Voices of Rebellion: Gilded Age Suffragists, 1870-1920 Karma Bromwell Junior Division Historical Paper: 2379 Words Process Pape

Voices of Rebellion:

Gilded Age Suffragists, 1870-1920

Karma Bromwell

Junior Division

Historical Paper: 2379 Words

Process Paper: 500 Words

August 26, 2020 was the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment, guaranteeing and protecting the constitutional right to vote for American women. Throughout the country, celebrations focused on the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the Constitution, but also the efforts of suffragists who worked for over 72 years to win the right to vote in 1920. I wanted to identify women who were key players in the women’s suffrage movement and to help keep their stories alive.

At critical points in our nation’s history, exchange of information was key, influencing sentiments resulting in the passage of the amendment. Because voting is a primary method used to voice opinions about the destiny of the country, my topic directly ties into “Communication in

History: The Key to Understanding.”

I thought critically and concluded communication isn’t just verbal, but includes images, symbols, and the written word. Suffragists used all of these methods to gain attention and convince American men to ratify the amendment. My first resources were general books about the women’s movement, suffragists, and how American women were historically disenfranchised. I visited New Mexico State University Library and used the Internet to access primary sources. Finally, I consulted several books that directly tie to my thesis.

It was essential to separate fact, fiction, and myth in the suffrage tales. Initially, I brainstormed topics associated with the 19th Amendment. I considered discovering how deaf women, such as Helen Keller, fought for the amendment despite their physical impairment. This research confirmed women historically were denied access to higher education. I also learned

Katherine Dexter McCormick, a socialite, used her prestige and money to force Massachusetts

Institute of Technology to admit women into their programs and provide housing. She was also actively involved in the movement to allow women control over their bodies. McCormick, and 2 many other socialites, invested in a variety of philanthropic endeavors that laid the foundation for the women’s rights movement.

My research led me to conclude that the passage of the 19th Amendment was due to the involvement of wealthy women who took up the cause when it was floundering in the early 1900s.

Without Gilded Age socialites leveraging their prestige and monies, it is dubious that the amendment would have been ratified. These women used their voices, celebrity status, and resources to create a cohesive network of individuals who were committed to changing society.

Women’s right to vote did not come easily and without cost; suffrage was often achieved while dividing friendships and family loyalties. Wealthy suffragists such as Katherine Duer Mackay,

Louisine Havemeyer and Mary Cassatt shaped history that brought about societal changes leading to the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. Their efforts further supported equal access to education, fair employment and equitable wages, equality within marriage, child custody, and reproductive rights. Efforts to ratify the 19th amendment facilitated broad-spectrum reforms, supported by law, that continue to provide women opportunities to pursue an equal place in society.

“Philanthropy lies at the heart of women’s history.”

--Kathleen D. McCarthy1

Without the committed intercession of socialites who actively fought for women’s right to vote, it is highly doubtful the 19th Amendment to the Constitution would have been ratified.

The wealth of these gilded age suffragists amplified the voices of women throughout the country and delivered their right to vote. Just as Alexander Hamilton asserted in Federalist 12, “a nation cannot long exist without revenues,” contending an independent and consistent revenue stream is necessary for political independence, the struggle for women’s suffrage was dependent upon steady and sufficient monies.2 In 1776, Abigail Adams cautioned her husband to “Remember the

Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors.... If particular care and attention is not paide to the Laidies we are determined to forment a Rebelion and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation.”3 Despite the plea, it was not until August 26, 1920 that American women won the right to vote. Indeed,

1 Kathleen D McCarthy. Lady Bountiful: Women, Philanthropy, and Power, (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersye, November 1, 1990), x. 2 The Federalist No. 12, [27 November 1787],” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-04-02-0165. [Original source: The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 4, January 1787 – May 1788, ed. Harold C. Syrett. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962, pp. 346–352.], Retrieved Dec 18, 2020 3 “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March 1776,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-01-02-0241. [Original1761 – May 1776, ed. Lyman H. Butterfield. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963, pp. 369–371.], (accessed Dec 18, 2020).

Abigail Adams’ prediction of a “formented Rebelion” occurred and was funded through the efforts of privileged women who leveraged their social standing and wealth for political gain.

In 1890, 11,000,000 Americans earned less than $1200 a year and the average annual income was $380, yet a small elite group in society enjoyed untold wealth and power; opportunities for leisure and extravagance were seized by the ruling class. 4 One might question why wealthy women courageously committed themselves to support suffrage and catalyze an equitable society through philanthropy, especially when their actions were met with vehement animosity and sarcastic accusations of dilettantism.5 While the actual intentions of any group may not be adequately ascertained, one can speculate as to the reasoning and find answers within the lives and communiques of these socialites who used their privileged positions to improve the lives of women, including those significantly less fortunate than themselves. The historian Eric

Homberger has suggested glitterati such as Alva Vanderbilt Belmont, Florence Jaffray “Daisy”

Harriman, Miriam Leslie, Katherine Duer Mackay, Laura Spelman Rockefeller, and Charlotte

Anita Whitney became activists because they believed it was “the prerogative of the elite to speak for the poor.”6 It has further been suggested by the historian Johanna Neuman:

4 “Andrew Carnegie: The Richest Man in the World: The Gilded Age,” https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carnegie-gilded/ (accessed November 20, 2020). 5 “Our Suffrage Movement Is Flirtation on a Big Scale”, New York Times, May 27, 1913, 10, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/05/27/issue.html; and “Suffragists’ Appeal,” (New York Times, May 27, 1913,): 10, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/05/27/issue.html, (accessed December 29, 2020) 6 Eric Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of 400 Years of New York City’s History (New York: Macmillan, 2005), 231. 3

For women of the gilded set, modernity meant jettisoning old social customs....in favor of education, career, and independence…. Instead they made a bid for influence --- not the moral suasion of motherhood or the indirect power of social standing, but the political influence of the men of their class, long denied them because of their gender.7

Other than a desire for social change, there was no universal reason why these socialites threw themselves into “the cause”; some idle rich women were motivated by progressive ideals, while other women simply felt political enfranchisement would protect their class privilege.

Prior to the Gilded Age8, wealthy women did not attend college, but were taught by private tutors, and then enhanced their education by traveling through Europe to master the languages, sketch and paint images of the landscapes, and wed an affluent husband. It was on one of these tours Louisine Elder Havemeyer met the artist Mary Cassatt, who introduced her to the works of Edgar Degas and other impressionists. Louisine met Mary in France when she was fourteen, and they quickly became close friends.9 Cassatt not only mentored Louisine in the nuances of art collecting, but also encouraged her to support the suffrage movement. Louisine readily embraced this suggestion, as her mother supported women’s suffrage, and was a friend of both Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Burns, pioneer activists in the movement. Furthermore, while in Paris, Louisine became friends with Harriot Stanton Blatch, later the head of the Women’s

Political Union in New York. 10 Blatch was the daughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the main

7 Johanna Neuman, “Introduction.” In Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote, 1st ed., (New York, New York: Washington Mews Books, 2017,) 2-3. 8 Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v. "Gilded Age," https://www.britannica.com/event/Gilded-Age, (accessed January 3, 2021). 9 Alicia Faxon, "Painter and Patron: Collaboration of Mary Cassatt and Louisine Havemeyer." Woman's Art Journal 3, no. 2 (1982): 15-20. (accessed December 10, 2020), doi:10.2307/1358029. 10 Louisine Havemeyer, “The Suffrage Torch”, Scribner’s Magazine, May 1922, 528.

