Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

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Geomorphological features of the archaeological marine area of Sinuessa in Campania, southern Italy

* Micla Pennetta a, , Corrado Stanislao a, Veronica D'Ambrosio a, Fabio Marchese b, Carmine Minopoli c, Alfredo Trocciola c, Renata Valente d, Carlo Donadio a a Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources, University of Naples Federico II, Largo San Marcellino 10, 80138 Napoli, Italy b Department of Environment, Territory and Earth Sciences, University of Milano Bicocca, Piazza dell'Ateneo Nuovo 1, 20126 Milano, Italy c Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development e ENEA, Portici Research Centre, Piazzale Enrico Fermi 1, Granatello, 80055 Portici, NA, Italy d Department of Civil Engineering, Design, Building, Environment, Second University of Naples, Via Roma 8, 81031 Aversa, CE, Italy article info abstract

Article history: Submarine surveys carried out since the '90s along the coastland of Sinuessa allowed us to draw up a Available online 6 June 2016 geomorphological map with archaeological findings. Along the sea bottom, 650 m off and 7 m depth, a Campanian Ignimbrite bedrock was detected: dated ~39 kyr BP, its position is incompatible with the Keywords: current sea level. Towards the northern edge of the shoal, a depressed area with 24 cubic elements in Coastal geomorphology concrete was surveyed. These artefacts (pilae) are typical of Roman maritime structures widespread Geoarchaeology along the southernmost Phlegrean coast. Beachrocks and accessory landforms at the same depth of Sedimentology bedrock suggest that this was emerging and attended by man in Roman times, even for activities related Sea level change Italy to port facilities. Submerged palaeo-channels, in alignment of current watercourses on the mainland, dissect the shoal. These channels were moulded in subaerial environment during Würm glaciation, following the tuff deposition, and then were drowned by sea-level rise. The northernmost channel, next to the pilae, likely allowed transit and manoeuvring of Roman ships. The discovery along the seabed of a large stump of lead anchor, hundreds of Roman amphorae and fragments, as well as of a depression of millstone, confirm this finding. Probably the sinuous physiography favored the choice of this site for the docking of Sinuessa, as sheltered from storms. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In particular, the colony of Sinuessa is the only and most sig- nificant underwater archaeological site along the northern coast of Ground vertical motions along the coast could activate strong Campania, near the border with Latium, about 40 km north of the erosional processes and the loss of invaluable archaeological heri- other submerged sites of Torregaveta and Pozzuoli Bay. The pres- tage. Their analysis represents an useful element to define coastal ence of roads and maritime structures of Roman age, still visible zone hazards and management (De Pippo et al., 2008, 2009). In along the coastland of Sessa Aurunca, including in the Caserta submerged archaeological sites these phenomena can be investi- district, stimulated geomorphological researches also in the sub- gated by reconstructing the ancient coastlines, based on the iden- merged area since the nineties (Cocco et al., 1996a, 1996b). tification of geomorphic elements moulded during the interglacial New investigations have been triggered by the presence of an sea-level stands (Pirazzoli, 1987, 1991, 1993). Such features, when ancient Roman road, paved in limestone, perpendicular to the displaced at different heights with regard to their original genetic shoreline (i.e. EeW oriented), which ends abruptly, disappearing contexts, have also furnished important indications about tectonic under the sand of the coastal dune ridge (close to the Baia Azzurra activity (Flemming, 1969; Flemming and Webb, 1986; Ferranti et al., residential complex). In the facing submerged area was detected a 2005). stretch of road along the same direction as well as archaeological remains attributable to artefacts and port facilities, possibly related to coastal appliances and activities of the colony seaward. The

