MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES IN THAILAND

Napompeth Banpot National Biological Control Research Center, Kasetsart University P.O. Box 9-25, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

ABSTRACT

Thailand has its share of damages caused by invasive alien species (IAS) which are of undesirable nature but have also gained economic importance as beneficial exotic and alien cultivated species. An inventory of IAS in Thailand conducted by the Thailand CBC Subcommittee Working Group on Alien Species under the then Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment revealed over 1,500 alien species of , plant and microorganism origins, including both invasive and beneficial species. Over 23 invasive species of economic and agricultural importance have been identified. In addition, more than 39 insect species of exotic origin have been introduced for biological control purposes in the country from 1963 to the present, of which 19 parasitoids and predators were for insect pests of agricultural importance, and 20 species were for biological control of terrestrial and aquatic weeds. Two strayed natural enemies, one each of Siam weed and lantana, were also detected naturally in Thailand. The overall management strategies for these invasive insect species are the adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) approach, ranging from "no action", "single-component control tactics", and to "integrated pest control".

INTRODUCTION engaged a large number of scientists in an effort to document the nature of the invasive Biological invasions are nothing new as far as species "problem" which has resulted in a the evolutionary process is concerned. Such book entitled "Biological Invasions: A Global invasions are characteristic of all living Perspective" by Drake et al. (1989) (Mooney organisms and have occurred since the origin 2000). CBD Article 8h states that each of animal and plant species and long before Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and human existence on this planet. Biological appropriate "present the introduction of, control invasions by plants, , and or eradicate those alien species which threaten microorganisms are as equally ancient as ecosystems, habitats or species." human civilization, and are ongoing In 1996, the concern that globalization chronologically indistinguishable by man. was having negative consequences on the However, biological invasions have lately environment led the United Nations and the become one of the major global issues of Government of Norway to convene the first concern since June 1992 soon after the international meeting on invasive alien species UNCED's Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, (IAS) in Trondheim, Norway. Participants in Brazil. Among some of the important events the "Trondheim Conference" concluded that that happened after that was the adoption of IAS had become one of the most significant the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) threats to biodiversity worldwide and which, after the required number of ratification recommended that a global strategy and by the signatories, was entered into force since mechanism to address the problem be created December 1993. immediately. As a result in 1997, the Global Prior to the Earth Summit and during the Invasive Species Program (GISP) was period 1982 and 1988, the Scientific Committee established by SCOPE, IUCN (The World on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) Conservation Union) and CABI (Commonwealth

