higher cent executive vice presidents have been than within the governing bodies (be- women. The IMF has never had a female low 10 percent in each case). It should in the top job of managing director, but be noted, however, that the Boards of 10 11 a woman now serves as fi rst deputy Governors are composed of the fi nance decline in recent years. Four of the 33 “A ‘woman’s agenda’ is of no value here. It will not ambassadors to the OAS permanent help you. With Robert Zoellick [current USTR], it’s council are women. Interestingly, fi ve a strict meritocracy. Good ideas get his attention. years ago, seven countries had female ambassadors to the OAS. He doesn’t see gender. It’s more about a trade agenda. If you’re a woman with good ideas, you III. Women’s Paths to Power will be put on a par with any male staff.” Enabling Factors ROSA WHITAKER, FORMER ASSISTANT U.S. The women we interviewed attributed TRADE REPRESENTATIVE FOR their successes to a variety of factors—ac- cess to educational and work opportuni- ties, good mentoring by both males and females, and the support of family mem- or economy ministers of member bers, employers, supervisors, colleagues, countries, and the executive directors teachers, and friends. Many of our inter- are selected by individual countries— viewees highlighted the critical role of the not by the institution itself. presidents who appointed them. Without In most cases, women began to such commitments from the top, women break into these governance positions have little if any chance to secure cabinet, only recently. For example, between 1993 sub-cabinet, and ambassadorial posi- and 1996, the United States made several tions. Many attributed their appoint- fi rst-time appointments of women to ments to hard work, skill or knowledge, the international development banks. In and a certain amount of luck or “being in those years, Jan Piercy was named the the right place at the right time.” fi rst female U.S. executive director to the These factors are not necessarily World Bank, and Karen Lissakers was gender specifi c and equally affect the named as the fi rst female U.S. executive professional fortunes of men. Educa- director to the IMF.4 tional opportunities now are generally Of the 191 ambassadors to the UN the same for men and women, although General Assembly in 2003, eleven were women may be encouraged to pursue women. Women’s participation in the different courses of study. With time, we permanent council of the Organization are seeing women’s enrollment in most of American States (OAS)—the Western fi elds of study—and certainly in law and Hemisphere’s multilateral institution—is the social sciences relevant to positions stronger, although it has experienced a in international policy making—reach-

4 Linda Tsao Yang, former U.S. executive director at the Asian Development Bank, was the fi rst woman appointed by the U.S. government to the Board of a multilateral institution; and Alice Dear, appointed that same year, was the fi rst U.S. woman executive director at the African Development Bank (Willene Johnson is the current executive director). 12 Karen Shepherd, appointed during the second Clinton administration as U.S. executive director at the European 13 Bank of Reconstruction and Development, was the fi rst woman to serve in that position. ing or exceeding parity with men. opinions. U.S. interviewees observed that Disparities in the number of women success for women requires penetrating fi nance ministers or central bank presi- strong old boys’ networks and defying dents may also shrink as more women long-standing myths about women’s ef- pursue careers in economics. fectiveness in the international arena. They noted, however, that in dealing with other Obstacles to Power cultures “respect for the position eclipses Our interviews suggest that pervasive, machismo.” Most of the Latin American subtle, and sometimes unacknowledged women we asked believed, however, that attitudes about women’s proper place rank alone cannot protect women from and role in society often lead to inordi- the attitudes of their societies. nate costs, such as the double-duty as- Other obstacles discussed by our signed to even successful career women interviewees include racial and ethnic bar- who hold primary responsibilities for the riers for women of color, class prejudices, management of their homes and fami- institutional and national cultures that are lies, and a double standard with higher particularly resistant to change, and, in expectations and greater scrutiny of some cases, media coverage that discounts women than of men with equal stature. or undermines women’s intellectual ca- pacity. Some of our interviewees noted MACHISMO AND SOCIAL ATTITUDES that the more limited access women of Most of those interviewed felt that color have had to quality education, travel, “machismo” had been a major obstacle adequate mentoring, and propitious home to the advancement of women—that it conditions has sometimes precluded entry affects women’s interest in international into international careers. careers, societies’ reactions to women leaders, and organizations’ willingness to DOUBLE DUTY: RECONCILING give women a chance to exercise power. FAMILY AND WORK Many women, including some of our Perhaps the major obstacle to advance- interviewees, encounter opposition from ment in foreign and economic relations families and friends when they step out- has been and continues to be the fact side of traditional gender roles. Likewise, that, in all countries of the Americas, some Latin American interviewees noted women assume and are still expected to the diffi culties that professional single assume both the duties associated with women have in fi nding partners who caring for the family as well as rigorous support their career choices, and some of professional responsibilities. Given this these women made conscious decisions reality, it was clear from our interviews to forgo having spouses or children in that many of the obstacles women for- order to pursue their careers. eign and economic policy offi cials face Interviewees noted that machismo are inherent in the nature of the work often expresses itself as a general neglect and the way it is organized. International 12 13 of, or lack of consideration for, women’s work, which frequently includes long hours and extensive travel, is especially by international organizations and hard on families. national governments.