* Corresponding author. roadway on the mainland is a branch to the coast of the ancient Via E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Pennetta). Appia, built starting in 312 BC by the consul Appio Claudio, who http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.04.019 1040-6182/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 199 linked the colony Minturnae (a fluvial harbour in southern Latium) mainly outcrop along the southwestern slope of Mt. Massico and with Rome and the settlements of southern Italy. The founding of consist of limestones as well as terrigenous sequences with the Latin colony of Suessa Aurunca (313 BC), near the Roccamonfina different facies (Cestari, 1964, 1965; Vallario, 1964, 1966; Sgrosso, volcano, and the creation of the two small Roman colonies of 1974). This ridge is bordered to the northwest and southeast by Minturnae and Sinuessa in 296 BC, after the raids of Samnites in the counter-Apennine normal faults (NEeSW), MiddleeLate Pleisto- Ager Falernum, represent the key stages of the process for the po- cene in age (Radicati di Brozolo et al., 1988; Ballini et al., 1989; litical and military control of this territory, originally dominated by Bruno et al., 2000). The southwestern sector is affected by a the Auruncis (313 BC: destruction of the Auruncis population; see NWeSE directed vertical fault. The seismic sections of Campania Pagano, 1974; Coarelli, 1993; Crimaco, 1993; Gasperetti, 1993; offshore (Bruno et al., 2000) and the positive magnetic anomalies Bellini, 2007). Minturnae and Sinuessa were twin colonies. The (Carrozzo et al., 1986) confirm that the horst structure of this mount latter is located in the present-day narrow coastal strip between the also extends towards the sea, in the sea bottom substratum, with an northwestern offshoots of Mt. Massico and the Tyrrhenian Sea. amplitude of about 7 km, and that is bounded by sub-vertical faults. Both were small defenses or coastal forts that were tasked to Therefore, since the Mt. Massico structure is more uplifted than the control the territory and the coast; especially the first colony downthrown margins that form the substrate of the plains, a minor controlled the river mouth of Liri (the current Garigliano River) coastal plain is outlined, partially falling in the territory of Sessa while the second one the coastal access to the Campania Plain (Ager Aurunca and Mondragone (archaeological site of Sinuessa), likely Campanus). differentiated from those of the two major plains of Garigliano and Around 174 BC, Sinuessa become a big city thanks to the pro- Volturno rivers. duction and trade of wine throughout the Mediterranean as well as Starting from the Late Pliocene, along the fault systems at the arefined holiday location for the presence of thermal baths. The margins of these depressions an intense volcanic activity occurred, Aquae Sinuessanae, whose evidences are still present, are sulphu- developing the Roccamonfina Volcano (Radicati di Brozolo et al., rous waters whose facilities were present in the coastal strip be- 1988; Ballini et al., 1989), the Phlegrean Fields caldera (Di tween the slopes of Mt. Cicoli and the beach. The history of the city Girolamo et al., 1984), and Mt. Somma-Vesuvius volcanic complex seems to stop around the III century AD together with its port fa- (Alessio et al., 1974). During the PlioceneePleistocene time span the cilities (Crimaco, 1993). Finally, the term Sinuessa, Sinοyεssa or graben-like structure of the Campania Plain was filled by marine, Sinyεssa in ancient Greek, likely derives from the composition of continental and transitional sediments, interbedded with pyro- the Akkadian verb ṣ^enu, meaning “load the boat” as well as “set clastic and lava products erupted from the above mentioned vol- sail”, and the noun aṣû (from apsû, “deep water”) which is “to go canoes (Delibrias et al., 1979; Bernasconi et al., 1981; Capaldi et al., out”, “exit”, referred to an outlet of channel (Semerano, 2003). The 1985; Di Girolamo et al., 1988). subsequent Latin word sinus preserves the meaning of “sailing”, but Among the Quaternary deposits also volcanic units occur both of also means “bend, fold, where the earth does fold” (Strabone, 64 Roccamonfina, distributed along the northern slopes, and the BCe19 AD, in Jones, 1917e1932). Therefore, the etymology of Sin- Phlegrean Fields districts. The latter, attributed to the Campanian uessa recalls the ancient morphology of the local waterscape: a bay, Ignimbrite (De Vivo et al., 2001), mainly outcrops along the with a channel, used as docking. southern slopes and subordinately along the northern ones (Bergomi et al., 1969). This volcanic formation is the gray coherent 2. Regional setting facies of the tuff erupted ~39 kyr BP in the volcanic district of the Phlegrean Fields, 45 km further south. The study area is located in the southernmost stretch of the Subsidence in the coastal strip has been active since Tyrrhenian Gaeta Bay, at the foot of the western termination of the carbonate transgression (~125 kyr BP), with average rates around 2 mm/yr ridge of Mt. Massico (Fig. 1). The bay describes a wide littoral bend (Bordoni and Valensise, 1998). At the end of the Tyrrhenian and up extending along southern Latium and northern Campania, and to ~90 kyr BP, Mt. Massico was a peninsula which separated two shows homogeneous coastal characters until the southern bound- gulfs: to the north, one currently occupied by the plain of the ary formed by the active volcanic district of Phlegrean Fields (De Garigliano River, and to the south the other by the Volturno River. Pippo et al., 2008, 2010; Barra et al., 2010; Pennetta et al., 2015). Starting from ~90 kyr BP sea level gradually lowered down to the This bay is bordered inland by the Aurunci Mts and by the moun- present depth of 120 m ~18 kyr BP (Last Glacial Maximum e LGM; tain range close to the town of Caserta, both made of Mesozoic Yokoyama et al., 2000; Lambeck and Purcell, 2005). In this time carbonates. The Aurunci Mts extend almost to the sea, north of range, ~39 kyr BP the Campanian Ignimbrite formation emplaced Gaeta, before retreating e through systems of normal faults e and dense ignimbritic fluxes reached the study area. These fluxes several kilometers to the south, so creating the conditions for the spread northward, filling the Volturno graben with thickness up to development of the graben in which the coastal plain of Garigliano about 50 m in the depocenter. Subsequently, these flow deposits River extends, at whose southwestern margin the study area is were covered by recent sediments, while Campanian Ignimbrite located. The mountains of Caserta, more backward than the Aur- frequently outcrops along the foothills of carbonate reliefs, some- unci Mts, led to the genesis of the wider graben in which the coastal times even tectonically displaced. The carbonate ridges, including plain of Volturno River was formed in the same way. The tectonic that EeW oriented of Mt. Massico bordering the plain to the north, depressions reflect a horst-and-graben structure, typical of the morphologically hindered the flows. A significant proportion of western flank of the Apennines in Campania. Actually, in the fluxes deposited along the southern slope of the mount, while a floodplains of Garigliano and Volturno rivers the thickness of the minor one bypassed it. Along the western foothills, NWeSE ori- sedimentary sequence and volcanic units are respectively of about ented and westward lowered by normal faults, but higher up than 700 and 3000 m (Ippolito et al., 1973; Mariani and Prato, 1988). the two most depressed coastal plains of Garigliano and Volturno The two plains overlooking the Gaeta Bay and are divided by the rivers, ignimbrite flows overlapped to rocky units of the horst and ridge of Mt. Massico (813 m a.s.l.), a morphostructural high trans- emplaced in the current outcropping zone. During this phase, versal to the shoreline (Carrozzo et al., 1986). It constitutes the sedimentation environment was probably fluvialemarshy and flat. outcrop of the carbonate substratum of the structural depressions In addition, the shoreline was located about 10 km further off the and consists of a limestone dolomite sequence (Cestari, 1964, 1965; current one (westward), and likely coinciding with present- Vallario, 1964, 1966; Bergomi et al., 1969). Miocene sediments day 60 m depth (Waelbroeck et al., 2002). 200 M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

