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Home , Fermionic condensate, Liquid crystal

States of Part I. The Three Common States: , and David Tin Win Faculty of Science and Technology, Assumption University Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

There are three basic states of matter that can be identified: solid, liquid, and gas. , being compact with very restricted movement, have definite shapes and volumes; , with less compact makeup have definite volumes, take the shape of the containers; and , composed of loose particles, have volumes and shapes that depend on the container. This paper is in two parts. A short description of the common states (solid, liquid and gas) is described in Part I. This is followed by a general observation of three additional states (, Bose-Einstein Condensate, and ) in Part II. Keywords: Ionic solids, liquid , London forces, metallic solids, molecular solids, network solids, .

Introduction out everywhere within the container. Gases can be compressed easily and they have

undefined shapes. This paper is in two parts. The common It is well known that heating will cause or usual states of matter: solid, liquid and gas substances to change state - state conversion, in or vapor1, are mentioned in Part I; and the three accordance with their enthalpies of fusion ∆H additional states: plasma, Bose-Einstein f condensate (BEC), and Fermionic condensate or ∆Hv, or latent of fusion are described in Part II. and vaporization. For example, ice will be Solid formation occurs when the converted to water (fusion) and thence to attraction between individual particles ( (vaporization). What happens if a gas is super- or ) is greater than the particle energy heated to very high ? What happens (mainly kinetic energy or ) causing them to if it is cooled to near absolute zero temperatures? move apart. The particles are locked in Such curiosity led to the discoveries of plasma positions near each other, so that solids have in 1879; Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) in defined shapes and volumes. The particles of 1995; and to the first observation of the solids are still in motion, but they remain fixed Fermionic condensate in 2003. in place and only vibrations take place. Plasmas are hot ionized gases. High Liquids are formed when the particle energy of plasmas causes stripping of energy is increased and the rigid solid structure from individual atoms forming a gas of breaks down. Liquid particles can slide past charged ions. The center of stars such as the one another and collide with other particles, but sun is the most common place that plasmas can they remain close to each other. Thus liquids be found. The Sun is a 1.5 million kilometer can 'flow' to take the container shape but they ball of plasma, heated by nuclear fusion. But cannot be readily compressed. Therefore liquids plasma exists in many ordinary things also, have defined volumes but undefined shapes. such as neon and fluorescence lights. Gases are formed when energy exceeds Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC) are attraction between molecules. Particles move super cooled materials that exist at quickly and freely in all directions spreading temperatures close to absolute zero. In this state all atoms jump into a single quantum- 1 The gas state of a substance that is a liquid or solid at mechanical state, forming a giant super . normal temperatures and pressures (101.3 kPa). 153 The Fermionic Condensates are neighbors by electrical attraction. Molecular superfluid phases formed by at near solids, such as ice H2O(s) or sugar absolute zero temperatures. The formation is C12H22O11(s) whose lattices contain analogous to electrons in a superconductor. molecules held by intermolecular forces. This paper is based on the technical 2 Network solids like diamond, graphite and reports submitted by the student of semester Buckministerfullerene formed by covalently 1/2004, as part of the requirement for general held atoms throughout the whole solid. Such CT 1101, Faculty of Science and crystals are among the hardest materials. For Technology, Assumption University. It is a example diamond is the hardest known natural short description of the common and additional substance. And metallic solids held by metallic states of matter. bonds where the core of nuclei and inner- electrons are enveloped by a cloud of valance The Common States of Matter electrons. All crystalline solids have characteristic angles (cleavage angles) and can The relative compactness of the three be cleaved easily along lines defined by the common states, made up of particles of atoms, aligning of atoms or molecules of the crystal. molecules or ions is shown in figure 1. The Quasicrystals, a novel form of solid solid state is most densely packed and the with molecular structure resembling Penrose movement of the component particles is tiles3, first made in 1984, became a major focus extremely restricted. Thus solids have definite of materials research (Nelson 1986). shapes and volumes. The liquid state is less The common point about solids is that the compact and the component particles can move position of atoms or molecules is fixed. They within certain constraints. Liquids have definite are attached to one another and have no volumes but they take the shape of the independent translational linear motion. Solids containers. The gas state particles are separated can have vibration and rotation molecular and are free to move. Gases take the shapes and energies only. Lattice particles are barely volumes of the containers. moving. Thus solids are incompressible (Dummies 2004). The Solid State The Liquid State Basically there are two categories of solids: amorphous solids with no defined shape Order in the particles (atoms, ions, and crystalline solids with a well-defined molecules) of any substance depends on the structure. Amorphous solids can be like carbon forces of attraction and repulsion between black or linked as in plastics. Solids may also them. For molecular particles these are be composed of a jumble of molecules (super- intermolecular forces4. They are caused by the cooled liquids) as in . attraction or repulsion of electrical charges In the crystalline solids particles are between molecules. There are three types of pulled into a rigid, organized structure of intermolecular forces: London forces caused by repeating patterns called a crystal lattice. instantaneous dipole – induced dipole Depending on the particles, the crystal lattice attractions; dipole-dipole attractions; and may be of different shapes (Chemtutor LLC.