4 force behind the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention that demanded women’s rights. At the bidding of

Mary Cassatt in 1912, after the death of Louisine’s husband, Henry O. Havemeyer, she lent her art collection to M. Knoedler’s Gallery to raise funds for women’s suffrage. It was a nineteen- day show, yet many art collectors, and even some of her family, boycotted the exhibition which boasted her collection of El Greco and Goya paintings. Undeterred, in 1915, she organized another exhibit focusing on the works of Mary Cassatt and Edgar Degas to further financially benefit the suffrage movement. The choice of including Cassatt’s work was not solely due to their friendship, but because Louisine recognized Cassatt’s feminist ideals were incorporated in the humble scenes of women’s pastimes, and successfully elevated the paintings beyond a hobbyist’s portrayal of intimacy into sophisticated art while specifically placing value on women’s lives. An undercurrent of the show was the idea that feminine charm and women’s suffrage were not mutually exclusive. 11 Although art collectors, Havemeyer’s family, and much of high society avoided the exhibition because of its expressed political intentions, many people paid the show’s entry fees of five dollars to tour the house and one dollar to view only the grounds, and considerable sums were raised for the suffrage movement.12 This approach was then repeated at the 1915 “Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture by Women Artists for the

Benefit of the Woman Suffrage Campaign” held at Macbeth Gallery in New York City. The exhibition was organized by socialites responding to the ratification vote for the 19th

Amendment being placed on New York’s 1915 November ballot. The suffrage leaders

11Mariea Caudill Dennison, "Babies for Suffrage: ‘The Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture by Women Artists for the Benefit of the Woman Suffrage Campaign’". Woman's Art Journal 24, no. 2 (2003): 24-30, doi:10.2307/1358783. (accessed December 14, 2020). 12 “Loan Exhibition in Aid of Suffrage”, The Sun, (NY, NY, April 6, 1915,): 7, https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030272/1915-04-06/ed-1/?sp=7&r=- 0.032,0.025,0.578,0.61,0, (accessed January 5, 2020). 5 recognized there were many ways to communicate desire for women’s rights---including using visual forms. The exhibition opened only five weeks prior to the men of New York voting on ratifying the 19th Amendment, and was intentionally used to sway the minds of undecided male voters. A report from the period contended the show:

…means something besides money. It means the women (are) behind the demand for the vote…. If these ninety women of all ages coming out of every kind of environment show the power to observe the facts of life with discrimination and create…new forms containing in them both criticism and philosophy, it is impossible to conceive behind them ninety thousand wholly devoid of the creative power needed in building or remodeling a State.13

However, not all elite women were supporters of suffrage.14 Some wealthy women believed suffrage was merely a fad not worthy of their social clout, and their philanthropic ability would diminish by exercising political power. Some socialites, like Katrina Ely Tiffany, the daughter-in-law of Louis Comfort Tiffany and daughter of a railroad tycoon, were active in the suffrage movement despite the opposition of their husbands and other family members. Not only did many of the genteel class believe suffrage would emasculate men and de-feminize women, some like Alida Blake Hazard ardently believed “economic independence…would depose man as the head of the home” and replace the “sacred marriage tie with a “mere partnership

13 Maria Caudill Dennison, "Babies for Suffrage: ‘The Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture by Women Artists for the Benefit of the Woman Suffrage Campaign’”." Woman's Art Journal 24, no. 2 (2003): 24-30. (accessed December 14, 2020). doi:10.2307/1358783. [Original source: “Studio and Gallery”, Macbeth Gallery Papers. “What is Happening in the Art World.”, 1915. 14 “Women Who Would Not Vote: Household Suffrage, They Say, Is Sufficient for Them,” New York Times, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/04/22/109718492.html?pa geNumber=5.; “Anti-Suffrage Opinions: Smiles Mrs. Dodge Noticed Must be Due to Odd Claims They Make,”, New York Times, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/05/27/issue.html, 10, (accessed December 27, 2020). 6 contract.”15 In 1911, the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage was established by the socialites Josephine Jewell Dodge and Helen Kendrich Johnson, and the journalist Ida

Tarbell.16 The author, Laura Ingalls Wilder, chimed in, “We must get rid of the habit of classing all women together politically and thinking of the ‘women’s vote’ as one and indivisible.”17

Wilder further believed if women gained the right to vote, it would interfere with their primary social duty to rear children - although once suffrage had been achieved she encouraged women to vote.18 In Wilder’s essay, “Women’s Duty at the Polls”, she stated:

…instead of being a privilege to be taken advantage of or neglected according to individual fancy, voting has now become, for the better class of women, a duty to be bravely and conscientiously done, even though it may be rather distasteful. It is up to them to see to it the power of their ballot is behind their influence for good clean government; for an honest administration of public affairs; for justice for all and special privileges for none.19

Some socialites fought for the 19th Amendment to protect their financial interests. Many trendsetters enjoyed the privileges of wealth but were prevented from controlling their finances.

These women entered into the political process at a time when the initial movement was started at Seneca Falls, NY had hit a lull and the individual financial contributions from middle-class

15 Susan E. Marshall, Splintered Sisterhood: Gender and Class in the Campaign against Woman Suffrage (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 103. 16 “Suffragettes Meet the Antis in Debate,” New York Times April 24,1909, 32, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/04/24/101035248.html?pageNum ber=3 and https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbcmil.scrp5011001/?st=text, (accessed December 18, 2020) 17 South Dakota Historical Society Press. March 13, 2017. (Accessed December 17, 2020,) http://www.pioneergirl.com/ruralist_04_20_1919b.jpg [Original source: The Missouri Ruralist, April 20, 1919, “Women’s Duty at the Polls” by Mrs. A.J. Wilder] (accessed December 22, 2020). 18 South Dakota Historical Society Press, March 13, 2017, https://pioneergirlproject.org/2017/03/13/laura-ingalls-wilder-farm-advocate/, (accessed December 17, 2020). 19 South Dakota Historical Society Press. March 13, 2017, http://www.pioneergirl.com/ruralist_04_20_1919b.jpg, (accessed December 17, 2020).

7 women had substantially dropped off and interest waned. In short, the socialites’ money and prestige were necessary for the ratification of the 19th Amendment. Most of the monies from the wealthy came with strings attached, such as positions on organization boards or choice of office locations. This created tension in many of the organizations as women who had devoted years of voluntary effort or contributed smaller sums found themselves diminished and their work discounted. Their differences were overcome by forming broad coalitions. The socialites convinced politicians to support the required reforms to gain an advantage from women’s votes.