Fig. 1. Geological map of the northern sector of Campania region, southern Italy. Legend A: 1) sedimentary rocks: a) reworked pyroclastic rocks, fluvialemarine, lacustrine and aeolian deposits of the Campania Plain; b) sandyesilty seabed of the gulfs of Gaeta and Naples (Holocene); 2) lavas and pyroclastic rocks of Roccamonfina Volcano (MiddleeLate Pleistocene), Phlegraean Fields (Middle PleistoceneeHolocene), Mt. Somma-Vesuvius (Late PleistoceneeHolocene; 3) Campanian Ignimbrite (~39 kyr BP; De Vivo et al., 2001): a) continental; b) submerged; 4); terrigenous deposits in flysch facies (Miocene); 5) limestone and dolomite (Upper Lias e Cretaceous); 6) faults: a) exposed; b) concealed or inferred; 7) height (m asl); 8) depth (m bsl); B: a) sample of the study area; b) sample of a previous scientific research project.

2.1. Geological and geomorphological framework recent morphosedimentary studies (Pennetta, 2010, 2012; Pennetta et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2016) show that sediments supplied by Gar- The studied coastal area is located in the minor coastal plain of igliano River are mainly subject to littoral drift from north to south. Mondragone, embedded between the two major ones. It shows a Yellowish or brownish sands of the current beach and of dunes trapezoidal shape structured by the Apennine-direction faults, both outcrop along the coast from Castel Volturno (SE) to Gaeta (NW), to the northwest and southeast, and extends from the foot of Mt. with maximum width of 700e800 m at the mouth of Volturno Massico (from Mt. Cicoli, to northwest, to Mt. Petrino, to southeast) River. At mouth of minor watercourses, sand becomes blackish-gray up to the Tyrrhenian coast (Fig. 1). The coastalemarine facies is due to enrichment with magnetite and biotite coming from characterized by deposits in continuity with those of the Garigliano degradation of Roccamonfina volcanics (Bergomi et al., 1969). River plain: seaward, dune sediments of Holocene, while inland The continental shelf is slightly sloping, with maximum those of Tyrrhenian age. The recent dune, parallel to the shoreline, amplitude off the Garigliano River (~20 km) and minimum at Cuma is formed by current beach sands, yellowish gray, with granules of (~10 km), and the shelf break is about 120/130 m depth (Got quartz and limestone (Pennetta et al., 2011b). The ancient dune et al., 1985; Pennetta et al., 1998). At mouth, within 50 m depth, (fossil), sub-parallel to the shoreline, reaches a maximum height the pronounced curvature of isobaths seaward is due to recent and of þ5 m asl and is about 3 km inland from the present shore; it current river mouth complex (Pennetta et al.,1998). This fan delta is consists of weakly cemented quartz sands and rubefacted, con- also observed close to the coast, in the submerged beach, down taining incoherent pyroclastic sediments (Abate et al., 1998). Clay to 10 m (Donadio, 2010). Northwest and southeast of the river and sandy clay deposits outcropping in the backdune, with copious mouth, an order of sandbars parallel to the coast, within 3m humus and peat levels, are related to limno-palustrine environ- depth, is present (Pennetta, 2012). Aligned with Mt. Massico, the ments which developed in the zones formerly occupied by ponds. ignimbritic shoal shows a pronounced convexity seaward (W). This plain is cut by a series of parallel streams, NEeSW oriented, which originate from Mt. Massico. These watercourses are the relic 3. Methods of larger river networks, with dendritic pattern (Donadio et al., 2015), that during the LGM (~18 kyr BP) dissected deep subrecti- The study area (Fig. 1b) is a rectangle of 1.5 1.2 km, with linear incisions. Their traces are the meandering channels modeled smaller side parallel and approximately 60 m far from the shore, into the ignimbritic bank, previously emplaced (~39 kyr BP), on NNWeSSE oriented. which the submerged archaeological site lies. Since May 2012 until June 2014, underwater surveys with over The coastline is characterized by a sandy beach, formed by 80 scuba diving of experts geologists were performed. As the high sediments coming from the Garigliano River and from some areas and frequent seawater turbidity allows only underwater puncti- further north. The use of artificial tracers (Cocco et al., 1988) and form observations, in May 2013, in optimal marine weather M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 201 conditions, marine surveys with Side Scan Sonar L3 Klein mod. angles, each about 50 m long, of which one almost parallel to the 3900, high resolution (450 kHz) and ranges of 30 m per channel shoreline, are likely attributable to the ruins of an important coastal with overlap of 30% of data for each of the 24 bands detected villa maritima similar to that found on the mainland (Villa San (Trocciola et al., 2013a, 2013b), were carried out. The data, recorded Limato). The boulders are aligned with the ancient paved road and analyzed on board in real time with a Windows-based work- segment (Fig. 2b), still well preserved on land, which stops at the stations, were georeferenced with the wide-area DGPS system, foot of current dune (to the north of Baia Azzurra residential consisting of a Hemisphere V103 receiver with reception of satellite complex). This road tract, obliterated by the dune, continues un- corrections of type L-Band. derwater up to about 50 m off the coast, partly covered by During the 2014 in this marineecoastal zone, considering the sediments. presence and extension of the rocky shoal, 14 sediment samples Further offshore the seabed shows a flat morphology, with low were collected, of which 3 samples on the emerged beach near the gradient (0.5%), and consists of fine and very fine sand which at foreshore and 11 along the seabed and in the channels. As a sup- 650 m from shore ends at the base of the tuff bank. Some rock plement, the results were examined together with those of 10 other samples collected confirm that this bank is formed by the coherent samples collected in the surrounding areas, as part of another sci- facies of Campanian Ignimbrite, dated ~39 kyr BP (De Vivo et al., entific research project (samples from F4 to