Garden City High School Mr. M. Stratis, Esq. Global History & Geography III

Lesson: German Unifieation

Aim: Why was German unification achieved by "?"

1. What factors promoted the unification of the German states?

A. Common Nationality. In the late 18th century some German people began to think: ofthemselves as a distinct nationality and agitated for a unified fatherland. This nationalist awakening reflected the efforts ofGerman educators, poets, writers, historians, and philosophers.

B. Napoleon's Influence. Napoleon aided German unification, although unintentionally. He aroused German nationalism against him, weakened Austrian authority in Germany by abolishing the Holy Roman Empire, and reduced the more than 300 German states to less than 100.

C. Congress of Vienna. The peace conference of 1815 helped German unity, although unwittingly. It reduced the number ofGerman states to 38 and organized them into an Austrian-dominated league ofrulers, the . The Confederation proved weak and ineffective, incapable of providing Germany with a unified government. Its failure stirred the people to seek unity by other means.

D. . In 1819 Prussia formed a German customs union, which became known as the Zollverein. By the 1840sit included most German states, but not Austria. The Zollverein maintained free trade between member states, but high tariffs against nonmembers. The removal of internal tariff barriers benefited German merchants and manufacturers, and promoted the country's economic unity.

II. What factors hindered German unification?

A. Differences Among the German People. In Prussia and other north German states, the people were in the main Protestant, were interested in commerce, and were turning toward manufacturing. In Bavaria and other south German states, the people were predominantly Roman Catholic and were interested chiefly in agriculture. Outnumbered by the Northerners, the south Germans realized that, in a united country, they would be a minority.

B. Opposition of Austria . Austria emerged from the Congress of Vienna as an influential central European Empire containing many different peoples. Austria's rulers, committed to the Metternich System, feared that the growth ofnationalism, particularly in 1 nearby Germany, might inspire their subject nationalities to seek independence. 1. Consequently, in 1819 Mettemich induced the German Confederation to issue the Carlsbad Decrees. Aimed at suppressing liberal and nationalist ideas in Germany, these laws provided for (1) strict supervision ofuniversities, teachers and student organizations, and (2) censorship ofnewspapers, pamphlets and books. 2. Austria's rulers also realized that, in the event ofGerman unification, they would lose their influence over German affairs.

C. Opposition of the Lesser German States. The rulers and officials of the smaller German states feared that a unified Germany might centralize governmental power, thereby ending their authority.

D. Opposition of France. French leaders feared that a unified Germany would be sufficiently powerful to challenge France's leadership in Europe. Furthermore, the French felt militarily more secure with weak, disunited neighbors.

III. Why did the Revolution of 1848 fail to bring about unification?

A. German liberals led a series of revolts in 1848 aimed at ending autocracy, and unifying Germany. Encouraged by early successes, they convened a parliament, the Frankfurt Assembly.

B. The liberals prepared a democratic constitution, proclaimed a united Germany, and, after months ofdebate, offered the position ofEmperor to the King ofPrussia, Frederick William IV. He rejected the Assembly's offer as a "crown out ofthe gutter" and also because he feared that acceptance might lead to war with Austria. Since the liberals lacked the military power to enforce unification, the King's refusal spelled the failure ofthe Frankfurt Assembly.

C. The conservatives regained control throughout the German states, and the liberals experienced severe persecution. Many fled the country. A considerable number came to the United States, where they contributed to our growing democracy.

D. In Germany, the way was now open for the successful attempt at unity under autocratic leadership.

N. Who were the leaders ofGerman unification?

A. , appointed chiefminister ofPrussia in 1862, belonged to the dominant landowning aristocracy, the Junkers. A reactionary who despised democracy, Bismarck planned to unite Germany - not by speeches and votes as at the Frankfurt Assembly, but by "blood and iron. " Bismarck embraced the policy ofrealpolitik (right ofa nation-state to 2 pursue its own advantage by any means, including war and the repudiation oftreaties).

B. King William I of Prussia (1861-1888), who became Emperor of Germany in 1871, fully supported Bismarck's policies. He opposed liberal ideas and supported the military.. He was convinced that Prussia could establish its position ofleadership in Germany by means of a powerful military force. He appointed Bismarck prime minister to serve these ends.

C. Helmut von Moltke, Prussian general and chief of staff, contributed to Bismarck's success by building a strong army and achieving impressive military victories.

V. What were the steps in German unification?

A. Creation of Prussian Military Power. In 1862 the government's request for increased military funds was defeated in the Prussian legislature, whose liberal majority opposed militarism. Thereupon, Bismarck ignored.the lawmakers and, from 1862 to 1867, in violation of the constitution, governed virtually as a dictator. He and Moltke created a Prussian military machine secondto none.