IV. Conclusions n International organizations and na- Recommendations drawn from the inter- tional governments should be held views on specifi c measures to increase op- accountable for setting goals and portunities and provide support to women implementing policies and practices in foreign policy making careers. that promote gender equity at the highest levels of governance. Orga- n International organizations and nizations should analyze the reasons national governments should for gender inequity at the upper systematize and maintain gender- levels, and come up with timetables disaggregated statistics, and make and plans to remedy the situation. them accessible to the public. Col- lection, analysis, and dissemination n International organizations and of data on women in power can national governments should create help to keep policy makers aware of infrastructures to provide families the gaps that should be addressed with adequate childcare options.

14 15 Appendix I “When I have to conduct negotiations with foreign Women Leaders Interviewed offi cials, as I often do, their cultural differences do ARGENTINA: impede their responsiveness to what I’m saying. … Marta Oyhanarte, Undersecretary for Institutional Reform and Democratic The only way to deal with that really is to ignore Strengthening; former Deputy on Legislature it and rely on the quality of what we’re saying to

CHILE: overcome that difference. And in most cases, that Soledad Alvear, Minister of Foreign works, and it also works because I am representing Relations María Eugenia Wagner, Vice Minister of the United States, and anybody representing Finance the United States has a major role in most of the María Elena Ovalle, Board of Governors, Central Bank countries of the world.” Lucía Avetikian, former Minister Counselor for Trade at Consulate in Philadelphia NANCY LEE, U.S. DEPUTY ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF TREASURY FOR Cristián Echeverría, Journalist, Foreign EURASIA AND LATIN AMERICA Ministry, Radio Chilena “Solo Noticias” Marta Tonda, Chief of Staff in the Ministry of Finance EL SALVADOR:

COLOMBIA: María Eugenia Brizuela de Avila, Minister of Foreign Affairs Catalina Crane, Vice Minister, Technical, of Finance and Public Credit MEXICO: María Emma Mejía, former Foreign Rosario Green, Ambassador of Mexico to Minister; former Ambassador to Spain Argentina; former Foreign Minister; former Rodrigo Pardo, former Foreign Minister; Ambassador to the United Nations. Columnist, El Espectador Mariclaire Acosta, former Minister of Ingrid Betancourt, Senator; former presi- and Human Rights dential candidate María del Rocío Ruiz Chávez, Vice Minister of International Commerce, Ministry of COSTA RICA: Economy Anabel González Campabadal, Vice Rosalba Ojeda, Executive Director, Instituto Minister of Economy, Industry, and Trade Mexicano de Cooperación Internacional Edna Camacho, Vice Minister of Finance Rossana Fuentes-Berain, Managing Editor, Rebeca Grynspan, former Vice President; Foreign Affairs en Español former Vice Minister of Finance NICARAGUA: Laura Chinchilla, former Minister of Public Security Violeta Chamorro, former President Sonia Picado, former Congresswoman; for- mer Ambassador to the United States; and former Justice on the Inter-American Court of Human Rights 14 15 Lidieth Brenes, Editor, Business Section, La Nación newspaper CURRENT U.S. ADMINISTRATION “Many countries resent U.S. domination of (GEORGE W. BUSH) the international scene. When women Janet Ballantyne, Acting Administrator, USAID acting on behalf of the United States display Wendy Cutler, Assistant USTR for Japan strong listening skills, respect for other Paula Dobriansky, Under Secretary of State of Global Affairs nations’ perspectives and stake, it defi nitely Nancy Lee, Deputy Assistant Secretary of helps neutralize and overcome this attitude. Treasury for Eastern & Former Soviet Union Ironically, the socialization which has Catherine Novelli, Assistant USTR for reinforced partnering and support skills in Europe & the Mediterranean Rosa Whitaker, former Assistant USTR for women is a valuable asset in international Africa

negotiations, if coupled with skills in taking FORMER U.S. ADMINISTRATIONS and holding positions.” Harriet Babbitt, Deputy Administrator of USAID and U.S. Permanent Representative JAN PIERCY, FORMER U.S. EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, WORLD BANK to the OAS, Clinton Administration Shirley Barnes, former State Department Director of Offi ce of Western European Affairs, former U.S. Ambassador to France, LATIN AMERICAN AMBASSADORS IN THE Germany, Egypt, and Madagascar UNITED STATES: Charlene Barshefsky, USTR, Clinton Ivonne Juez de Baki, Ecuador, Minister Administration of Foreign Trade; former Ambassador Barbara Franklin, Secretary of Commerce, to the White House; former presidential Bush (Senior) Administration; Alternate candidate Representative to the UN General Margarita Escobar, El Salvador, Permanent Assembly, Bush (Senior) Administration; Representative to the OAS Advisory Committee for Trade Policy and Negotiations, Reagan and Bush Laura Elena Núñez de Ponce, Honduras, Administrations; Commissioner, Consumer Permanent Representative to OAS Product Safety Commission, Nixon Administration U.S. AMBASSADOR IN LATIN AMERICA: Vivian Lowery Derryck, Assistant Anne Woods Patterson, former U.S. Administrator for Africa at USAID, and Ambassador to Colombia Deputy Assistant Secretary for Equal Employment Opportunity and Civil Rights, Clinton Administration Gayle Smith, former Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for African Affairs, National Security Council, Clinton Administration Paula Stern, Chairwoman, International Trade Commission, Carter Administration

16 17 International Institutions Interviewers INTER-AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK Virginia M. Bouvier, United States Institute of Peace, WLCA Research Director K. Burke Dillon (US), Former Executive (Washington, DC and Mexico) Vice President Mala Htun, New School University, NY Nancy Birdsall (US), Former Executive Vice (Washington, DC and New York) President Manuel Orozco, Inter-American Dialogue Mayra Buvinic (Chilean), Chief, Social (Nicaragua and El Salvador) Development Division Teresa Aninat Sahli, independent consul- WORLD BANK tant (Chile) Jan Piercy, Former U.S. Executive Director Jennifer Ashley, Council Study Center, (Chile) INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND Joan Caivano, Inter-American Dialogue Karin Lissakers, Former U.S. Executive (Washington, DC) Director Ana Isabel García, Fundación Género y Sociedad, GESO, San José (Costa Rica) ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES Mariela Garrón Montero, Fundación Género Luigi Einaudi, Assistant Secretary General, y Sociedad, GESO, San José (Costa Rica) OAS Magda Hinojosa, Harvard University, Ph.D. Sandra Honoré, Chief of Staff, Offi ce of candidate (Mexico) Assistant Secretary General, OAS Catalina Montoya, student, Universidad de Carmen Lomellín, Executive Secretary, los Andes, Bogotá (Colombia) Inter-American Commission of Women Valeria Palanza, Universidad de San Andrés, Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Institucional, Buenos Aires (Argentina) Juliana Ramírez, student, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá (Colombia)