F13; Balassone et al., 2001). The morphology of the outcrop, on which today the 2013, 2016). Geographical coordinates and the depth of sampling archaeological remains lie, is very articulated, with vertical scarps are shown in Table 1, their location in Fig. 1b. of metric size and decametric depressed areas, due to intense The sediment samples were subjected to grain-size and texture morphoselective erosion in continental environment, expanding analysis, even morphoscopic characters of the surface of quartz fractures, dissecting deep incisions, and modeling basins along the grains have been studied. The particle size analysis was performed ignimbritic formation. Sometimes the tuff bank from 7 m depth according to the usual techniques of sedimentology. In particular, gradually deepens, passing from a highly irregular and hummocky after careful preparation and washing with vacuum pump, all the morphology to large surfaces, flat and smooth, with average depth samples were dried in an oven at 80 C for 72 h, weighed with an of about 8m(Fig. 3; after AdB, 2013). These latter, are bordered by analytical balance and subjected to dry sieving through a series of microcliffs which rise from the bottom of at least 1 m. stacked sieves, with 1/4 f class interval up to 63 mm, in a me- Towards the northern edge of the tuff bank, around 30 m from chanical sieve shaker for 15'. For each sample histograms and cu- its inner edge, about 650 m off the shore and aligned with the mulative curves were plotted (Blott and Pye, 2001), as well as probable remains of a Roman villa and the road tract on land, a wide calculated the main following statistical parameters (Table 1), ac- depressed area has been detected. This area, 3 m deep, contains cording to the graphic method of Folk and Ward (1957): Mz, mean 24 cubic elements 3 3 m wide in concrete (opus caementicium) s size; I, sorting; SKI , skewness; KG, kurtosis. Furthermore, the grain (Fig. 4). These blocks are pushed together and appear aligned in size fractions between 125 and 500 mm of each sample were four rows, along an axis approximately NWeSE, and each row, observed through an optical microscope to recognize morpho- about 20 m long, is formed by six elements (Fig. 4a). Moreover, the scopic characters of quartz grains present. In these granulometric blocks are covered with a uniform layer of organogenic encrusta- fractions 100 granules of quartz were selected and classified into tion and algae which partially mask their original shape (Fig. 4b). At three categories: NA, not abraded, but transparent and angular; BT, the top of the blocks were observed semicircular holes, used for blunt edged translucent, with subrounded to rounded edges, more lifting, transporting and juxtaposition operations (Adam, 1984): or less hyaline; RO, rounded opaque, with well-rounded edges and these artefacts, called pilae, are typical of Roman maritime struc- opaque (Angelucci and Palmerini, 1964). tures, as described by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio in De Architectura (ca. Finally, geodetic parameters, used to process geothematic maps 15 BC). Pilae were built with hydraulic mortar thrown into form- and the digital restitution of collected data are DATUM WGS84, work and were widespread along the Phlegrean Fields coast for UTM Zone 33, False EST: 500,000 m, False north: 0 m, Latitude of jetties and docks at about 3.5/5.7 m depth (Brandon et al., 2008), origin: 0N, Longitude of origin: 15E, scale factor: 0.9996. as in Baiae and Portus Julius settlements affected by vertical ground movements due to bradyseismic phenomena. Depth of the top of 4. Data analysis pilae (8/8.5 m) in the study area coincides almost with that of the flat top of tuff bank. Stuck under a northernmost pila, a large 4.1. Geomorphological evidences stump of lead of a Roman ship anchor was found. These elements, together with beachrocks and accessory morphologies observed at The underwater surveys have allowed to draw a geomorpho- the same depth as the leveled bedrock, suggest that this area was logical map of the marineecoastal sector between Rio San Limato barely emerging. Therefore, might confirm that the area, morpho- and Baia Azzurra (Fig. 1b), in the Municipality of Sessa Aurunca, in logically more regular than the other surfaces at the same or lesser which the location of archaeological finds was mapped. The sub- depth, was frequented by man in Roman times even for activities merged beach is characterized inshore by a sandy bottom, slightly related to port facilities. sloping down to 1.5 m depth, and by a system of sandy bars be- Next to the pilae, along the outer edge a sinuous underwater tween about 2 and 5 m depth. About 7 m deep and 650 m off channel, 3/4 m deep and from 60 to 350 m wide, was surveyed. the coast, the morphology of the seabed abruptly changes, In this channel, dissected in the intermediate area of tuff bank switching to a tuff bedrock intensely fractured, marked at the top down to 11/12 m depth with sub-vertical walls, several tribu- by interconnected depressions, sometimes almost filled by bio- taries of lower order converge. The submerged channel corre- clastic deposits. This bank has been detected down to 16 m depth, sponds to a segment, parallel to the shoreline, of the Rio San Limato but probably extends with discontinuous outcrops down to riverbed, flowing currently on the mainland. Generally the channel about 20 m depth. is perpendicular to the shore and slightly shifted southward: its By underwater inspections we have discovered ashore, about proximal segment is orthogonal to the coast (NNEeSSW), then 250 m from the shoreline and at 3 m depth, several manufactured becomes almost parallel (NWeSE), and finally again perpendicular boulders, mainly of carbonate rock, with dimension of 0.5e1m, offshore. The sinuous morphology of the ancient riverbed is likely sometimes squared, and disconnected to each other because of sea to be linked to the closeness of a stable base palaeolevel, whereas storms. These boulders, arranged in two rows (Fig. 2a) at right the postglacial sea level rise has been marked by various periods of 202 M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