2004). Figure 2 is a microscopic illustration of 3 In the 1970's Roger Penrose (famous for collaborating solid structure and figure 3 demonstrates a on singularities with Stephen W. Hawkins) found that . only two geometric shapes, put together in jigsaw-puzzle Four major types of solids may be fashion, can cover a flat surface in patterns that never identified (Malone, 2001). Ionic solids like repeat themselves. The shapes, called Penrose tiles, were sodium chloride NaCl (s) whose crystal lattice initially considered a curiosity unrelated to natural phenomena. Singularities = objects so crushed by their consists of ions, which are connected to their own weight that they become infinitely dense, like black holes 2 Complete member listing is in the acknowledgement section, placed in part II of this paper. 4 Weak electrical interactions between molecules that are not as strong as chemical bonds 154 hydrogen bonding. In London forces, random Point movement of bond electrons produces a lopsided balance by chance and creates a dipole The of a liquid is the for an instant (instantaneous dipole). This at which molecules escape from induces a dipole in its neighbor (induced the liquid and change into the gaseous dipole), and the two dipoles attract each other. state. It is the temperature at which liquid and Liquids and also solids have high gas are in equilibrium. Boiling starts when densities, minimal thermal expansion and fixed bubbles of vapor form within the liquid. These volumes. They are essentially incompressible. bubbles rise to the top of the liquid and release To explain these properties three postulates of the gaseous molecules to the atmosphere above the kinetic theory of gases (see below under gas the liquid’s surface. 2.260 kJ (540 calories) of state) have to be modified; namely, the heat is required to evaporate 1 gram of water at particles are attracted to each other by 100 C (212° F) at sea level. The boiling point intermolecular forces and are held close depends on atmospheric pressure. Boiling together; their volume is not negligible; the points are raised by dissolved substances. This particle motion is restricted. is a colligative property, a property that Molecules of liquids are less tightly depends only on the number of particles and arranged than those of solids but more closely not on the nature of particles. than those of gases. Hence unlike solids, liquids have no long-range order, but their Point molecules interact via their intermolecular forces. This induces some order with respect to The freezing point of a substance is the neighboring molecules. Every in a temperature at which the liquid state changes liquid has the same number of nearest into the solid state. The molecules of the liquid neighbors, and is equally spaced from one change into a more ordered structure as the another. Molecules further removed are liquid freezes. It is accompanied by a decrease randomly placed. Thus liquids have short-range in , ∆S < 0. The melting point of a order that exists only for a few molecule substance, the point at which it changes from a lengths. A microscopic illustration of a liquid is solid to a liquid, is identical with its freezing shown in Fig. 4. point, where it changes from liquid to solid. Certain liquids have a certain degree of Freezing points are lowered by dissolved long-range order that is less than in a solid. substances. This is also a colligative property. Such liquids are known as liquid crystals. They contain long rod-like molecules. In appropriate temperature ranges they become aligned parallel to each other to create a long-range The degree of resistance to flow is shown order. But unlike molecules in a solid, by the viscosity of a liquid. Flow makes a molecules in a can still slide liquid take the shape of the container that holds (flow) past one another. The arrangement of it. Oils contain large convoluted molecules that the molecules determines the optical properties. catch on one another. This gives them a high For example some liquid crystals appear viscosity, much higher than water. But the opaque when their molecules have one polarity of the water molecules causes them to alignment and transparent when they are attract one another and make water more differently aligned. These are the LCDs (Liquid viscous than a non-polar liquid, such as Crystal Displays) used in digital equipment, propane. Fig. 5 shows a viscous liquid. like watches and calculators. The intermolecular forces determine the physical properties of liquids, such as its Liquids behave as if there is a delicate boiling point, freezing point, and surface skin on their surface. This property is called tension. These in turn influence behavior under surface tension. In rain droplets water different temperatures, pressures and on molecules are held together by surface tension, contact with other substances. which acts like a thin balloon. Water-strider