Activists such as Catherine Abbe wrote about the teas and political meetings saying, “We will get over 1,000 signatures of prominent men through social influences alone.”20 The interest she and other socialites expressed wasn’t founded from wanting to help all women, but out of a wish to allow educated and privileged women to vote. When the New York Times interviewed many of the elite suffragists, they learned women were supporting the passage of the amendment because of legal barriers in taxation, property, and marriage.21

Two of the most influential trendsetters in the suffrage movement were Katherine

Mackay and Alva Vanderbilt Belmont. These women used their substantial social clout and monies to gain influence in the political process. Both gilded suffragists used the media, as well as their social status and celebrity to recruit other wealthy women and male politicians to support their cause. In essence, they both appealed to their social peers to guide influential people and win the right to vote, but despite their common goal, they were rivals who approached suffrage

20 “Society Women Want Votes”, New York Times, April 11, 1894,1., https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/04/11/issue.html, (accessed Dec 5, 2020) 21 Johann Neuman, In Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote, 1st ed., New York, New York: Washington Mews Books, 2017, 34

8 differently. Mackay was a maternal influence who wanted to protect the health and safety of women and children, whereas Belmont wanted to obtain the rights only male elites enjoyed.

Mackay strategically used her femininity and subtlety as tools, whereas Belmont used her anger and an ingrained sense of male betrayal to galvanize her hardball style of activism. Mackay was from an old established wealthy family and she married a businessman of her social class. When

Mackay embraced suffrage, she started her activism by mailing Tiffany-engraved invitations to other socialites to attend a fundraising meeting at her home.22 Six months later, Alva Vanderbilt

Belmont, a formidable society leader, opened up her Newport mansion to raise funds for the

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA.) “The cost was $5 (about $135 today) to tour the first floor, or $1 (some $27) to walk the grounds and hear the speeches….”23

When Belmont, who believed the cause also required volunteers, was asked why she made her home available to the public, she told a reporter for the New York World, “To give money is like throwing a bone to a dog.”24 Despite her comment, she contributed large sums of money to the suffrage movement. Her generosity included paying the rent and salaries of the NAWSA,

$60,000 a year ($1.5 million today), and spending $146,000 ($1.7 million in today’s dollars) for the purchase of a Washington, D.C. mansion to be used as the national headquarters of the

National Women’s Party.25

21Ibid., 42, 48. 23 bid., 52. 23 “Woman Suffrage at Marble House for the Masses”, New York World, August 24, 1909. Alva Belmont Scrapbooks, vol. 1, referenced in Johanna Neuman, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote, 1st ed., New York, New York: Washington Mews Books, 2017, 8. 25 Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Matilda Joslyn Gage, History of Woman Suffrage, J.J. Little & Ives Company, NY, 1922, Retrieved through https://www.google.com/books/edition/History_of_Woman_Suffrage/GHrkxi3apVoC, (accessed December 23, 2020). 9

Katherine Dexter McCormick was also a gilded women’s rights activist. As a visionary leader in the NAWSA, she mobilized thousands of suffragists. Like Louisine Havemeyer,

McCormick was one of the “Silent Sentinels” who nonverbally protested in Washington D.C. for over two years as visual rhetoric to garner support for women’s suffrage. She came from an upper-crust family and married Stanley McCormick, grandson of Cyrus McCormick, heir to the

International Harvester fortune. Shortly after their marriage, Stanley suffered from schizophrenia and was institutionalized in private facilities. Having a sizeable fortune at hand, McCormick applied her efforts and monies to win the women’s right to vote, facilitate women’s higher education, and to find a cure for Stanley’s mental illness. In 1917, McCormick met Margaret

Sanger, the reproductive rights activist, who encouraged her to support the endeavor.26 To this end, McCormick used her personal funds to travel to Europe where she met with manufacturers of contraceptive diaphragms, and subsequently hired seamstresses to sew these devices into the linings of the latest French fashions. She then smuggled the contraband into the country in multiple trunks which were subsequently delivered to Sanger’s clinic. McCormick’s biographer related this conversation between customs officials and McCormick:

“How could you possibly use all of that clothing?” they asked. “Oh,” Katherine responded, “they will be put to good use.” …Predictably, however, the trunks were never examined.”27

Through this subterfuge, McCormick effectively smuggled over 1,000 diaphragms for women at a time. Additionally, she almost single-handedly financed the research for “the pill” to prevent pregnancies. Addressing multiple social causes was not uncommon for society suffragists as they

26American Experience, “The Pill” Katharine Dexter McCormick (1875 – 1967) https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-katharine-dexter- mccormick-1875-1967/, (accessed November 24, 2020). 27Armond Fields, Katherine Dexter McCormick: Pioneer for Women’s Rights, Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT, 181-182 10 believed the right to vote was insufficient to ensure women’s liberty if women were not economically independent and responsible for their own choices.

It has been said that “money talks.” The monies of a few privileged gilded socialites enabled and broadcast the countless voices of American women who refused to be silenced.

Although modern historical focus tends to be on suffrage pioneers such as Susan B. Anthony and

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, it is imperative to study the lives of seemingly forgotten socialites who were able to resurrect an embattled movement that hit a plateau and was beginning to languish.

Ratification of the 19th Amendment and the evolution of women’s rights were dependent upon females whose names graced the social register, and whose generous personal and family assets were leveraged to improve women’s lives and give them the hard-won right to vote. Without the dedicated efforts of these socialites, passage of the 19th Amendment may have failed for decades and it is likely many of the laws and programs we now enjoy would have never been instituted.

Today the powerful and persuasive voices of Abigail Adams, artists, socialites, and other justice- demanding activists of the Gilded Age are heard and honored when women vote.

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources

Adams, Jane (n.d.). Speech on Woman Suffrage, June 17, 1911. Retrieved January 12, 2021, from https://digital.janeaddams.ramapo.edu/items/show/7333.

Socialite’s speech about moving from charity endeavors to politics to protect women’s interests. This transcript showed some reasons women advocated for suffrage and provided needed background for my paper.

“Anti-Suffrage Opinions: Smiles Mrs. Dodge Noticed Must be Due to Odd Claims They Make”, New York Times, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/05/27/issue.html, 10, (accessed December 27, 2020).

Used to research women who were opposed to the passage of the amendment. This was important to understand because there was much opposition to the passage of the 19th amendment.

Borden, Mrs. J., “Enter Politics’ Mrs. J. Borden Harriman’s Message to American Women,” New York Herald, August 18, 1912, http://www.Loc.gov/newspapers/.

This newspaper article was written by a socialite which asked women to become involved in the political process. It helped me understand the connection between activism to support passage of the 19th Amendment and the larger political process.

“Cheer for Woman Suffrage,” New York Times, July 1, 1914, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/07/01/issue.html.

This article led me to research how women worked behind the scenes with politicians on their campaigns as trade-offs for their public expression of support of the amendment.

Dennison, Mariea Caudill. "Babies for Suffrage: "The Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture by Women Artists for the Benefit of the Woman Suffrage Campaign.,” Woman's Art Journal 24, no. 2 (2003): 24-30. Accessed April 7, 2021. doi:10.2307/1358783.

It was helpful to learn about the extent of the support received by the suffrage movement, as well as about the opposition to the Amendment by members of the public.