Table 1 Sediment samples collected along the shoreline and the sea bottom of Sinuessa area. Statistical parameters of beach and marine sediments, grouped by depth interval, ac- s cording to the graphic method of Folk and Ward (1957): Mz, mean size; I, sorting; SKI , skewness; KG, kurtosis, and related textural group. Percentage of quartz granules resulting from morphoscopic analysis (see Fig. 9): NA, not abraded; BT, blunt translucent; RO, rounded opaque. Grey cells represent samples grouped in five depth ranges, gradually deeper from A (shoreline) to F (offshore). Geographic coordinates system is WGS84, heights and depth are in meters referred to current mean sea level. M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 203 stability. Thus, the Rio San Limato River wandered laterally, northern sector of a large tuff bank that develops from the western conditioned by outcrops of bedrock less resistant to erosion. slopes of Mt. Massico to the mouth of Savone Stream. The bank is Probably, such sinuous physiography has favored the choice of this bordered inshore and offshore by sandy seabed with low gradient; site for the settlement and the docking of Sinuessa. Actually, the it extends parallel to the coast (NWeSE) between 7 and 16 m parallel and intermediate submerged tracts of the ancient riverbed deep; its top is dissected by scarps, 2e4 m high (Fig. 6), probably could be used as a port-channel, sheltered from northwest and related to the effects of the columnar fracturing due to the cooling southeast swells. As mentioned, Strabo (Geographika v.3.6; in Jones, of ignimbritic mass after its subaerial emplacement. In total the tufa 1917e1932) has reconnected the term Sinuessa to a bay (sinus), but measures about 8 2.5 km (over 1.5 6kmofofficial cartography, Flemming (1969), on the basis of those premises, concluded his such as Map of the Fishing; Nauticard, 2007) and is deeply research stating erroneously that the bay had to be located in the dissected by other palaeo-channels (La Torre, Fonda Carrarola, marshes behind Mondragone, which instead at that time were Taglio Sancello) aligned with smaller streams currently on the above the sea level. On the contrary, the discovery of the large lead mainland, including La Fiumarella and Torrente Savone (once stump of anchor (Fig. 5a) at 10.5 m depth, of a hundred of Roman navigable). These palaeo-channels were modeled in subaerial amphorae and their fragments along the margins and ravines of the environment during the last glaciation (Würm), following the tuff channel confirm this finding. In the latter, within 10 m depth, deposition: at that time the Mediterranean sea level lowered down there are also sparse fine pebbles and grains of allochthonous to 110/120 m (Vita-Finzi, 1969; Marani et al., 1986). In the sub- material (marble fragments of carbonate and metamorphic rocks, merged palaeodrainage network of the study area, the erosion not outcropping in Campania), attributable to Roman ship ballasts channels of lower order sensu Strahler (1957), excavated by runoff and shards of artefacts. The amphorae (Fig. 5b) are Dressel 1A along the lines of maximum gradient, caused further fragmentation (Roman period) or earlier, attributable to the Greco-Italic Period of the surface. So, portions of rock are isolated, contributing to the (period of the ancient Sinop), and were used for transport on genesis of depressions along the marine terrace, then filled by onerariae ships of Falernum wine, oil and garum (fish sauce for bioclastic sediments. Distances between the sides of the main condiment). An artefact in tuff, of uncertain definition and with a T- channels, perpendicular to the coast, slightly increase towards the shaped cross section, at 9 m depth (Fig. 5c), and a Greco-Italic palaeomouths, which are flared due to the combination of river and amphora (Fig. 5d), at 8.5/9 m depth and about 800 m from marine erosion. shore, toward the inner and southern edge of tuff bank, were also found. In addition, heterometric and polygenic gravels consisting of 4.2. Sediment analysis and environmental identification flint, carbonate and calcarenite pebbles, well rounded and some- times flat and imbricated, around 6.5/7 m deep and 700 m far Grain size and sediments texture represent important features from shore, were found. These pebbles represent palaeo-beach because they provide significant information