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Special Issue, 73-84, January 2014 74 N.J Journal Home page : www.jeb.co.in « E-mail : [email protected] JEB ISSN: 0254-8704 Journal of Environmental Biology CODEN: JEBIDP Effect of pesticides used in banana and pineapple plantations on aquatic ecosystems in Costa Rica Noël J. Diepens1,2 *, Sascha Pfennig 1, Paul J. Van den Brink2,3 , Jonas S. Gunnarsson 4, Clemens Ruepert 1 andLuisa E. Castillo 1 1Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances (IRET), Universidad Nacional, Heredia, 83-3000, Costa Rica 2Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands 3Alterra, Wageningen University and Research Centre. P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands 4Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, SE-106 91, Sweden *Corresponding Author E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Current knowledge on fate and effect of agricultural pesticides comes is mainly from temperate ecosystems. More studies are needed in tropical systems in order to assess contamination risks to non- target endemic tropical species from the extensive use of pesticides e.g. in banana and pineapple plantations. In this study, acute laboratory toxicity tests with organophosphate pesticides ethoprophos and chlorpyrifos were conducted on two Costa Rican species, cladoceranDaphnia ambigua and fish Parachromis dovii. Tests showed that chlorpyrifos was more toxic than ethoprophos toD. ambigua and P. Publication Info doviiand that D. ambigua was also more sensitive than P. dovii to both pesticides. Additionally, bioassays Paper received: were performed by exposingD. magna and P. dovii to contaminated water collected from the field. 27 April 2013 Chemical analyses of field water revealed that fungicides were generally the most frequent pesticide group found, followed by insecticides/nematicides and herbicides. The bioassays and values obtained from the literature confirmed thatD. magna was more sensitive to pesticide contamination thanP. dovii and that D. Revised received: ambiguawas more sensitive than D. magna , suggesting that the native cladoceran is a more suitable test 24 June 2013 species than its temperate counterpart. Species sensitivity distributions showed no significant difference in sensitivity between tropical and temperate fish and the arthropod species exposed to chlorpyrifos in this Accepted: study. Choline esterase activity (ChE) was measured inP. dovii in laboratory tests in order to assess the 05 September 2013 applicability of this biomarker. ChE inhibition inP. dovii was observed in the laboratory at levels below the LC10 of both ethoprophos and chlorpyrifos, confirming that ChE is an efficient biomarker of exposure. Both indigenous Costa Rican species used in this study were found to be suitable standard tropical test species. Further studies are needed to investigate how protective the safe environmental concentrations, derived from LC50 of native tropical species, are for protecting tropical aquatic natural communities. Key words Acute toxicity, Bioassays, Chlorpyrifos, ChE inhibition, Ethoprophos, Tropical aquatic ecosystems Introduction REPCar, 2011; Castilloet al., 2012; Bravo et al., 2013). The most important group of pesticides used are fungicides, followed by a Costa Rica is the second largest banana producer in the wide range of insecticides, nematicides and herbicides (see world. Commercially grown bananas are among the world's most (Castilloet al., 1997; Ramírez, 2009) for a review). Currently, pesticide intensive crops. Approximately, 45 kg of active pineapple and rice are increasing their production area. ingredient (a.i.) per hectare per year are used in the Costa Rican Pineapple production uses an average of 30 kg of a.i. of banana plantations (Castilloet al., 1997; Ramírez,Online 2010; pesticides per hectare per yearCopy and currently the crop is grown © Triveni Enterprises, Lucknow (India) Journal of Environmental Biology, Vol.35 Special issue, 73-84, January 2014 74 N.J. Diepens et al. over 45000 ha (Castilloet al., 2012). This together with the 20% or more is well accepted as indicator of exposure to OPs banana plantation, these crops potentially brings along more (Varóet al. , 2007). environmental pollution and health risks (Barrazaet al. , 2011). The river Rio Madre de Dios (RMD) in the Atlantic Two widely used organophosphate (OP) pesticides are lowlands of Limon, Costa Rica (Fig. 1) receives drainage water chlorpyrifos and ethoprophos. Plastic bags that are used to from banana plantations, pineapple and rice fields before it flows protect banana bunches are usually impregnated with into a coastal lagoon, which is part of a protected coastal wetland chlorpyrifos (1% mass concentration equals 0.7 kg a.i. ha-1 y -1 with a large biodiversity. Due to the high rain precipitation in this (Matlock Jr and de la Cruz, 2002). Ethoprophos is one of the most region, with an average of 3.6 m per year (Waylenet al., 1996), commonly used nematicides to protect the root systems of the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers in these extensive