“Exhibition for Suffrage Cause; Pictures Representing Many Phases of the art of Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt in Exhibition for the Suffrage Cause Entertaining Drawings by Jerome Myers at Ehrich Gallery – Miniatures Shown at the National Academy of Design”, New York Times, April 4, 1915, https://www.nytimes.com/1915/04/04/archives/exhibition-for-suffrage-cause-pictures- representing-many-phases-of.html.

Newspaper images from fundraiser for Women’s Suffrage events showed that artists who were attempting to communicate their support of the amendment were both men and women.

Flanner, Janet, “Mrs Fletcher Dobyyor”, The Washington Herald, (Washington, D.C.) Jun 8, 1920, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1920-06-08/ed-1/.

Journalism about the socialites who were working on the passage of the amendment. This background material was vital to understanding the role of their wealth in getting the amendment passed. I also found it fascinating there was also a line drawing in this article that was accompanied by the words: “Women Throw Their Hat into Politics.” This showed me that there were several ways the media was communicating the process.

Founders Online, National Archives: “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March 1776,” https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-01-02-0241. [Original source: The Adams Papers, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 1, December 1761 – May 1776, ed. Lyman H. Butterfield. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963, pp. 369–371.], (accessed Dec 18, 2020).

This letter was instrumental in placing the context of women’s desire to be included in the constitution from the very founding of the United States. Some educated and wealthy women expressed a desire to be included in governmental affairs since the beginning of the nation, so the desire for the ability to be represented isn’t a recent situation in history.

Founders Online, National Archives: The Federalist No. 12, [27 November 1787],” https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-04-02-0165. [Original source: The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 4, January 1787 – May 1788, ed. Harold C. Syrett. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962, pp. 346–352.], (accessed Dec 18, 2020).

This paper written by a founder of the United States which addresses the need for financial stability gave me solid footing to build my thesis upon.

Harper, Ida Husted, ed. (2009, August 31), “Woman Suffrage in National Presidential Conventions,” Chapter XXIII, The History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. V, 1900-1920, National American Woman Suffrage Association, 1922, from http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/29878.

Information that helped to place the involvement of the suffrage movement in a greater political context, not just at the local levels but at national ones. 13

Harriman, Mrs. J. Borden, From Pinafores to Politics, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1923, Chapter VI, “The Democrats Come Back,” https://archive.org/details/frompinaforestop00harr, Retrieved Dec. 12, 2020.

This autobiography helped me to understand personal evolution in political and philanthropic interests.

Havemeyer, Louisine W., “Memories of a Militant: The Prison Special, Second Paper by Lousine W. Havemeyer,” Scribner’s Magazine, Vol 71. No. 6, June 1922, Bridges, Robert (Ed.) New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

This reporting by a Gilded Age addressed her experience as a Silent Sentinel and the reasons radicalism was necessary to achieve passage of the 19th Amendment.

Havemeyer, Louisine W., “The Suffrage Torch”, Scribner’s Magazine, Vol 71, No. 5, May 1, 1922, Bridges, Robert (Ed.) New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

This first-person account helped me to understand how someone might transition from peaceful protest to radical protests.

“How to Treat Hunger Strikers,” New York Times, July 28, 1914, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/07/28/issue.html.

Article about the Silent Sentinels who were arrested while protesting in support of the ratification of the amendment provided me an understanding about how some people viewed their radical approach to activism.

“In the Interest of Votes for Women: The Knoxville Equal Suffrage League,” Sun, The Journal and Tribune, (Knoxville, Tennessee,) Emma Farrand Tyler, Ed., March 23, 1919 https://www.newspapers.com/image/585410956.

Discussed the Golden Jubilee of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, in St. Louis, MO March 24, 1891 and general history of the movement. This really pointed out that women had been working for many years to gain the right to vote.

“Loan Exhibition in Aid of Suffrage”, The Sun, April 6, 1915, 7., https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030272/1915-04-06/ed-1/?sp=7&r=- 0.032,0.025,0.578,0.61,0, NY, NY, Retrieved January 5, 2020.

Original newspaper report on the suffrage exhibit organized by Havemeyer. This was a fairly unbiased report, but it downplayed the people who objected to suffrage. It discussed how art was used to fund-raise for the passage of the 19th Amendment. This was primarily background material for me.

“Montana Suffrage Parade Great Success: Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, the Veteran Leader, and Jeannette Rankin Headed the Procession for Woman’s Cause,” The Suffrage Daily News, Number 5, September 26,1914, Helena, Montana, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85053121/1914-09-26/ed-1/seq-1.

I appreciated learning how suffragists used media to gain support by staging local parades, not just the famous ones in New York City and Washington, D.C.

New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage Attacks Female Lobbyists. New York City, New York, 1909. Library of Congress, Manuscript/Mixed Material. https://www.loc.gov/item/rbcmiller0011990/.

This was a New York State Association Opposed to Women Suffrage circular letter to New York legislators with names of NOAWS board members listed. It provided me leads for my research.

“New York Women in Big Parade,” Newark Advocate, (Newark, Ohio), April 6, 1911.

The article discussed “the multimillionaires Mrs. Belmont, Mrs. Ernest Thomas Seton” who marched in a parade in support of the 19th Amendment. This article demonstrated the extent of high society’s involvement in the passage. It also interesting to note that after the parade, several of the attendees increased their activism.

“Officers of National Organization Lay Blame for Rumor at Door of Congressional Union,” (Washington, DC), Jan. 20,1914, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1914-01-20/ed-1/.

Newspaper report that demonstrated how suffragists and suffragettes were in disagreement about methods to achieve their mutual goal of suffrage.

“Our Suffrage Movement Is Flirtation on a Big Scale”, New York Times, May 27, 1913, 10, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/05/27/issue.html.

This article provided me background information on the suffrage movement in its entirety. It also showed some of the opposition the suffragists faced from the public and the media.

Portraits of Women Who Campaigned for Women's Rights, Particularly Voting Rights, and Suffrage Campaign Scenes, Cartoons, and Ephemera. Photograph. Washington, D.C., December 2013. Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/womens-suffrage-pictures.

I viewed materials to gain understanding of the social norms of the period and seek out proof of socialite involvement in the fight for the 19th Amendment. This was interesting as it provided a wide range of images to consider, not just the suffragists.

“Roosevelt Is for Woman Suffrage; But Favors Letting Her Sex Decide the Matter by a Referendum Vote”, New York Times, Feb 3, 1912, 7 https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/02/03/issue.html.

Background information that showed how Theodore Roosevelt and some politicians dealt with the larger issue. It also showed how some politicians manipulated their responses to gain votes prior to the passage of the 19th amendment.

“So Are Men, Says Dorothy Dix,” The Washington Herald, (Washington, DC), Jun. 8 1920. https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1920-06-08/ed-1/.

This was an article by noted journalist and reformer who championed the cause of suffrage as well as care of the mentally ill. She helped me understand how women were working to acquire the support of male politician, as well as how journalism was being used to communicate the need for suffrage.

“Society Women Want Votes”, New York Times, April 11, 1894, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/04/11/issue.html.

Article which focused on the socialites who were working for suffrage. This article was instrumental in my research and directed me to do further discovery about some of the women involved.