about type of trans- deposits related to a sea-level stasis during its postglacial rise. port, provenance and depositional conditions (Folk and Ward, Two sea notches at 7.5 m depth along the channel walls suggest 1957; Friedman, 1961, 1967, 1979; Visher, 1969; Bui et al., 1990; that their genesis is linked to a sea-level stasis, coeval or subse- Martins, 2003). Therefore, by analyzing the sediments, is possible quent to modeling of the tuff marine terrace, at 8 m depth, later to trace both current genetic-depositional environment and the characterized by anthropic frequentation. palaeoenvironments. At about 11 m were detected other natural and archaeological The sediments of the emerged beach are mainly formed by elements which indicate a sea-level palaeo-stasis more ancient medium sand along the shoreline (Fig. 8, Table 1), generally well than the two above described. Actually, other gravel deposits sorted with a secondary mode of fine sand. The frequency curves formed by well-rounded pebbles, slightly flattened and imbricated, are mostly symmetrical with values close to zero. The quartz grains were found on the bottom of riverbed about 300 m from the shore. show a high degree of wear (60e80% blunt transparent), second- Finally, at 10.5 m deep and about 1 km from the coast (Fig. 6), a arily not abraded transparent (12e30%) and rounded opaque cylindrical depression with a diameter of about 1 m, of evident morphotypes (maximum 10%) follow (Fig. 9). On the surface of human workmanship, was found (Fig. 7). Such geometric depres- grains were also observed conchoids and V-shaped micromor- sion is the quarrying of a millstone, wherein the ring of extraction is phologies, resulting from recent impacts and fractures. These are always greater than the dug out millstone. This significant artefact interpreted as granules subjected to underwater mechanical action, is similar to other millstones found in some Italian coastal sites, but from medium to high intensity, typical of beach and secondly of definitely represents the finding surveyed at higher depth amongst fluvial environment. The presence of a minimum percentage of all (Auriemma and Solinas, 2009; Lo Presti et al., 2014). The use of grains with smooth and rounded surfaces or with irregular de- millstones dates back to 2500 yr BP onwards (Amouretti, 1986; pressions, due to reciprocal collisions at high energy typical of eolic Amouretti and Brun, 1993; Brun, 1997), in the Hellenistic period, environment, also testifies to an active exchange with the coastal although a widespread in the Mediterranean basin during the Ro- dunes, currently in erosion. man period is known and it was gradually abandoned after the The diagrams that relate both Mz/sI (mean size/standard devi- s Middle Ages. Lambeck et al. (2004b) suggest a probable height ation) (Fig. 8e: Martins, 2003) and I/SKI (standard deviation/ of þ0.6 m asl for the extraction of such millstones, that is functional skewness) (Fig. 8g: Friedman, 1967; Fig. 8f: Martins, 2003) indicate to the subsequent loading on ships or to another local use. The that these deposits are mixed sediments of beach and dune, as a cylindrical depression in the study area is carved into the ignim- result of an active wind reworking. Textural characters well agree brite, differently from others found in Mediterranean sites that with a high hydrodynamic energy environment, representing a have been extracted from morphoerodible rocks, but durable wave-dominated coast characterized by prograding beach ridges enough, among which limestone, conglomerate, sandstone and on which dunes have developed, with crests no more high than beach rock. 4 m, at present eroded or anthropized. Towards the northwest, off Rio San Limato River, the tuff bank is Even the sea bottom deposits are siliciclastic sediments mixed concealed by current sandy sediments, and probably extends into with volcaniclastic ones, with darker coloring. The values of the substrate. Towards southeast, tuff outcrop continues beyond average distribution of frequency are overall homogeneous, as few the surveyed area, up abeam of Savone Stream, south of Mon- types of sediment characterize the submerged beach (Table 1). dragone (Fig. 3; after AdB, 2013). Indeed, the investigated area is the Their grouping in equal granulometric classes (Fig. 8aed) allowed a 204 M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