banana and pineapple plants. In banana plantations, it is applied agricultural systems may reach the RMD river and its lagoon a maximum of three times a year (16-21 kg a.i. ha-1 y -1 ; (Matlock Jr trough run-off and endanger the non-target fauna such as fish and and de la Cruz, 2002)). Together with carbamate pesticides, OPs invertebrates. Several massive fish kills have been observed in are neurotoxins, which act by inhibiting the cholinesterase these water courses, especially after heavy rains and are enzymes (ChE) acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyryl cholin believed to be caused by pesticide run-off. Generally, fish species esterase (BChE) in the nervous system. Inhibition of ChE has such as guapote (P.dovii ), black surfperch ( Embiotoca jacksoni ), been widely used to assess the effects of anticholinesterase tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus ) and other cichlid species have compounds on wildlife (Thompson, 1999). In fish, inhibition of been found among the dead fish (Pais, 2009; Pais, 2010). Online Copy Fig. 1 : Sampling sites in watershed Rio Madre de Dios (14758 ha), Limon, Costa Rica. RMD is Rio Madre de Dios and LMD is Laguna Madre de Dios. RMD control was used as control site and together with Bridge RMD, Canal Pama, LMD X RMD they were used for the bioassays and ChE analyses. CañoAzul, RMD X Freeman, LMD mid and LMD x Pacuare were used for water quality and pesticide residue analyses only Effect of pesticides on aquatic ecosystems in Costa Rica 75 Besides acute mortality, pesticides may also cause reproduction A temperate and tropical species sensitivity distribution failure and other chronic effects, which could lead to a decline in calculation was used to evaluate to what extent these tropical fish populations. Furthermore, pesticide pollution may result in species are suitable for toxicity testing and environmental risk acute and chronic effects on macroinvertebrates (Castillo et al., assessment in tropical regions. 2000), which could lead to changes in the benthic community structure and species richness (Pringle and Ramírez, 1998; Materials and Methods Castilloet al., 2006), and in turn change the food web structure. Test species : Two cladoceran species (Crustacea) tropical Despite the high use of pesticides in Costa Rica and other Daphnia ambigua(Scourfield, 1947) and temperate Daphnia tropical countries and their possible environmental impact, there magna (Straus, 1820) and the guapote fish (Cyclidae) is still relatively little knowledge about the fate and toxicity of Parachromis dovii (Günther, 1864) were used as test organisms. pesticides in tropical aquatic ecosystems compared to temperate The fish were cultivated and kept under a natural light : dark cycle systems (Castilloet al., 1997; Lacher and Goldstein, 1997; (approximately 12:12 hr) in the laboratory at the Biology Mortensenet al., 1998; Pringle and Ramírez, 1998; Robinson et Department of the National University (UNA), Heredia, Costa al., 1999; Matlock Jr and de la Cruz, 2002; Kwoket al., 2007; Rica. Aged tap water (24 hr) with a temperature of 18-25°C was Daam and Van den Brink, 2010). For instance, Maltbyet al. (2005) used in the fish tanks. The guapote fish were fed a mixture of fish, collected toxicity data from different databases and only 11% of soya, cornflour, shrimps and soya oil, supplemented with vitamins the species originated from tropical regions, while more than 50% and minerals. Fry were also fed withArtemiasalina and cultivated were temperate species.There is an on-going debate on whether zooplankton. After 12 to 18 days, the fish were transferred for species sensitive distributions (SSDs) derived from temperate acclimatization for at least 24hr to the laboratory of toxicity benchmark values (i.e. LC50 or NOEC values) can be ecotoxicological studies (ECOTOX) of IRET (Central American used to assess the contamination risks for tropical species as well Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances), UNA Universidad or reversely if it is necessary to calculate benchmark values only Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica. They had a mean length of 7.3 ± based on native tropical species. 0.5 mm and a weight of 8.8 ± 1.0 mg.D. ambigua and D. magna were cultured in laboratory of ECOTOX. The crustaceans were A few recent studies have found no significant difference kept in glass beakers of 200 ml in a temperature controlled room between the slope of SSD curves based on toxicity data for (18-22°C) with a light : dark cycle of 16:8 hr. They were fed yeast, -1 2+ -1 -1 tropical and temperate species, suggesting that SSDs obtained cereal leaves, tetramin (0.5 ml l ), Se (5.2 ml l ), B12 (0.095 ml l ), based on temperate species could be applied to protect tropical Chlorellasp. (0.275 ml l-1 ) and Selenastrum sp. (0.57 ml l-1 ). Only species (Dyeret al., 1997; Maltby et al., 2005; Kwok et al., 2007; neonates from adults that already had one or more clutches were Daam and Van den Brink, 2010; Ricoet al., 2010). In line with this, used for the tests.
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