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage, History of Woman Suffrage, J.J. Little & Ives Company, NY, 1922.

This is a classic book written during the period I researched. While seen to be a definitive presentation, it was notable that the authors were biased and didn’t mention the support of the gilded suffragists. It really focused on a single aspect of the cause and addressed only those people who were supporters of Stanton, Anthony, and Gage’s approach to suffrage.

“Suffragists’ Appeal,” New York Times, May 27, 1913, 10, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/05/27/issue.html.

Article about marketing the cause. This showed how some of the suffragists were attempting to sway opinions in the public and to gain money to fund the effort.

“Suffragists Deny Report of Split,” The Washington Herald, (Washington, DC), January 20, 1914, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1914-01-20/ed-1/.

This was an interesting report in the newspaper which addressed the extreme differences in approach to passing the amendment. Despite the protests in the paper, it accurately portrayed the split between wanting to peacefully seek the passage, or take radical means to do so. It demonstrated how people who were committed to the cause could still not agree on methods. 16

“Suffragettes Meet the Antis in Debate”, New York Times, April 24, 1909 https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/04/24/101035248.html?pageNum ber=3.

Background information on how reporting was done on events attended by both sides of the issue. The article also provided me names to research for both pro- and anti- activists.

“What the Antis Say?”, The Suffrage Daily News, Number 5, September 26,1914, Helena, Montana, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85053121/1914-09-26/ed-1/seq-1.

I used this article to discover how anti-suffragists used media to gain support.

Wilder, Mrs. A.J., “Women’s Duty at the Polls,” The Missouri Ruralist, April 20, 1919, http://www.pioneergirl.com/ruralist_04_20_1919b.jpg.

Newspaper article written by the author of “Little House on the Prairie” where she addresses both her concerns about women’s suffrage, as well as her changed sentiment. It demonstrated to me how views were changeable and based on public sentiment.

“Woman Suffrage at Marble House for the Masses”, New York World, August 24, 1909. Alva Belmont Scrapbooks, vol. 1, referenced in Johanna Neuman, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote, 1st ed., New York, New York: Washington Mews Books, 2017, 86.

Because teas and open house events were used to raise money for suffrage, this reference gave me a glimpse into how suffragists changed their methods over time.

“Women Draft Bill of Rights.” The Washington Herald, Washington, D.C., June 8, 1920, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1920-06-08/ed-1/.

Background information on the 19th Amendment. It connected the need for Women’s rights in the US to the global effort to gain rights for women.

“Women Enlist 2 Candidates, Johnson and Sproul, Both Promise to Help Ratification,” The Washington Herald, (Washington, DC), Jun. 8 1920, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1920-06-08/ed-1/.

Article in a newspaper which talked about the methods used by the suffragists to gain media attention and help from politicians. This background material was fascinating as it showed how they enlisted the help of politicians from different parties to help get the amendment passed and how the public responded to their organized efforts.

“Women in Dark as Curtain Rises on Great Circus at Chicago,” The Washington Herald, (Washington, DC), Jun. 8 1920, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045433/1920-06-08/ed-1/.

Articles in a newspaper which talked about the methods used by the suffragists to gain media attention and help from politicians. This background material was fascinating as it showed how they enlisted the help of politicians from different parties to help get the amendment passed and how the public responded to their organized efforts.

“Women in Politics,” The Outlook, 102, September 28, 1912, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106005425688&view=2up&seq=166 New York, New York: Outlook Co., [Original Source: University of California.]

Independent newspaper published during the period which demonstrated growing awareness of women’s involvement in politics. It pointed out how women were operating at both local, state and federal levels.

Women of Protest: Photographs from the Records of the National Woman's Party, Collection, Library of Congress https://www.loc.gov/collections/women-of-protest/about-this- collection/#overview.

Background information using period photos in the custody of the Library of Congress. This showed what the NWP felt was worthy of note, as well as illuminated some of the key players in the movement.

“Women of the Campaign," Woman's Home Companion, November 1912, Crowell-Collier https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=HaOgdDiQ8KcC&rdid=book- HaOgdDiQ8KcC&rdot=1.

This is an annual of all the issues published of the Woman’s Home Companion in 1912. The article details some of the women involved in the suffrage movement. The article on pg. 776 was instrumental in helping me to identify wealthy women who were involved in the movement.

Women Suffrage Ably Discussed. Albany, New York, 6-Feb-07, 1907. Manuscript/Mixed Material. https://www.loc.gov/item/rbcmiller004001/. https://www.loc.gov/item/rbcmiller004001/.

Elizabeth Smith Miller, 85, was one of the oldest suffragists who spoke at the hearings; Article lists suffragists and anti-suffragists attending hearings on the constitutional suffrage amendment. This helped to provide understanding of both sides of the movement.

Women Suffrage and the Home; Blackwell lecture. [May, 1899] Manuscript/Mixed Material. https://www.loc.gov/item/rbcmiller001341/.

Lecture given by one of the males involved in the movement, who was the brother of two women doctors who also supported suffrage. Provided background material on the general movement to support suffrage. It also showed that it wasn’t just a “women’s movement” but one supported by both genders.

Women's Rights; and The Duties of Both Men and Women. Theodore Roosevelt Collection. MS Am 1454.50 (161). Harvard College Library. https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?libID= O28568. Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library. Dickinson State University.

This was an essay written by Theodore Roosevelt which demonstrated his support of suffrage, which still wanting to maintain the social status quo. It gave me understanding of how wealthy men of the period adjusted to the social changes.

Women's Suffrage Party. Enclosure: Fliers supporting women's suffrage. Women's Suffrage Party, n. d. Online Text. https://www.loc.gov/item/rbcmiller004037/. Miller NAWSA Suffrage Scrapbooks, 1897-1911; Scrapbook 8 (1909-1910)

These were graphics produced by the Women’s Suffrage Party to gain support. It provided me an understanding of communication methods used by the suffragists.

“Women Who Would Not Vote: Household Suffrage, They Say, Is Sufficient for Them”, New York Times, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/04/22/109718492.html?pageNum ber=5.;

Article about anti-suffrage activists. It was background information that helped me to understand the internal battles the suffragists faced in the country and in their families.

Woolf, Virginia, Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown, London, Columbia University, New York, New York, n.d., [Original England, Hogarth Press, 1924,] http://www.columbia.edu/~em36/MrBennettAndMrsBrown.pdf

Essay in which Woolf declared “All human relations have shifted---those between masters and servants, husbands and wives, parents and children. And when human relations change there is at the same time a change in religion, conduct, politics, and literature. Let us agree to place one of these changes about the year 1910.” This essay helped me to understand the social constructs of the period.

Secondary Sources

I relied on the following secondary sources for background, but only cited them if quoted.

Alice Longfellow: A Silent Suffragist https://www.nps.gov/articles/alice-longfellow-a-silent- suffragist.htm, National Park Service

The poet, Longfellow, had a daughter who initially wasn’t public about her support of the amendment, but used her social influence to steer minds towards passage of the 19th amendment. This demonstrated the range of methods used by suffragists.