B. Elimination of Austrian Influence

1. The Danish War (1864). Bismarck brought about the war with Denmark over the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia, joined by Austria, easily defeated Denmark and compelledthat country to cede Schleswig-Holstein.

2. The Austro-Prussian War (1866). Bismarck deliberately quarreled with Austria regarding the administration ofthe conquered provinces. Actually, Bismarck provoked war so as to end Austrian power in Germany. a Most of the German states supported Austria to oppose Prussian dominance. Prussia was allied with Italy, which wanted the Italian territory held by Austria. General von Moltke's armies overwhelmed Austria so quickly that the war is called the Seven Weeks' War. b. By the treaty of peace, Austria agreed to yield Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, cede Venetia to Italy, and dissolve the Austrian-dominated German Confederation, thus withdrawing from German affairs. By treating Austria generously, Bismarck expected to gain its friendship for the emerging German state.

C. Establishment of the North German Confederation (1867). Following the Austro-Prussian War, Bismarck annexed several north German states and compelled the remaining ones to join in a Prussian-dominated North German Confederation. Only the four south German states remained outside the Confederation, but they were tied to Prussia by the Zollverein anda defensive military alliance.

3 D. The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Bismarck now desired a war with France, so that the south Germans, by fighting a common enemy and experiencing wartime nationalism, would voluntarily merge into a Prussian-controlled unified Germany. 1. A revolution in 1868 had deposed Queen Isabella II of Spain and the Spanish offered the throne to prince Leopold of Bohenzollern, a Catholic cousin ofWilliam 1. When France opposed a German candidate for the Spanish throne, Bismarck seized the opportunity. 2. He intensified Franco-German enmity by rewriting a vital telegram, the Ems Dispatch. It was originally sent by William I to Bismarck and it described the details ofhis meeting with a French ambassador. To make it appear that William had deliberately insulted the French envoy, Bismarck altered and released the telegraph to the press. 3. Thus provoked, Napoleon ill declared war upon Prussia, which was joined by the four south German states. General von Moltke's armies invaded France, destroyed the French forces at the Battle a/Sedan, and quickly overran the country. 4. In the Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace-Lorraine to Germany (these provinces, rich in coal and iron, were inhabited mostly by Frenchmen); agreed to pay Germany a huge war indemnity; and until final payment, consented to German military occupation. 5. By treating France harshly, Bismarck planted the seeds ofWorld War I.

E. Establishment of the German Empire (1871). During the Franco-Prussian War, the four south German states consented to unification with Prussia. 1. In January 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck proclaimed William I, as Emperor (Kaiser) ofthe German Empire. 2. Bismarck's success - by military might and autocratic rule-established a tradition that, according to many historians, greatly impeded the development of democracy in Germany.

VI. What policies did the newly unified German Empire pursue in its first years?

A. Bismarck, as chancellor (chiefminister) ofthe empire, faced the challenge ofthe Catholic Church in a so-called Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) between church and state. Bismarck viewed Catholicism as an antinationalist force and was annoyed at the electoral success of the Catholic Center party. He was also worried about the 1870 proclamation by Catholic bishops in Rome declaring papalinfallibility on religious matters. He responded by expelling the Jesuits from Germany in 1872, and sponsoring the MayLaws which deprived Catholic bishops ofmuch of their authority. Pope Pius IX declared the laws invalid and broke ties with Germany. Bismarck backed-down for political reasons and made peace with the Catholics by repealing the laws by 1881.

B. Bismarck engaged in a political duel with the Socialists by trying to destroy them. His policies met with temporary success but they failed in the long-run. 4 Garden City High School Mr. M. Stratis, Esq. Global History & Geography ill

Lesson: Italian Unification

Aim: What factors brought about the unification ofItaly?