Keywords: biological invasions, invasive alien species, beneficial species, natural enemies, biological control, integrated pest management 1 Agricultural Bureau International), and the An inventory of alien species in Thailand UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) – invasive, beneficial, and naturalized – presented the GISP project to the CBD parties containing approximately 1,500 species, has and other participants at the Fourth Meeting of been compiled and is available at the Conference of the Parties (COP-4) in www.thaialienspecies.com. An overview of Bratislava, Slovak Republic in May 1998. GISP alien species in Thailand was also given by thus became a global network of scientists, Napompeth (2003) at the Regional Workshop lawyers, policy specialists, economists, on the "Prevention and Management of managers, and environmentalists, supported by Invasive Alien Species: Forging Cooperation governments and foundations, and coordinated Throughout South and Southeast Asia" by IUCN, CABI, SCOPE and others. The GISP organized by the United States Government in objectives are to assemble and make available collaboration with the Office of Environmental best practices for the prevention and Policy and Planning (OEPP) and Thailand management of IAS and to stimulate the Biodiversity Center (TBC), National Science and development of new tools in science, policy, Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) information and education for addressing IAS under the then Ministry of Science, problems (GISP, no date). Technology and Environment, on behalf of the Thailand is as much concerned with IAS Royal Thai Government, and the Global as other countries are. Canals, rivers, and water Invasive Species Program (GISP) in Bangkok on reservoirs all over the country are clogged and 14-16 August 2002 and by Napompeth, extensively infested with water hyacinth and Kongsawat and Iamsupasit (2003) at the 20th some other exotic weed species. The Water Pacific Science Congress held in Bangkok on Hyacinth Control Act was promulgated in 1913 17-21 March 2003. in order to prevent further spread of water hyacinth which was introduced as an GLOBAL INVASIVE SPECIES IN THAILAND ornamental plant intentionally from Java, Indonesia in 1901. The country landscape is Of the "100 of the World's Worst Invasive readily identifiable with exotic plant species, Alien Species," a selection from the Global some of which are invasive while many others Invasive Species database prepared by the are of economic benefit to the country. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), there Following the "Trondheim Conference" in 1996, are 8 microorganisms, 4 aquatic plants, 32 land the Thailand CBD Subcommittee Working plants, 9 aquatic invertebrates, 17 land Group on Alien Species was formulated and invertebrates (14 , 2 land snails, and 1 created in January 1997. In addition to flatworm), 3 amphibians, 8 fishes, 3 birds, 2 compiling information and preparing an reptiles, and 14 mammals (wild and inventory of the non-indigenous species of domesticated). Of these global 100 world's organisms of animal, plant and microorganism worst IAS, only 38 species are present in origins found in the country, the main task of Thailand. These are: 1 microorganism the working group is to provide consultation (Phytophora root rot, Phytophora cinnamomi); on the formulation of measures to prevent and 1 aquatic plant (water hyacinth, Eichhornia control loss of biodiversity derived from and crassipes); 13 land plants (African tulip tree, caused by the spread of IAS. The working Spathodea campanulata; cogon grass or alang group has also prepared the "Guidelines for alang, Imperata cylindrica; giant reed, Arundo the Regulation and Prevention of Biodiversity donax; hiptage, Hiptage benghalensis; Koster's Loss due to Biological Invasions" as one of curse, Clidemia hirta; lantana, Lantana the practices for the prevention and camara; leucaena, Leucaena leucocephala; management of IAS in the country, based mile-a-minute, Mikania micrantha; mimosa or essentially on the IUCN Guidelines for the giant sensitive plant, Mimosa pigra; privet, Prevention of Biodiversity Loss Caused by Ligustrum robustum; Siam weed, Chromolaena Alien Invasive Species (IUCN 2000), Plant odorata; wedelia, Wedelia trilobata; and Quarantine Act 1964 amended in 1999, and the yellow Himalayan raspberry, Rubus ellipticus); country's local encounter and experience on 1 aquatic invertebrate (golden apple snail, IAS problems (OEPP 2002). Pomacea canaliculata); 9 land invertebrates

2 consisting of 7 insects (Asian tiger mosquito, economic and agricultural importance in Aedes albopicuts; big-headed ant, Pheidole Thailand. megacephalatus; common malaria mosquito, Anopheles quadrimaculatus; Formosan INVASIVE ALIEN INSECT SPECIES subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus; khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium; and In Thailand there is no estimate on the number sweet potato whitefly or tobacco whitefly, of invasive alien insect species nor the number Bemisia tabaci), and 2 land snails (giant of all exotic insect species. The National African snail, Achatina fulica; and rosy wolf Biological Control Research Center (NBCRC) of snail, Euglandina rosea); 4 fishes (carp, Kasetsart University could identify at least 23 Cyprinus caprio; Mozambique tilapia, plus serious insect pests of economic and Oreochromis mossambicus; walking catfish, agricultural importance to be IAS (Table 1). Clarius batrachus; and Western mosquitofish, It is to be noted that only the sweet Gambusia affinis); 1 bird (Indian mynah bird, potato whitefly or tobacco whitefly, B. tabaci, Acridotheres tristis); and 8 mammals (domestic in the 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien cat, Felis catus; goat, Capra hircus; mouse, Species appeared in the list in Table 1. This Mus musculus; nutria, Myocastor coytus; pig, list is also not exhaustive and does not cover Sus scrofa; rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus; ship other exotic insects which may not be invasive rat, Rattus rattus; and small Indian mongoose, and could have been naturalized. The degrees Herpestes javanicus). Of these more than 38 of invasiveness among them are also variable. IAS, at least 1 microorganism, 5 land plants, 5 Many insect IAS of recent invasions during insects, and 1 fish totaling 12 species are the 1980s to 1990s such as spriraling whitefly, supposed to be either endemic or are within A. disperses; leucaena psyllid, H. cubana; and the center of their origins. Some of the listed bean leafminers, Liriomyza spp. have already land plants such as lantana and wedelia are subsided in their devastation and economic considered of ornamental importance. The rosy status while those which have invaded longer wolf snail, Euglandina rosea, native to Florida, have become occasional and minor pests. Few USA, was introduced intentionally from Hawaii of the earlier and longer insect IAS of global in 1973 for biological control of the giant importance such as the diamondback moth, P. African snail, Achatina fulica (Napompeth and xylostella, and mango leafhopper, A. atkinsoni, Charernsom 1979). Two fish species, namely, remain predominant and persistent as key pests carp and Mozambique tilapia were introduced of cruciferous crops and mango, respectively, as protein source while the mosquitofish, in Thailand. Some insect IAS such as A. Gambusia affinis, was introduced during 1919- disperses, G. ficorum, and H. cubana have 29 for biological control of mosquito larvae. been successfully managed through The walking catfish, Clarius batrachus, is an introductions of specific and effective biological endemic fish and forms a high-demand staple control agents, while biological control of P. fish diet of the country. xylostella failed successively although some of One of the common phenomena in the the introduced parasitoids have become issues of IAS is the "Conflict of Interest." established, and some species such as A. Examples of such conflicts are imminent in destructor, B. tabaci, I. purchasi, N. viridula exotic plant species. Ivy guard (Coccinia and S. sacchari have been kept below grandis, Cucurbitae), which is native to Central economic threshold levels by endemic natural Africa, became naturalized in South and enemies. Southeast Asia to such an extent that it is either wild or semi-cultivated, but is considered BENEFICIAL INVASIVE INSECT SPECIES a serious weed in Hawaii, USA. Likewise, the cluster eggplant (Solanum torvum, Solanaceae), In addition to invasive insect species of which is probably native, wild and semi- economic and agricultural importance, since cultivated in Thailand, became a serious weed 1963 Thailand has introduced a total of 39 in Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Hawaii and many exotic insect species consisting of 19 insect Pacific Island countries. species for biological control of various insect This paper discussed issues pertaining to pests (Table 2) and 20 insect species for the management of invasive insect species of biological control of both terrestrial and aquatic 3 Table 1. Invasive alien insect species of agricultural importance in Thailand