American Experience, “Andrew Carnegie: The Richest Man in the World: The Gilded Age” American Experience website, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carnegie-gilded/ Retrieved November 20, 2020

Background information on the period which showed how society had changed during the Gilded Age. This was helpful to me in understanding where the socialites who either supported or fought the passage of the 19th amendment were able to accrue the monies used.

American Experience, “The Pill” Katharine Dexter McCormick (1875 – 1967), American Experience website, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill- katharine-dexter-mccormick-1875-1967/, Retrieved November 24, 2020

This show provided connection between various women’s issues, such as reproductive rights and the suffragists. It indicated how one social movement tied into the others as a logical sequence.

American Experience, “The Vote”, Aired July 7 2020, American Experience website, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/vote/#transcript

Documentary about the struggle to pass the 19th Amendment. Provided background information about the people who fought to gain the vote and what its impact has been. or federal legislatures and addresses the women who organized against woman suffrage.

Baxter, Annette K., and Constance Jacobs. To Be a Woman in America, 1850-1930. 1st ed. New York, NY: Times Books, 1978.

Photographs of suffragists throughout the various stages of the women's movement, particular attention to the final thrust for the passage of the 19th Amendment helped to put various stages of the movement in context.

Benjamin, Anne Myra. Women against Equality: A History of the Anti-Suffrage Movement in the United States from 1895 to 1920. Rev. ed., n.p.: Lulu Publishing, 2014.

This self-published book addressed reasons why not all women supported suffrage, and cited key members of that aspect of the movement. This helped me to do further research to determine whether or not the people I identified as key players in the passage were fighting an ‘uphill battle’ or if the passage would have been inevitable.

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Gilded Age." Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Gilded-Age.

I used this to verify that it was a valid term to refer to the period I was researching. I knew Mark Twain had coined the term “Gilded Age” to refer to corruption and greed lurking under a period of opulence, but I wasn’t sure this was the period to which he was referring.

Buettner, Stewart. "Images of Modern Motherhood in the Art of Morisot, Cassatt, Modersohn- Becker, Kollwitz." Woman's Art Journal 7, no. 2 (1986): 14-21. Accessed December 10, 2020. doi:10.2307/1358300.

This article focused on feminists of the period who used their art to gain support for the 19th Amendment. It was mostly used for background information on suffrage and to learn about societal reactions to their efforts.

Camhi, Jane Jerome. Women against Women: American Anti-Suffragism, 1880–1920. Brooklyn, NY: Carlson, 1994.

This book is a scholarly book addressing the different ways women felt about suffrage and focuses on the women who were against it, even if they supported the ideals of helping other women in society. It helped me to see some of the nuances of the issues they faced.

Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, The Last Laugh: Suffragettes and Mary Cassatt, Bentonville, Arkansas, August 18, 2017, https://crystalbridges.org/blog/the-last-laugh- suffragettes-and-mary-cassatt/.

Demonstrated how even painting women reading was a progressive feminist act and how many critics were not receptive to women artists. It also showed that even family members would object to public support of suffrage.

Exhibition Opening: “Shall Not Be Denied: Women Fight for the Vote”. 2019. Video. Retrieved from the Library of Congress. www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8740/.

General background information on the 19th Amendment. 55 minutes 58 seconds. This was a fascinating presentation that showed the depth of the movement.

Faxon, Alicia "Painter and Patron: Collaboration of Mary Cassatt and Louisine Havemeyer." Woman's Art Journal 3, no. 2 (1982): 15-20. Retrieved December 10, 2020. doi:10.2307/1358029.

Art journal article addressing the connections made between Mary Cassatt and Louisine Havemeyer, both personally and politically. This was fascinating and gave my article the ‘backbone’ it needed to show the range of suffrage efforts made by socialites.

Fields, Armond, Katherine Dexter McCormick: Pioneer for Women’s Rights, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2003.

Extensive research on Katherine Dexter McCormick to understand her evolution from a student to socialite involved in philanthropy to political activism. It gave me greater understanding about how one dedicated and influential woman can make positive changes in this world, not matter what the odds.

Gambino, Megan, “Women of the Early 1900’s Rallied Behind Beautiful, Wartless Witches,” Smithsonian Magazine, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/early-20th- century-women-rallied-behind-beautiful-wartless-witches-180953134/?no-ist.

This article made me think about power, who holds it, how one can or can’t push boundaries, and to what point we in control of our own fate. It gave me further understanding of the impact of the 19th amendment and the process to get it passed.

Ganus, Linda Carol “Dear Louie:” Louisine Waldron Elder Havemeyer, Impressionist Art Collector and Woman Suffrage Activist,” Master of Arts Thesis, Lehigh University August 4, 2017, https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve%3Abp-16759857.

Graduate thesis presented to the Graduate and Research Committee of Lehigh University in candidacy for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of History Lehigh University August 4, 2017 Discusses evolution of Havemeyer’s feminism and political activism through art. It also helped me understand how people didn’t always appreciate her efforts yet she was able to triumph.

Godier, Susan, “Flexing Feminine Muscles: Strategies and Conflicts in the Suffrage Movement,” National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/articles/flexing-feminine-muscles-strategies- and-conflicts.htm

Article by the National Park Service about the radical versus passive methods used to obtain ratification of the 19th Amendment. This was valuable information to understand why there was a difference between the women who worked behind the scenes, those who marched in parades, and why the western states ratified the amendment prior to the eastern states. It also demonstrated how a state-focused strategy was more effective than a national strategy. 22

Gouveia, G., Essential Mary Cassatt, Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, New York, 2001.

Background information on the suffragist painter Mary Cassatt. This was just general information about the family she came from, her training, her associations, and her work. It talked about how her own family denied her support for the passage of the amendment so she donated her work to the cause rather than allowing them to inherit it.

Homberger, Eric, The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of 400 Years of New York City’s History, New York: Macmillan: 2005.

Photographs of New York City. Used as background information on the women’s marches during the fight for the ratification of the amendment. It gave me an idea of the scope of the marches that garnered media and public attention.

The Impact of the Women's Suffrage Movement Today. 2019. Video. https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-9071/.

1 hour 10 minutes 51 seconds video by The Law Library of Congress commemorating Human Rights Day with a panel discussion on the women's suffrage movement and how it impacts women's rights today with author Corrine McConnaughy and journalist Elaine Weiss. This was mostly for background and confirmation of my thesis.

Iskin, Ruth E., “The Degas and Cassatt 1915 exhibition in support of women’s suffrage,” in Monographic Exhibitions and the History of Art, edited by Maia Wellington Gahtan and Donatella Pegazzano, Taylor & Francis, Milton Park, Oxfordshire, UK, 2018

Examination of Cassatt exhibition within the social, cultural, political, and economic contexts. This was a fantastic book that also provided images as well as narrative about the exhibition that was vital to the raising of money for suffrage.

Johnson, Joan Marie, Funding Feminism: Monied Women, Philanthropy, and the Women’s Movement 1870-1967, 1st. ed., University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 2017.

Excellent and accessible book dealing with the socialites who raised money and donated their personal assets and time to gain ratification of the 19th Amendment. This book was more than background material, it was particularly applicable to support of my thesis.