16 17 Appendix II INTER-AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK External Relations Advisor Positions Counted at Auditor General International Institutions Vice President for Planning and Administration Tier 1: INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND UNITED NATIONS Managing Director Senior Management Group First Deputy Managing Director (see Appendix III for list)

WORLD BANK Tier 3: President INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND Director, Institutional Integrity Heads of Departments and Offi ces (see Appendix III for list) Auditor General, Internal Auditing

WORLD BANK INTER-AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK Vice Presidents (20—see Appendix III President for list) Executive Vice President Director, General Services UNITED NATIONS INTER-AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK Secretary General (SEE APPENDIX III FOR LIST) Deputy Secretary General Managers, Regional Operations Departments (3) Tier 2: Chief of the Regional Operations Support INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND Offi ce Deputy Managing Directors (2) Department Managers (7) Chief Economist, Research Department WORLD BANK General Counsel, Legal Department Managing Directors (3) Vice President and Special Representative UNITED NATIONS External Affairs Heads of other UN agencies (see Appendix Senior Vice President, Development III for list) Economics and Chief Economist Vice President, External Affairs, Europe

18 19 Appendix III “Just look at any development program anywhere, UN Staff, Tier 2: on any subcontinent, and every additional earned UN Senior Management Group Economic Commission for Africa dollar you can get into the hands of women UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is much more likely to go into improving the Management nutrition of a family [and] improving the education, General Assembly Affairs achievements, and opportunities for kids than that Least Developed, Landlocked & Small Island Developing States same dollar in the hands of men. Those issues are Legal Counsel likely to be a life experience of women legislators, UN Offi ce at Vienna (UNIS) women parliamentarians, women prime ministers. I Economic and Social Affairs Disarmament Affairs think you will get better results with more women.” Special Assignments in Africa HARRIET BABBITT, FORMER DEPUTY ADMINISTRATOR OF USAID AND Peacekeeping Operations FORMER U.S. PERMANENT REPRESENTATIVE TO THE OAS Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacifi c (ESCAP) High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) UN Environment Programme UN Development Programme (UNDP) UN High Commissioner for Human Rights World Food Programme (WFP) (UNHCHR) UN Population Fund IMF Staff, Tier 3: Economic Commission for Latin America Heads of Departments and Offi ces and the Caribbean (ECLAC) African Department UN Offi ce at Geneva Asia and Pacifi c Department Humanitarian Affairs European I Department Children and Armed Confl ict European II Department Political Affairs External Relations Department UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Fiscal Affairs Department Chef de Cabinet Human Resources Department Economic Comission for Europe (ECE) IMF Institute Economic and Social Commission for International Capital Markets Department Western Asia (ESCWA) Legal Department UN Human Settlements Programme Middle Eastern Department Public Information Monetary and Exchange Affairs Department 18 19 Policy Development and Review Vice President, Africa Department Vice President, Information Solutions Research Department Group and Chief Information Offi cer Secretary’s Department Vice President and Network Head, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Statistics Department Vice President, South Asia Technology and General Services Department Vice President and Corporate Secretary Treasurer’s Department Vice President, Middle East and North Africa Western Hemisphere Department Vice President and Network Head, Regional Offi ce for Asia and the Pacifi c Infrastructure & Private Sector Offi ces in Europe Development Offi ce at the United Nations Vice President, Human Resources Offi ce of Budget and Planning Vice President, Strategy and Resource Management Offi ce of Internal Audit and Inspection Vice President and Treasurer Offi ce of Technical Assistance Management Director, General Services World Bank Staff, Tier 3: Vice President and Network Head, Vice Presidents Operational Policy & Country Services Senior Vice President and Chief Financial Offi cer IDB Staff, Tier 3: Vice President and Network Head, Manager, Regional Operations Dept. 1 Financial Sector Manager, Regional Operations Dept. 2 Vice President and Controller Manager, Regional Operations Dept. 3 Vice President, Latin America and the Caribbean Chief of the Regional Operations Support Offi ce Vice President and Network Head, Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Manager, Private Sector Dept. Development Manager, Sustainable Development Dept. Vice President, East Asia and Pacifi c Chief Economist, Research Department Vice President, Resource Mobilization and Manager, Information Technology and Co-fi nancing General Services Dept. Vice President, World Bank Institute Manager, Human Resources Dept. Vice President, Europe and Central Asia Manager, Strategic Planning and Budget Dept.