Species and common name Probable origin and year intercepted

1. Aleurodicus destructor Central America; not known (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Coconut whitefly 2. Aleurodicus dispersus Central America; 1980 (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Spiraling whitefly 3. Amrasca biguttula India; not known (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Cotton leafhopper 4. Amritodus atkinsoni India; not known (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Mango leafhopper 5. Anomala antigua India; not known (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Sugarcane white grub 6. Aphis craccivora Europe; not known (Homoptera: Aphididae) Black legume aphid 7. Bemisia tabaci Pakistan; not known (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Tobacco whitefly 8. Conopomorpha cramerella Sri Lanka; not known (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) Cocoa pod borer 9. Gainaikothrips ficorum Cuba; 1960s (Thysanoptera: ) Cuban laurel 10. Heteropsylla cubana Central America; September 1986 (Homoptera: Psyllidae) Leucaena psyllid 11. Icerya purchasi Australia; not known (Homoptera: Magaronidae) Cottony cushion scale 12. Liriomyza huidobrensis Europe; 1980s L. sativae L. strigata L. trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Bean leafminers 13. Maruca vitrata South America; not known (= Maruca testulalis) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Bean pod borer 14. Nezara viridula Southern Europe/North Africa; (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) not known Green stink bug 15. Pectinophora gossypiella Australia; not known (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae) Cotton pink bollworm 16. Peregrinus maidis Central America; not known (Homoptera: Delphacidae) Corn planthopper 17. Phthorimaea operculella South America; not known (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae) Potato tuber moth 4 Table 1. Continued.

Species and common name Probable origin and year intercepted

18. Phyllotreta striolata Europe; not known (Coleoptera: Crysomelidae) Striped flea beetle 19. Plutella xylostella Southeastern Europe; not known (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) Diamondback moth 20. Saccharicoccus sacchari Papua New Guinea: not known (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) Sugarcane scale 21. Scrobipalpa heliopa Australia; not known (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae) Eggplant budworm 22. Thosea sinensis China; not known (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) Chinese nettle caterpillar 23. Thrip tabaci Middle East; not known (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Onion thrips