Kroeger, Brooke. The Suffragents: How Women Used Men to Get the Vote. Albany, NY: Excelsior Editions, an imprint of State University of New York Press, 2017.

Research to explore how socialites used clubs to influence male voters concerning women's suffrage. Brooke Kroeger explores the formation of the League for Woman Suffrage and the men who instigated it to involve themselves with the suffrage campaign, what they did at the behest of the movement’s female leadership, and why.

Levine, Alexandra S., “New York Today: A Century of Women Voting,” New York Times, Nov. 6, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/06/nyregion/new-york-today-a-century-of- women-voting.html.

An overview of voting since the passage of the 19th Amendment. It provided information that was important to the general theme of communication and political involvement

The Library of America, “The Nineteenth Amendment Turns 100,” (Zoom Webinar, Nov 19, 2020, 1 hour, https://www.eventbrite.com/e/the-nineteenth-amendment-turns- 100- 126741538353#

The Library of America’s webinar presented in partnership with the American Historical Association, the National Council for History Education, the National Women’s History Museum, and the Women’s Review of Books, offered a history of the suffrage movement and the context it offers for social activism today.

McCarthy, Kathleen D. Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, November 1, 1990.

Excellent resource specifically addresses philanthropy in the United States throughout history. It gave me a good idea of how women have been actively involved with the political process and how that effort continues today.

McClain, Molly. Ellen Browning Scripps: New Money and American Philanthropy. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2017.

This was an interesting book which gave examples of activities Ellen Browning Scripps pursued to raise attention for the suffrage movement, including her speaking engagements at men’s clubs.

Marshall, Susan E., Splintered Sisterhood: Gender and Class in the Campaign against Woman Suffrage, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997.

Academic book discussing variances in approaches concerning the passage of the 19th Amendment. I used this for background information on suffrage both in the United States as well as in other parts of the globe.

Matthews, Jean V, The Rise of the New Woman: The Women’s Movement in America, 1875– 1930, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003.

Background information on the Gilded Age and the socialites that supported women’s rights. I liked that she emphasized people and personalities to illustrate complex ideas and to advance the story. This made me think that I should do likewise in my paper.

Miller, Kristie "Eager and Anxious to Work: Daisy Harriman and the Presidential Election of 1912," in Melanie Gustafson, Kristie Miller and Elisabeth I. Perry, eds., We Have Come to Stay: American Women and Political Parties 1880-1960, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999,

Book that detailed the life of a socialite who worked tirelessly to improve the lives of women and other disenfranchised people. Excellent background information on political parties of the Gilded Age and how women became involved in the struggles.

Moniz, Amanda B, “Why a Social Activist Opposed Woman Suffrage”, April 15, 2020 https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/why-social-activist-opposed-woman-suffrage.

This examination of Mrs. Bissell, a leader of the anti-suffrage campaign, provided me background about the divisions within both the suffrage movement as well as the anti- suffrage movement.

National Endowment for the Humanities, “Seneca Falls Women's Rights Convention. Seneca Falls Women's Rights Convention, Millennium Minute,” Retrieved December 1, 2020, YouTube video, 1:02. https://youtu.be/ENYtnxPLHTk.

This was a short video that addressed the first formal meeting asking for women’s rights. It indicated some of the key individuals involved, like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony. It briefly showed the springboard that allowed the movement for suffrage to follow.

National Women’s History Project, “Women Won the Vote: 1920: Celebrating the Centennial of Women’s Suffrage”, Vol 1, https://nationawomenshistoryalliance.org/wp- content/uploads/gazette_How-Women-Won-Vote-.pdf.

National Women’s History Project, “How women Won the Vote: 1920: Celebrating the Centennial of Women’s Suffrage”, Vol 2, https://nationalwomenshistoryalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/vote_2018_sm3.pdf.

Vol 1 and Vol 2 of celebratory newspapers by the National Women’s History Project that chronicled the fight for suffrage. Both of these issues allowed me to look at a wide range of strategies used to win ratification of the 19th Amendment.

Neuman, Johann, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote, 1st ed, New York, New York: Washington Mews Books, 2017.

Critical book which examined the lives of several socialites in New York who were instrumental in the passage of the 19th Amendment. This book greatly expanded my knowledge of the subject and was key to my thesis support.

O'Brien, Alden. “Part II: Great strides for the "New Woman," suffrage, and fashion,” National Museum of American History, March 11, 2013 https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/2013/03/part-ii-great-strides-for-the-new-woman- suffrage-and-fashion.html.

I used this resource to explore symbolism used in the 1913 Woman Suffrage parade. It made me think of changing “a picture is worth a thousand words” to “images of suffrage fashion is worth a thousand words.”

O'Gan, Patri, “Traveling for Suffrage Part 1: Two women, a cat, a car, and a mission,” National Museum of American History, March 5, 2016, https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/2014/03/traveling-for-suffrage-part-1-two-women-a- cat-a-car-and-a-mission.html.

Part 1 of 4-part blog to gain information about how information was communicated throughout the country by suffragists. The entire series provided me understanding of communication methods used by wealthy women to gain ratification of the 19th Amendment. It focused on different women and how they traveled to gain attention and support.

O'Gan, Patri, “Traveling for Suffrage Part 2: General Jones and her army of suffrage pilgrims,” National Museum of American History, March 12, 2016 https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/2014/03/traveling-for-suffrage-part-2-general-jones- and-her-army-of-suffrage-pilgrims.html.

Research on Rosalie Jones, a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), a wealthy New York socialite, who hiked with others to gain attention for women's suffrage.

O'Gan, Patri, “Traveling for Suffrage Part 3: Flying by the seat of their skirts,” National Museum of American History, March 19, 2016, https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/2014/03/traveling-for-suffrage-part-3-.html.

Part-3 of 4-part series on socialites who traveled to win the 19th Amendment's passage. Mrs. John Blair and pilot Leda Richberg-Hornsby, both suffragists with the National American Woman Suffrage Association, "bombed" President Wilson while he was traveling on his Presidential yacht in December, 1916.

O'Gan, Patri, “Traveling for Suffrage Part 4: Riding the rails,” National Museum of American History, March 26, 2016, https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/2014/03/traveling-for- suffrage-part-4-riding-the-rails.html.

Research about socialites traveling in the "Suffrage Special" train for a five-week tour of the western United States. Mission was to recruit women to join the cause. 26

Pollock, Griselda, “The Overlooked Radicalism of Impressionist Mary Cassatt”, Frieze Masters Magazine, Issue 7, Features, 03 September 3, 2018. https://www.frieze.com/article/overlooked-radicalism-impressionist-mary-cassatt

Article argued that a Cassatt exhibition in Paris rightly affirms the artist as a central figure in arguably the first gender-equal Western art movement. The article helped me to understand why Havermeyer had the support of both Cassatt and Degas (who really was misogynist) in her exhibitions.

“Picketing for Suffrage”, Library of Congress, Digital Collections, Today in History, August 28. https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/august-28/.

Silent sentinels and photo from Library of Congress. Background information on the suffragists choosing to use non-violent protest as a means to gain support from President Wilson and other influential people.