Fig. 2. Remains of the Roman age road, paved in limestone: a) underwater segment, with disassembled flagstones, 250 m from the coastline and 3 m depth, aligned with the segment on the mainland, probably pertinent to a Roman villa (photo C. Minopoli); b) perpendicular-to-the-shoreline (EeW) segment, close to Baia Azzurra residential complex, which seaward is concealed by the sandy coastal dune.

Fig. 3. Flat seabed in front of Baia Azzurra, modeled on the ignimbrite bank at about 8 m depth, bordered by microcliffs about 1 m high. AeA0 represents the trace of P29 profile (see Fig. 6), NWeSE oriented, surveyed with SES-2000 compact parametric sub-bottom profiler (AdB, 2013); depth is in meters bsl.

Fig. 4. Roman pilae in opus caementicium on the sea bottom: a) side-scan sonar survey of the seabed, along which in a depression at 8/8.5 m depth 24 Roman pilae are present (SEeNW view); b) particular of a 3 3 m Roman pila at 8.5 m depth, covered by organic encrustations (photo C. Minopoli).

zoning which identifies a sequence that well suits to the main sediments are subjected to two forces, with opposite directions sectors of the coastal morphodynamic system, influenced by fluvial (swash, more intense, and backwash, less intense). Therefore, sedimentation, characterized by the grain mean size (Mz) coarse grains are deposited on the shoreline, while fine ones decreasing offshore. From shoreline seaward, the first group com- seaward at greater depths. bines fine sand moderately sorted (about 3 m deep), passing at a Morphoscopic properties of the analyzed quartz grains (Fig. 9) depth of 5.5 m up to ten meters far from the inner edge of the tuff reveal the presence of high fraction of subrounded transparent shoal (about 7 m deep), to very fine sands moderately well sorted. clasts (59e79%), subordinately not abraded grains (5e30%), finally These sediments show a good sorting (Fig. 8d) and variable skew- a small fraction of rounded opaque clasts (up to 34%). These mor- < < ness ( 1 SKI 1); positive values identify dune sediments. The phosedimentary features testify a high hydrodynamism typical of a unidirectional sediment transport carried by the wind or by a proximal coast with shallow waters, characterized by active ex- watercourse corresponds to a positive value of skewness change with the dunes and also influenced by longshore currents (Friedman, 1961; Martins, 1965). Instead, along the beach acting a NWeSE littoral drift (Bergomi et al., 1969; Cocco et al., M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 205

Fig. 5. Archaeological findings along the seabed of Sinuessa: a) stump of lead of the Roman anchor, close to the northern pila; b) Dressel 1A amphora, discovered along the edge of palaeochannel, at 11 m depth; c) T-shaped tuff element, at 9 m depth; d) Greco-Italic amphora on pebbly deposits of a palaeobeach, 9 m deep (photos C. Minopoli). For position and depth of finds see Fig. 6.

1988; Pennetta et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2016; Pennetta, 2012), capable Summarizing, the study of sediment characters of the sub- of carrying sediments discharged by river mouths to the north merged beach allowed to reconstruct an environment in which the (Garigliano and Rio San Limato rivers). These processes have transport mainly depends by coastal dynamics (waves and cur- contributed to deposit the sedimentary prism that buries landward rents) interconnected with a sedimentary dynamics dominated by the submerged ignimbritic platform and, very likely, some Roman mass transport processes (rivers). age archaeological remains. The Mz/sI diagram (Martins, 2003) The morphosedimentary features change drastically at the edge indicates that the deposits down to 3 m depth are influenced by of the meandering channel (along strips about 10e20 m wide), in river discharge, while those offshore fall within the range of beach the inlets and depressions that characterize the tuff bank. Very s sediments. In the I/SKI diagram (Friedman, 1967; Martins, 2003) coarse sands, autochthonous and bioclastic, are especially here they fall within the interval of beach sediments, confirming the present: their clasts, from poorly to moderately sorted, are mainly aforementioned environmental attribution: briefly, submerged transported through saltation, while the coarser ones (>0.25 mm) beach deposits resulting from erosion of emerged beaches, mixed through traction (Visher, 1969). The type of sedimentation con- with beach and/or river sediments transported by longshore cur- sisting of bioclastic deposits, different from that of the surrounding rents. Near the submerged coastal platform, the sediments contain seabed for its characters and genesis, is attributable to autochtho- a significant pelitic fraction which gives them a typical plastic nous deposits resulting from the degradation of abundant biogenic consistency. They are arranged in a band about 10 m wide edging encrustations as well as from current and ancient bioconstructors the platform along its inner margin. According to Reineck and Singh (Trocciola et al., 2013b). (1980), their grain size, definitely muddy, is attributable to a low The microscopic analysis confirms a few number of quartz energy environment if compared to the previous one, due both to granules, even characterized by minute size (Fig. 9a). The frequency its position in the terminal sector of the submerged beach and to curves are symmetric or asymmetric towards the coarse fraction, the shelter of the ignimbritic bank from storm surges coming from indicating the addition of coarse fragments of mollusc shells the western fetches. Even the sediments of the channel bottom, (Martins, 1965), on which cleanup processes of fine fraction also act deeply dissected along the ignimbritic bank, show similar features: (Valia and Cameron, 1977; Martins, 2003). they are basically muddy and cause high water turbidity. The Bioclastic deposits are always covered by a thin layer of flu- muddy sediments are of fluvialedeltaic environment, as confirmed vialedeltaic mud. Therefore, even in these zones the presence of by the presence in the channel bottom of huge tree trunks coming mud, which makes turbid marine waters, is to be reconnect with from forests which colonize the banks of Garigliano River, flowing recent and current sedimentation processes, compatible with such to the north. depths. The mud is continuously transported in suspension (Visher, 206 M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

Fig. 6. Schematic geomorphologic map of the seabed of Sinuessa, based on side-scan sonar and scuba diving surveys, with the position of underwater archaeological findings. Legend: 1) sandy sea bottom; 2) Campanian Ignimbrite bank; 3) palaeo riverbed deposits; 4) isobaths; 5) submerged palaeochannel; 6) segment of Roman road on mainland; 7) probable underwater prosecution of Roman road, buried by sediments or dismantled; 8) archaeological finding: a) segment of the submerged Roman paved road; b) Roman pilae;c) stump of lead of a Roman ship anchor; d) T-shaped tuff artefact; e) amphora; f) cylindrical depression of a carved millstone; g) palaeo sea notch; 9) probable Roman age docking. AeA0, partial trace of sub-bottom profile P29 (AdB, 2013); BeB0, trace of geological section with geoarchaeological elements (see Fig. 1); depth is in meters bsl.