weeds (Table 3). Additionally two exotic insect INSECT IAS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES species, each known to be biological control agents of Siam weed and lantana, have been There is no single or centralized national detected naturally without intentional authority responsible for the prevention and introductions (Napompeth, 1982, 1989, 1990, management of IAS in Thailand. This 1992, 1994, 2001; Napompeth and MacDicken responsibility is scattered among different 1990). Ironically, these 41 exotic insect species ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture could be considered "invasive" but "beneficial" and Cooperatives (MOAC) in the Department on intentional basis because they have been of Agriculture (DOA) for cultivated, ornamental utilized as biological control agents to and other plants, insects, soil microorganisms, overcome the target pest species which are plant pathogens, and biological control agents; invasive insect species. They are thus Department of Livestock Development (DOLD) characteristically "beneficial invasive insect for microorganisms and animal pathogens of species" from the economic point of view. livestock, veterinary and epizootic importance; As far as the insects intentionally Department of Fisheries (DOF) for fish, aquatic introduced for biological control of both animals and aquatic plants (freshwater, brackish terrestrial and aquatic weeds are concerned, and marine); Royal Forest Department (RFD) most of them are known safe agents having for other plants, shrubs, trees, animals and been earlier utilized in many instances wildlife, and endangered animals listed under worldwide (Table 4) (Julien and Griffith 1998). the Convention on International Trade in Each of them has been subjected to quarantine Endangered Species (CITES); Ministry of Public screening and host specificity test before the Health (MOPH) in the Department of Medical field releases were made. Almost all of them Science (DOMS) and the Department of are phytophagous in feeding habit and the Disease Control (DODC) for microorganisms, objective is to render them "invasive" on their animal and insect vectors of human diseases, respective and specific target weeds or host and causal agents of epidemiological plants. This situation is also another classical importance; and Ministry of Commerce (MOC) case of "Conflict of Interest." for the import and export of certain kinds of fauna and flora. While the plant quarantine

5 Table 2. Insect natural enemies introduced for biological control in Thailand

Target insect species and natural Origin, year introduced and enemies introduced responsible agency*

1. Coconut rhinoceros beetle Oryctes rhinoceros (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

- Scolia ruficornis West Caroline Island, Palau; (Hymenoptera: Scoliidae) 1963; FAO, Bangkok

2. Diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae)

- Brachymeria sp. India; 1965; (already present (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) before introduction) - Cotesia plutellae India; 1965; DOA (already (Hymenoptera: Braconidae present before introduction) - Diadegma insulare Canada; 1964; not known - Diadegma semiclausum Taiwan; 1989; DOA (already (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) present before introduction) - Diadromus collaris India; 1965; DOA (= Thyraeella collaris) - Macromalon orientale India; 1965 (Hymenoptera: Ichneumodidae) - Oomyzus sokolovskii India; 1965 (= Tetrastichus sokolovskii)

3. Scale insects, mealybugs, aphids, soft-bodied insects

Coccinellids consisting of: - Azya orbigera Mexico via Hawaii; 1974-77, (= Azya luteipes) 2002; NBCRC - Chilomenes lunata Kenya; 1982; NBCRC - Coelophora pupillata Mexico via Hawaii; 1974-77, 2002; NBCRC - Cryptolaemus montrouzeiri Australia via Hawaii; 1974-77, 2002; NBCRC - Curinus coeruleus Mexico via Hawaii via Palau; (for leucaena psyllid, 1987; NBCRC Heteropsylla cubana) Mexico via Hawaii; 1988; NBCRC - Nephaspis oculatus Trinidad & Tobago via Hawaii; (= Nephaspis amnicola) 1984; NBCRC (for spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus) - Olla v-nigrum Mexico via Hawaii; 1989; NBCRC (= Olla abdominalis) Hawaii via Tonga; 1992; NBCRC - Orcus chalybeus Mexico via Hawaii; 1974-77; (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) NBCRC

4. Spiraling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)

* FAO = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations DOA = Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives NBCRC = National Biological Control Research Center, Kasetsart University 6 Table 2. Continued.