155 bugs can walk across water surfaces because of that says the total gas pressure is the sum of the surface tension. Fig. 6, shows heavy objects partial pressures of component gases. floating on a liquid. The chemical structure of gases varies greatly and the properties of gases vary widely. Capillary Action Some gases are transparent, some have strong smell, some dissolve in water, and some react Water will climb up a cloth if the edge violently with almost any substance; while touches a puddle, and it will climb up a other gases have opposite properties. capillary glass tube that is dipped in water. The Increased pressures or decreased temper- water climbs because the water molecules are atures force gas atoms or molecules closer more attracted to the cloth or glass, than they together. When the gas molecules are near are to each other (MSN Encarta 2003a). This is enough, the weak intermolecular forces of capillary action. attraction become effective, a short-range order is introduced and a liquid is formed. Similarly, The Gas State when liquid molecules are moved closer, the Fig. 7 is a microscopic illustration of same forces turn the liquid into a solid. carbon dioxide CO2 gas structure. It is apparent that the gas molecules are separated more than Color in liquids. There is almost no interaction Some gases have characteristic colors. among the individual molecules. Hence gases Fluorine gas is green, chlorine is yellow-green, move freely and expand to fill any sized or any and nitrogen dioxide is red-brown. But most shaped container. Because of this, one mole of gases are colorless. any gas under STP (standard temperature and pressure) has a constant volume of 22.4 L (the molar volume of any gas at STP). Odor Gases are compressible and have low densities. They mix thoroughly, fill a container Many gases, including nitrogen, oxygen, uniformly, and exert uniform pressure on all and hydrogen, are odorless. Ammonia has a sides of a container. These properties are sharp pungent odor. Fuel gases such as explained by the kinetic theory, which states methane, propane, and butane are odorless. that gases are made up of very small particles Therefore a sulfur compound with intense that are widely spaced and have negligible smell is added to fuel gases to ensure early volume. The particles move rapidly and detection for gas leakage. undergo elastic collisions with each other and with container walls giving rise to gas pressure; Solubility but they do not have electrical interactions. The gas temperature is related to the average kinetic Some gases such as carbon dioxide energy of the gas particles (Malone, 2001). dissolve well in water. Many others including The theory also allows understanding of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, are only the gas laws, such as Graham’s law of slightly soluble in water. The solubility of any diffusion, which says gas diffusion rates are gas decreases with increasing temperature. inversely related to the square root of its molar mass; Boyle’s law, which says the pressure and Chemical Reactivity volume of a given mass of gas are inversely related at constant temperature; Charles’s law Some gases are reactive while others are that says at constant pressure gas volume is inert. The chemical reactivity of gases varies directly related to its temperature; Gay- widely. Oxygen, chlorine, and fluorine are Lussac’s law that says gas pressure and gas extremely reactive gases. Fluorine will react temperature are directly related at constant with almost any other substance; even water pressure; Avogardo’s law that says gas volume and glass will burn in a fluorine atmosphere. and moles of gas are directly related at constant But the noble or inert gases are inert. Neon temperature and pressure; and Dalton’s law does not react at all. 156 .Structure References

Gas particles are the smallest units (atoms Chemtutor, LLC. 2004. States of Matter, Solids. or molecules) into which a gas can be divided http://www.chemtutor.com/sta.htm#sol without changing its chemical properties. The Dummies. 2004. The States of Matter, Solids. noble gases, such as neon and helium, are made http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/ up of individual atoms. Some elements in the DummiesArticle/id-1667.html th gas state, such as hydrogen H2, oxygen O2, and Malone, L.J. 2001. Basic Concepts of Chem. 6 . ed. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA.. nitrogen N2 are composed of diatomic molecules. Other gases like carbon dioxide MSN Encarta encyclopedia, 2003a. liquids. CO , methane CH , and ammonia NH are http://www.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_ 2 4 3 761571486/Liquid.html compounds and exist as molecules. (MSN MSN Encarta encyclopedia, 2003b. gas. Encarta 2003b). Part II follows. http://www.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_ 761576933/Gas.html Nelson, D.R.1986. Quasicrystals. Scientific American. pp. 86.

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Solid Liquid Gas Fig. 1. The three common states of matter

Fig. 2. Microscopic illustration of solid Fig. 3. Simplified crystal structure

Fig. 4. Microscopic illustration of liquid Fig. 5. Solid in a viscous liquid

Fig. 6. Surface tension floats heavy solids Fig. 7. Microscopic illustration of gas

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