1. What factors supportedItalian unification?

A. ItalianNationalism 1. CommonItalianheritage(language,religion& culture) 2. SharedRoman past (legacy ofImperial Rome) 3. United by achievementsof the ItalianRenaissance 4. Resented Austrian rule and wanted to unite (URisorgimento") B. Patriotic Societies 1. Carbonari - secret society with restricted membership a. Instigated uprisings from 1820-1831 b. All uprisings were crushed by Austrians c. Carbonarisecrecyand intriguediscouragedItalians 2. Giovane Italia (Young Italy) - founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini a. Nonsecret society opened to all Italians b. Createddemocraticand nationalisticpropaganda c. Succeededin pavingthe way for unification C. Leadership of Kingdom ofSardinia-Piedmont 1. Created by Congress ofVienna (1815) 2. Ruled by the House ofSavoy, a patriotic Italian family 3. Had received a liberal constitutionin 1848from king Charles Albert 4. Armies supported Italian uprising against Austria (1848) but were defeated when the Pope and Naples withdrew their forces 5. Won loyalty ofItalian nationalists

II. What factors were obstacles to Italian unification?

A. PoliticalDivisions 1. Italy was divided into many states and provinces 2. Napoleon had reduced Italian states 3. Congress ofVienna restored Italy to pre-Napoleonicboundaries a. Metternich described Italy as being a "geographical expression" and opposed Italian unification 4. Congress divided Italy as follows: a. Kingdom ofSardinia-Piedmont** (independent) 1 b. Provinces ofLombardy and Venetia (annexed to Austria) c. Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (ruled by pro-Austrian leaders) d. The Papal States (under rule ofthe Pope) B. Opposition ofAustria 1. Discouraged and crushed nationalist uprisings in their empire 2. Heavily influenced most ofthe Italian states C. Opposition of the Papacy 1. Believed that a united Italy would end the Pope's rule over the Papal States 2. Had been attacked by the nationalists in 1848 and saved only after the intervention ofFrench troops D. Disagreement among Italian Nationalists 1. Mazzini and Garibaldi wanted a democratic Italian republic 2. Gioberti urged an Italian federation under the Pope 3. Cavour worked for a liberal Italian monarchy

III. Who were the leaders ofItalian unification?

A. Giuseppe Mazzini - writer, orator and founder of "Giovane Italia " 1. Worked as a journalist and was a speech writer 2. His followers captured the Papal States in the Revolution of 1848 3. He proclaimed a Roman Republic but it wassubsequently ended by French troops 4. He fled and continued propaganda efforts in exile 5. Known as the "soul ofunification"

B. Giuseppe Garibaldi - military leader and patriot 1. Born in the city ofNice (now in France) 2. Defended Mazzini's Roman Republic against the French 3. Went into exile in North and South America 4. Fought for Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria 5. Led military volunteers called Red Shirts 6. Conquered Kingdom ofthe Two Sicilies in 1860 7. Known as the "sword ofUnification"

C. Count Camillo di Cavour -liberal statesman ofSardinia-Piedmont 1. Became prime minister and advocated unification 2. Promoted industries and economic self-sufficiency 3. Made many brilliant diplomatic moves to achieve unification 4. Died in 1860 - before seeing the fulfillment ofhis dreams 5. Known as the "brain ofunification " 2 D. King Victor Emmanuel II- nationalistmonarchbehind unification 1. Supportedfully the policies ofCount Cavour 2. Kept peace between strong personalities ofCavour and Garibaldi. 3. Became a symbol ofunity among the Italians 4. Became the first king ofa united Italy 5. Known as the "crown a/unification"

IV. How did the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmontunite Italy?

A. In exchangefor French support against Austria,Cavour pledgedto give Savoy and Nice (Garibaldi's birthplace)to France 1. French and Sardiniantroops invadedand defeated Austria (1859) 2. Sardinia-Piedmont receivedLombardy 3. Garibaldi, enragedwiththe exchange, condemnedCavour 4. Lack of cooperationbetween the two leaders remained a problem B. In Parma, Modena and Tuscany, Italians overthrew their pro-Austrian leaders and united with Sardinia-Piedmont C. Garibaldi landed in the town ofMarsala in Sicily (1860) 1. Led one thousand Red Shirts in the capture ofSicily 2. Landed on the mainland and advancedto Naples 3. Captured rest ofSouthern Italy with Neapolitan and Sicilian support 4. Kingdomofthe Two Sicilies was united with Sardinia-Piedmont D. Sardinian troops invaded and captured the Papal States (but not Rome) E. Kingdom of Italy was declared in 1861

V. What were the first successes ofthe new Italian state?

A. Italy joined Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and received the province ofVenetia for her support against Austria B. Italy again supported Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 1. French troops withdrew from Rome and left city open to Italian attack 2. Italian army entered Rome and declared it capital ofItaly

3 Garden City High School Mr. NI. Stratis, Esq. Global Histo ry & Geography III

Aim: Why did revolutionary and nationalistic movements develop in Russia and Austria?