Quinn, Bridget, She Votes: How U.S. Women Won Suffrage, and What Happened Next, Chronicle Books, San Francisco, California, 2020.

Recently published trade book on women’s suffrage and the changes it made in society. It was helpful to consider the implications of the ratification on society today. It also made me think about what changes remain necessary today that weren’t addressed by the passage of the amendment.

Rix, Rebecca, “Anti-Suffragism in the United States,” National Park Service https://www.nps.gov/articles/anti-suffragism-in-the-united-states.htm

This illustrated response of anti-suffragists to women demanding political rights in state

Saini, Shilpi: “Mary Cassatt: Feminine Labour and Creative Leisure,” PhD diss., Jawaharlal Nehru University, April 2013. https://www.acedmia.edu/351249/Shilp_Saini_Mary_Cassatt_Feminine_Labour_and_Cr eative_Leisure

Dissertation on the position of bourgeois women in contemporary society in the early 1900’s and how it impacted Mary Cassatt’s art and politics. This was rather academic, but still interesting that it focused on a single artist, Mary Cassatt, although there were other artists who also supported the movement.

South Dakota Historical Society Press, The Pioneer Girl Project, “Laura Ingalls Wilder Farm Advocate”, (Pierre, SD), Retrieved December 11, 2020, https://pioneergirlproject.org/2017/03/13/laura-ingalls-wilder-farm-advocate/.

Project and website with regard to Laura Ingalls Wilder’s life. I was able to read articles on women’s issues she wrote for newspapers in the Midwest. I found it interesting that she was against the passage, but once it was passed, she encouraged women to use the vote to achieve their goals. It made me think of how she represented a group of women who probably did likewise. This then made me think of how their votes communicated their beliefs during World War I, and thereafter.

Ramos Cruz, Sylvia, “Famous Suffragists and Hidden Figures: The Road to Women’s Suffrage in New Mexico”, La Hilacha: Words and Memories, History and Literary Arts Program at the National Hispanic Cultural Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, recorded October 24, 2020, aired November 6, 2020. Audio, 5:45, https://lahilacha1.podbean.com/

This webinar/podcast helped me understand that it wasn’t only wealthy women on the East coast who worked tirelessly for the passage of the 19th Amendment. It made me think of all the people who aren’t famous, yet make a difference in the lives of others.

Ramos Cruz, Sylvia, “Famous Suffragists and Hidden Figures: The Road to Women’s Suffrage in New Mexico”, Power Point Slide Show to accompany audio presentation recorded October 24, 2020, aired November 6, 2020, https://www.nhccnm.org/learn/nhcc-library-archive/?/

This was a Power Point presentation that allowed me to visualize the key suffragists spoken about by Dr. Ramos Cruz in her presentation “Famous Suffragists and Hidden Figures: The Road to Women’s Suffrage in New Mexico.”

Steinem, Gloria, "The Trouble with Rich Women, " Ms. Magazine, June 1986.

Provided a persuasive argument for gender-based rebellion among upper-class women. It also helped me to connect the past to the present.

Stiles, H. Dominic. “A Deaf Women from the Suffrage Movement, Helen Kirkpatrick Watts (1881-1972).” UCL Ear Institute Action on Hearing Loss Libraries A Deaf Women from the Suffrage Movement Helen Kirkpatrick Watts 18811972 Comments, March 9, 2018. https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/library-rnid/2018/03/09/a-deaf-women-from-the-suffrage- movement/.

Research about deaf suffragists. Background information that led to my thesis that wealthy Gilded Age women made the difference. It also showed how suffragists didn’t saw parallels between women’s conditions, politics, and social needs of any disenfranchised group.

Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Great Schism.” The Atlantic, October 18, 2011, (accessed December 13, 2020), https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/10/the-great-schism/246640/.

This article identified differences held by suffragists and abolitionists. I learned how some of the people who wanted to support women’s suffrage didn’t because they feared it would lead to black women voting.

Tickner, Lisa. The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign, 1907-14. Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1997.

Research on symbols used during the suffrage fight. This is considered a “classic” about the women’s movement. It was interesting and it easily could have been easier just to look at this than at images in the Library of Congress that show women who were involved in the campaign.

Victorians and Women's Suffrage, The National Park Service, James A Garfield National Historic Site, https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/victorians-and-women-s-suffrage.htm.

Background on the amendment’s passage. This focused on the Victorian period and connected social needs of the period to people who were involved with suffrage.

Wanucha, Genevieve,”A Mind of Her Own: As an early crusader for social change, Katharine Dexter McCormick, Class of 1904, opened new opportunities for women at MIT and beyond,” MIT Technology Review , https://www.technologyreview.com/2011/02/22/196980/a-mind-of-her-own/

Article for MIT’s journal that explained how Katherine Dexter McCormick was instrumental in expanding possibilities for women to attend MIT, inclusive of her generosity that negotiated courses women were able to take, as well as the ability to live on campus. This was very important in my research because it expanded my knowledge of McCormick’s influence in education, science, and society.

Ware, Susan, “Leaving all to younger hands: Why the history of the women’s suffragist movement matters”, May 2020, https://www.brookings.edu/essay/leaving-all-to-younger- hands-why-the-history-of-the-womens-suffrage-movement-matters/.

This essay demonstrated why the ratification of the 19th Amendment wasn’t enough and we need passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, too. It made me think of the limitations of the 19th Amendment. It also made me think about how the various divisions within the movement grew over the Equal Rights Amendment. It seems that although the amendment allowed women the right to vote, it is equally clear that men still control economic and political power in the United States.

Ware, Susan, “Race, region, and the full story of the fight for women’s suffrage”. Interview, Library of America, https://www.loa.org/news-and-views/1726-susan-ware-race-region- and-the-full-story-of-the-fight-for-womens-suffrage.

Interview conducted by The Library of America in conjunction with the webinar American Women’s Suffrage: Voices from the Long Struggle for the Vote 1776–1965 offered a history of the suffrage movement and provided me greater understanding of the struggle to obtain women’s voting rights.

Ware, Susan, Why They Marched: Untold Stories of the Women Who Fought for the Right to Vote, Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2019.

Not everyone can be famous, or get their name into the news! This is a great book that shows the extent of the movement was more than just people like Susan B. Anthony and Mrs. Pankhurst.

Weiss, Elaine, and Corine McConnaughy. The Impact of the Women's Suffrage Movement Today. The Library of Congress, (accessed December 10, 2019), https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-9071/.

Webcast that looks at the present in light of the passage of the 19th Amendment. I found this helpful when considering what might have happened if the amendment hadn’t been passed.

Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill. New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Book which looked at women of the Gilded Age in the south and how they supported women’s suffrage in a social system which was not supportive of women’s rights. It made me think about how geography made a difference in the passage of the amendment, including how the amendment was passed in states in the west and south more than in the northeast.

"Who Was Margaret McMillan?”, Margaret McMillan Primary School. (accessed December 12, 2020), https://www.mmps.bradford.sch.uk/about-us/who-was-margaret- mcmillan%e2%80%8b%e2%80%8b/.

Key research about the intersection of socialites, philanthropy, deaf suffragists, and suffrage movement.