Target insect species and natural Origin, year introduced and enemies introduced responsible agency*

- Nephaspis oculatus Trinidad and Tobago via Hawaii; (= Nephaspis amnicola) 1984; NBCRC (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

5. Leucaena psyllid Heteropsylla cubana (Homoptera: Psyllidae)

- Curinus coeruleus Mexico via Hawaii via Palau; (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) 1987; NBCRC Mexico via Hawaii; 1988; NBCRC - Olla v-nigrum Mexico via Hawaii; 1989;NBCRC (Olla abdominalis) Mexico via Hawaii; Tonga; 1992, NBCRC - Psyllaephagus yaseeni Trinidad & Tobago via Hawaii; (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) 1987-88; NBCRC - Tamarixia leucaena Trinidad & Tobago via UK; 1991 (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

6. Cuban laurel thrips ficorum (= Phlaeothrips ficorum) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

- Montandoniella moraguesi Philippines via Hawaii; 2001-02; (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) NBCRC

office is under the Department of Agriculture, ! Prepare guidelines to regulate the the animal quarantine office is under the introduction of alien species including Department of Livestock Development. Both genetically modified organisms (GMOs); departments supervised quarantine services in and all important international land, sea, and air ! Undertake any task assigned by the CBD ports and border posts as well as domestic Subcommittee. animal quarantine stations located at key geographical locations. MANAGEMENT OF INSECT IAS The Working Group on Alien Species, created under the National Environmental Board A classical case on the timely management of Subcommittee on the Convention on Biological insect IAS was witnessed in Thailand in May Diversity, is not an authorized legal body. Its 2003 in Bangkok when over 500 nymphs and function is more advisory and is tasked to: adults of the Madagascar hissing cockroach, ! Compile information on the status of alien Gromphadorhina sp., were confiscated from a species in Thailand; pet shop, the shopkeeper fined, and the ! Compile information and conduct cockroaches incinerated by virtue of the investigation on the biology, ecology, announcement of the Ministry of Public Health. and impacts of alien species in Thailand; The cockroach was smuggled into the country, ! Prepare guidelines and measures for the reared and sold as "pet" animals. It was control and eradication of those alien believed to be an insect vector and an species affecting and causing economic intermediate host of several medical and public damage; health pathogenic agents.

7 Table 3. Insect natural enemies introduced for biological control of terrestrial and aquatic weeds by the National Biological Control Research Center in Thailand

Target weed species and natural Origin and year introduced enemies introduced

1. Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae)

- Eccritotarsus catarinesis Brazil via Australia; 1997 (Hemiptera: Miridae) Brazil via Australia via South Africa; 1998 - Neochetina bruchi Argentina via Florida via Australia; 1990 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) - Neochetina eichorniae Argentina via Florida; 1977, 1979 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) - Niphograpta (Sameodes) albiguttalis Argentina via Florida via Australia; 1994 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) - Xubida (Acigona) infusella South America via Florida via (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Australia; 1997

2. Alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Amaranthaceae)

- Agasicles hygrophila Argentina via Florida via Australia; 1981 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

3. Giant sensitive plant Mimosa pigra (Mimosaceae)

- Acanthoscelides puniceus Mexico via Australia; 1984 (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) - Acanthoscelides quadridentatus Mexico via Australia; 1984 (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) - Carmenta mimosa Mexico via Australia; 1989-92 (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) - Chlamisus mimosae Brazil via Australia; 1985 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) - Coelocephalapion aculeatum Mexico via Australia; 1991-92 (Coleoptera: Apionidae) - Milothris irrorata Indonesia; 1981 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) - Neurostrota gunniella Mexico via Australia; 1988; (destroyed in quarantine) 4. Siam weed Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) - Acalitus adoratus Trinidad & Tobago; found naturally in 1985 (Acarina; Eriophyidae) - Cecidochares connexa Trinidad & Tobago via Guam; 2001 (Diptera: Tephritidae) Trinidad & Tobago via Guam via Indonesia; 2001 - Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Trinidad & Tobago via Guam; 1986-88 (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)

8 Table 3. Continued.

Target weed species and natural Origin and year introduced enemies introduced

5. Crofton weed, Pamakani Ageratina adenophorum (Asteraceae)

- Procecidochares utilis Mexico via Hawaii; 1991-92 (Diptera: Tephritidae)

6. Honolulu rose Clerodendrum chinense (Verbenaceae)

- Phyllocharis undulata Vietnam; 1990 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

7. Water fern Salvinia cucullata (Salviniaceae)

- Cyrtobagous salviniae Brazil via Australia; 1987 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

8. Lantana Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) - Calcomyza lantanae Mexico; found naturally in 1985 (Diptera: Agromyzidae) - Teleonemia scrupulosa Mexico via Hawaii via Australia; 1985 (Hemiptera: Tingidae) - Uroplata girardi Brazil via Australia; 1985 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