1. Why did revolutionary movements develop in Russia?

A. Tsars created an autocratic system of government to rule over their people 1. Promises for reforms in the reign ofAlexander I (1801-25) were not kept 2. Russian officers demanded reforms and sought constitutional government a. Impressed by reforms in Western Europe b. Joined secret societies to bring about political change 3. On death ofAlexander I, officers staged a military uprising called the Decembrist Revolt in favor ofPrince Constantine (pro-Western) a. Revolt was crushed and executed leaders were viewed as martyrs b. New tsar, Nicholas I (1825-55) became more autocratic B. In the past, tsars depended on extreme measures to control the people 1. Secret police (oprichniks) informed for tsar and punished enemies 2. Imperial guard (streltsy) protected tsar as a private army 3. Cruel methods ofcontrol (torture and mass executions by Cossacks) were sponsored by the state 4. Exiled political opponents to Siberia in order to silence them C. Rigid social class distinctions dominated Russian society 1. Privileged classes (nobles) - minority 2. Serfs (peasants) - majority 3. Alexandern (1855-81) declared Emancipation of the Serfs (1861) but serfs were dissatisfied because: a. Nobles retained more than halfoftheir lands (not enough) b. Peasant community (mir), not serf, held title to land (no individual distribution ofland) c. Peasants were compelled to make very high payments for land 4. Zemstvos (locally elected assemblies) were created in order to take charge ofprovincial matters, such as schools and health care (1864) a Three groups (nobles, wealthy twnspeople and peasants) voted in zemstvo elections, with upper classes dominating assemblies b. Lower classes felt dissatisfied with these features

1 II. What radical movements developed against the tsarist government?

A. Anarchists, like Mfkhail Bakunin, called for the complete destruction of the state, the family, law, property and other institutions B. Nihilists also rejected traditions, believing that Russia would have to destroy the tsarist autocracy and completely build a new society C. Populists believed that the peasants would eventually lead a revolution, overthrow the tsar and establish a socialist society 1. Intellectuals tried to recruit peasants in their movement but often failed 2. Young revolutionary killed Alexander II with a bomb in 1881 D. Tsar Alexander m (1881-94), promised to crush these radical groups and pursued absolutist autocracy 1. Abolished autonomy in schools, restored censorship ofthe press, and extended power of the secret police a Established the Okhrana to monitor Russian society 2. Policy ofRussification carried out in border areas (Finland, Poland, the Ukraine and Baltic regions) a. An attempt to unite the empire's many provinces b. Became an official policy ofintolerance and persecution ofnon­ Russian peoples 3. Jews in particular bore the brunt of this policy a They were forced to live in specific locations called the Pale without property rights b. They were massacred in organized attacks (pogroms) on their communities

III. How did Nicholas IT(1894-1917) deal with problems in Russia?

A. Empire kept in a state ofpermanent crisis by unrest over Russification, strikes, social and agrarian revolts, and war 1. Socialist Democratic Workers Party in Minsk broken up by police (1898) 2. Interior Minister Plehve eliminated all forms oflocal self-government and penetrated Socialist Revolutionary Party with informers (1902) 3. Anti-semitic pogroms continued in Moldavia (1903) B. Foreign Minister Count Sergei Witte pressed for imperialistic expansion in northern China and provoked Japanese in Korea (1904) 1. Led to defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) 2. Russians signed Treaty of Portsmouth and surrendered claims to Korea and South Sakhalin island C. Results ofRusso-Japanese War led to First Russian Revolution of 1905

2 ( A 1. Two hundred thousand workers and other civilians led by Father Gallon tried to gain support from tsar by delivering a petition in S1. Petersburg 2. Military fired on this peaceful demonstration (known as the "Bloody ' Sunday Massacre" ofJan. 22, 1905) in front ofthe Winter Palace Strikes and revolts broke out throughout Russia 4. Mutinies broke out on the armored cruiser "Potemkin" in Odessa and in K ronstadt 5. Bolshevik Communist leadership in London under Lenin decided on the armed overthrow ofthe government 6. National uprisings took place in Finland and Po land D. Tsar established a Duma (Parliament) in order to appease the people (August 1905) 1. October Manifesto issued a constitution worked out by Witte 2. General strike in December in Moscow was beaten down by military 3. Era ofPseudo-Constitutionalism (1906-17) was a period ofreactionary policies and police control under Prime Minister Stolypin (murdered in 1911) 4. Agrarian Reforms carried out in 1906-10 to help create agrarian class (kulaks) 5. Second Duma of"Popular Anger" witnessed rise ofSocialists ( 1907) and a change in the electoral laws (universal male suffrage) 6. Third Duma of"Masters, Priests and Lackeys" led to new problems (1907-12) E. Tsar's Court was dominated by Siberian peasant "holy man" Gregory Rasputin (1872-1916 [murdered]) who reputedly performed miracles with his healing powers over the tsarevich (crown prince) Alexis and his mother, the tsarevna Alexandra