20 21 Manager, Integration and Regional SPECIALIZED AGENCIES Programs Dept. International Labour Organization (ILO) Manager, Finance Dept. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) General Counsel, Legal Dept. UN Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) UN STAFF, TIER 3: HEADS OF OTHER UN AGENCIES World Health Organization (WHO) OTHER PROGRAMS AND FUNDS World Bank Drug Control Programme International Monetary Fund (IMF) Relief and Works Agency for Palestine International Civil Aviation Organization Refugees in the Near East (ICAO) OTHER UN ENTITIES International Maritime Organization (IMO) Offi ce for Project Services International Telecommunications Union United Nations University (ITU) UN System Staff College World Meteorological Organization Joint United Nations Programme on (WMO) HIV/AIDS World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) RESEARCH AND TRAINING INSTITUTES International Fund for Agricultural International Research and Training Development (IFAD) Institute for the Advancement of Women UN Industrial Development Organization UN Interregional Crime and Justice (UNIDO) Research Institute UN Institute for Training and Research SECRETARIAT UN Research Institute for Social Offi ce of Internal Oversight Services Development (OIOS) UN Institute for Disarmament Research Offi ce of the Iraq Programme (OIP) UN Offi ce at Nairobi (UNON) RELATED ORGANIZATIONS Offi ce of the UN Security Coordinator International Atomic Energy Agency (UNSECOORD)—post unoccupied (IAEA) Department of General Assembly and World Trade Organization (WTO) Conference Management (DGACM)—post World Tourism Organization unoccupied PrepCom for the Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty Organization Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

20 21

THE INTER-AMERICAN DIALOGUE The Inter-American Dialogue is the leading U.S. center for policy analysis, exchange, and communication on issues in Western Hemisphere affairs. The Dialogue brings together public and private leaders from across the Americas to address key hemispheric problems and opportunities. The Dialogue’s select membership of 100 distinguished citizens from throughout the Americas includes political, business, academic, media, and other nongovernmental leaders. Twelve Dialogue members served as presidents of their countries and more than a dozen have served at the cabinet level. Dialogue activities are directed to generating new policy ideas and practical proposals for action, and getting these ideas and proposals to government and private decision makers. The Dialogue also offers diverse Latin American and Caribbean voices access to U.S. policy debates and discussions. Based in Washington, the Dialogue conducts its work throughout the hemisphere. A majority of our Board of Directors are from Latin American and Caribbean nations, as are more than half of the Dialogue’s members and participants in our other leadership networks and task forces. Since 1982—through successive Republican and Democratic administrations and many changes of leadership elsewhere in the hemisphere—the Dialogue has helped shape the agenda of issues and choices in inter-American relations.

INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON WOMEN The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) is a private nonprofi t organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., with an offi ce in India. ICRW’s mission is to improve the lives of women in poverty, advance women’s equality and human rights, and contribute to broader economic and social well-being in low- and middle-income countries. Founded in 1976, ICRW conducts policy-oriented research in collaboration with local partners, provides technical assistance, and advocates for policies to improve women’s economic, health and social status. ICRW’s work is supported by international and national development agencies, foundations, corporations, and individuals.