However, such a case cannot be simply into a [single] management strategy, based on applied to other insect IAS of agricultural, cost/benefit analyses that take into account the veterinary, medical, and public health interests of and impacts on producers, society importance. Most of the insect IAS of and the environment." A similar and analogous economic and agricultural importance identified approach has been initiated by the World in the country are amenable to various Health Organization (WHO) as an "Integrated integrated pest management (IPM) strategies Vector Management (IVM)" approach, but so ranging from "no action" or "no control", to far no substantial progress has been achieved. single-component control employing various Thus, most insect IAS should be control tactics such as physical, mechanical, subjected to timely surveillance and monitoring cultural, genetic, chemical, biological, microbial suggested in simple but practical integrated and legal control, to integrated pest control pest management practices. The development (IPC) under the concept of "Integrated Pest of simple "economic threshold levels (ETLs)" Management (IPM)" which is defined by for pest scouting is basically essential for the Kogan (1998) as "a decision support system growers to make and reach their decision for the selection and use of pest control accordingly. Those insect IAS which are tactics, singly and harmoniously coordinated amenable to biological control will be tested for

9 their potential, either as augmentative or and international assistance agencies to classical biological control. Microbial control address IAS; agents such as various formulations of 6. Build capacity in terms of human Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are gaining their resource development and technology acceptance and more investments are being transfer to address IAS; provided to strengthen research and 7. Promote community participation and development (R&D) in this field of insect pest involvement in efforts to address IAS; control in Thailand. Commercial planting of 8. Encourage partnership between public and transgenic crops such as Bt cotton is still private sectors in activities to address prohibited, awaiting the drafting and enactment IAS; of biosafety laws. 9. Promote awareness of IAS issues by convening workshops and seminars, as RECOMMENDATION well as conducting publicity events and media campaigns; and The recommendations for the prevention and 10.Ensure the sustainability of IAS management of invasive alien species (IAS) prevention and management activities in developed at the South and Southeast Asia the region by developing long-term Regional Workshop on the Prevention and programs of action. Management of Invasive Alien Species: Forging Cooperation Throughout South and Southeast REFERENCES Asia organized by the US Government, cohosted by the Royal Thai Government and Drake, J.A., H.A. Mooney, F. di Castri, R.H. held in Bangkok from August 14-16, 2002 could Groves, M. Rejma'nek and M. Williamson be appropriate for insect IAS as well. It was (eds.). 1989. Ecology of Biological concluded that problems of invasive alien Invasions: A Global Perspective. SCOPE 37. species (IAS) are causing significant ecological, John Wiley, New York. economic, and social damages and pose Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP). No ongoing threats to all countries within the date. Phase II Implementation Plan. 36 p. region. It was recommended that the following Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). No actions related to the prevention and date. 100 of the World's Worst Invasive management of IAS be taken: Alien Species. ISSG, Auckland. 12 p. Julien, M. and ? Griffith. 1998. 4th ed. 1. Establish coordination mechanism and Biological Control of Weeds. A World information exchange systems at national, Catalogue of Agents and their Target regional, and international levels by the Weeds. CABI Publishing, Wallingford. creation of IAS national focal points 223 p. (NFPs) and through the Convention on Kogan, M. 1998. Integrated Pest Biological Diversity (CBD) Clearinghouse Management: Historical Perspectives and Mechanism (CHM); Contemporary Development. Annual Review 2. Ensure political commitment in terms of of Entomology 41: 243-270. policy, legislation, enforcement, and Mooney, H.A. 2000. Preface. The Global implementation of activities to prevent Invasive Species Programme (GISP), p. xiii. and manage IAS initiated through In: Economics of Biological Invasions. C. national and regional strategies and Perring, M. Willianson and S. Dalmazzone plans; (eds.). Edward Elgar, Chetenham. 249 p. 3. Initiate assessments of problems related Napompeth, B. 1982. Biological control to IAS and develop early warning and research and development in Thailand, pp. monitoring systems; 301-323. In: Proceedings of International 4. Encourage appropriate and relevant Conference on Plant Protection in the research on IAS issues; Tropics. K.L. Heong et al. (eds.). 5. Provide adequate financial and technical Malaysian Plant Protection Society, Kuala support from relevant national, regional, Lumpur, Malaysia.

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