N. How did the growth ofnationalism affect the Austrian Empire?

A . Austrian minorities felt Mettemich's policies had to be stopped 1. Austrian empire was multiethnic, with more than twelve different national groups 2. Nationalist groups demanded freedom ofthe press and speech, peasant relieffrom feudal dues, and representative government B. Austrian liberals wanted more political involvement in government 1. Revolutions of 1848 swept through the empire and middle class moderates and radical workers protested against Metternich 2. Metternich fled Vienna in disguise into lifelong exile C. Disagreements between moderates and workers weakened the revolutionary movement, and the government crushed the revolt by October 1848 3 D. Emperor FranzFerdinand resigned his throne to his eighteen year old nephew, Franz Joseph (1848-1915) 1. Franz-Joseph moved quickly to restore conservative order and outdo his predecessor's liberal concessions (revolutionary assembly and new constitution) 2. He played offone nationalist group against the other in order to withstand revolutionary change

V. What events triggered a change in the imperial attitude?

A. Austrian defeat at the hands ofstrong Prussian and Italian neighbors 1. Italian Unification (1859-71): loss ofLombardy and influence over minor Italian states 2. Austro-Prussian War (1866): loss ofVenetia and influence over German states ofthe German Confederation B. Demands for political independence made by the Magyars (Hungarians) 1. Austrian weakness led to negotiations for Hungarian freedom 2. The Ausgleich [Compromise] restored Hungarian independence and divided the Austrian Empire into a dual monarchy a Franz Joseph remained ruler ofboth the Austrian and Hungarian monarchies (Emperor ofAustria and King ofHungary) 3. Two states had common ministries offoreign affairs, war and finance 4. Each had own constitution, prime minister and parliament 5. System ofcommittees handled matters ofmutual concern C. Territories ofBohemia and Moravia also became the empire's leading industrial centers and caused more rapid urbanization in those areas D. Other groups, however, remained discontented (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Slovenes and Croats) and wanted political freedom

VI. How did problems in the Balkans become a powder keg ofexplosive conflicts?

A. Turkish attacks on Slavs in the Balkans led to the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) 1. Russians defeated Turks and forced them to sign Treaty of San Stefano (creating a Greater Bulgaria), 2. Austrians and British denounced it as being too harsh and demanded new treaty with the threat ofwar; the Russians agreed B. Congress of Berlin (1878) - By this new treaty agreement, Turkey: 1. Gave Bosnia & Herzegovina (Slavic lands) to Austria 2. Gave Greek island ofCyprus to Great Britain 3. Gave independence to Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania 4. Granted autonomy to Bulgaria 4 5. Gave Moldavia and Bessarabia to Russia (\ c::--") C. Weakening ofthe "sick man ofEurope, "as the Ottoman Empire was called, led to a newBalkan reality with new states waiting to carve up territories 1. Pan-slavism - Russian support for Orthodox Christian Slavic nations 2. Bulgarian Nationalism - visions of "Greater Bulgaria " (San Stefano) 3. Greek Nationalism - return to "Great Idea " (restore Byzantine Empire) 4. Serb Nationalism - reclaiming Bosnia & Herzegovina from Austria 5. Austrian Territorial Ambitions - expanding influence into Balkans 6. Ottoman Attempts to Recover Lost Territories D. States ofGreece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Rumania prepared for war against the Ottoman Turks by signing military pacts E. The FirstBalkan War(1912-13) 1. Kingdoms ofSerbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgariadeclared war against Turks and defeated them on all fronts in quick campaigns 2. At peace treaty conference, European powers' (Austria andItaly) did not want the Serbs to claim lands near Adriatic Sea; they forced Serbia to recognize the new nation ofAlbania. 3. Bulgaria did notagree with the territorial gains made by Serbs and Greeks, and secretly planned a renewal ofwar. 4. Turks lost all European territories (except Constantinople) F. The Second Balkan War (1913) 1. Bulgariaattacked Greece and Serbia 2. Greece, Serbia, Turks and Rumaniajoined up and quickly triumphed over the Bulgarians 3. Turks regained some land around Constantinople 4. Greeks and Serbs were the big winners G. Post-Balkan Wars Political Situation 1. Bulgaria established ties with Germany againstBalkan enemies 2. Serbia embracedRussia as its greatguarantor againstAustria 3. Ottoman Empire established ties with Germany 4. Greece made effortto have good ties- with Germany andRussia

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