Martins (1965, 2003), the negative value of skewness should be related with the intensity and duration of high-energy depositional processes able to remove fine sediments. Finally, beach and marine sediments of the study area are mostly composed of a mix of grains of minerals both of volcanic and carbonate origin, variable from north to south (Morra et al., 2013). However, the presence along the bottom of channels, down to about 10 m depth, of dispersed fine gravels and allochthonous polychrome granules, formed by marble and calcareous meta- morphic rocks not outcropping in Campania, as observed during the morphoscopic analysis (Fig. 9b), suggests that these coarse sediments are attributable to the ballast of ships and fragments of artefacts of Roman age.

5. Discussion Fig. 7. Cylindrical depression of human workmanship, about 1 m diameter, found at 11 m depth, ascribable to a carved millstone (photo C. Minopoli). Based on geomorphological, sedimentological and geo- archaeological data, the main steps of the coastal morphological evolution during PleistoceneeHolocene are hereinafter described. 1969) by hydrodynamic processes very active in the dense network During the Middle Pleistocene the Mt. Massico was a peninsula of channels and fractures of the submerged ignimbritic bank. A which divided two bays located along the current plains of rivers residual amount of about 1% of such sediments, with a diameter Garigliano, to the north, and Volturno, to the south. This arrange- less than 88 mm, was detected in the analyzed distributions. Ac- ment lasted even during the sea-level high stand of the Last cording to Friedman (1961), Sahu (1964), Cronan (1972) and Interglacial Maximum (LIM: MIS 5.5, ~125 kyr BP) and ended M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 207

Fig. 8. Diagrams of statistical parameters of sediment related to the depth (see Table 1 and details in the text): a) mean size (Mz)/depth diagram showing the sediment distribution, from coarse to very fine, along shoreline and submerged beach; b) sI/depth diagram (Martins, 2003) showing the relations between sorting and shoreline as well as seabed depth; s c) skewness (SKI )/depth diagram (Martins, 2003) showing the relations between granulometric curve asymmetry and shoreline as well as sea bottom depth; d) Mz/ I (mean size/ standard deviation; Martins, 2003) diagram showing the grade of sorting compared to the granulometric dimension; e) Mz/sI (mean size/standard deviation; Martins, 2003) s diagram showing the parameters ratio related to depth; f) SKI / I (skewness/standard deviation) diagram sensu Martins (2003), showing this parameters ratio related to depth; g) s SKI / I (skewness/standard deviation) diagram sensu Friedman (1967), showing the parameters ratio related to depth. around 90 kyr BP. Since this period, the sea began to retreat Massico, EeW oriented, which borders to the north the plain; a westward, reaching the current depth of 110/120 m about 18 kyr large part of flows were deposited along the southern and western BP (Last Glacial Maximum, LGM), so both the coastal strip where slopes of the mountain, while a smaller fraction overruled them. To Sinuessa is located and the current continental shelf were emerged. the west, along the western foothills of the massif, lowered by The latter at that time was a broad coastal plain. normal faults, the flows overlapped the rocky complexes of the About 39 kyr BP, the dense pyroclastic flows of Campanian horst, forming the current outcrop. During this event, the sedi- Ignimbrite (De Vivo et al., 2001), ejected from the Phlegrean Fields mentation environment was of fluvialemarshy type, with known situated about 45 km further south, reached the study area. The frequentations of Neanderthals in the shelter of the Roccia San flows propagated northward and filled the Campanian Plain, much Sebastiano on Mt. Petrino (Ruiu et al., 2012). The shoreline was larger and more depressed than the current, with a thickness up to about 10 km to the west of the present-day one (Fig. 10), likely about 50 m in the depocenter. Subsequently, these flows were reaching the current depth of about 60 m (Waelbroeck et al., covered by more recent deposits, while at the foot of marginal 2002). carbonate reliefs the ignimbrite frequently outcrops. Therefore, The watercourses that crossed the wide plain, in the area at that these flows were morphologically hampered by the ridge of Mt. time emerged and then covered by the ignimbrite, dissected the 208 M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

the structures were submerged due to both sea level rise and lowering of the ground. Along the Tyrrhenian coast, between Tuscany and Latium, sea level rose about þ1.25 m due to glacial-iso-hydrostatic processes (Lambeck et al., 2003) occurred since Roman age until present-day (surveys of Roman piscinae at Torre Astura, 50 km south of Rome; Anzidei et al., 2003; Lambeck et al., 2004a). Instead, Pirazzoli (1976, 1981, 2005) suggests that in Roman times the sea level, along tectonically stable areas, was approximately 0.7 m lower than today, differently from other Mediterranean area where tectonics and seismicity acted during the Holocene (Pirazzoli et al., 1991, 1994a, 1994b). On such bases, in the study area was estimated a relative sea level change of about 8m,i.e. the depth of top of Roman pilae which coincided with the surface frequented by Romans, starting from 1700 yr BP. Assuming a credible sea level rise value of þ1m,a ground lowering at least 7 m due to tectonics occurred (Fig. 11). These processes are witnessed by evidences related to beach environment characterized by palaeobeaches and stretches of marine abrasion terraces modeled on the ignimbritic bank, with accessory forms of marine (microcliffs, scouring, pebbly palae- obeaches), tidal (rockpools) and continental (gullies) environments. Summarizing, port facilities in Roman times were on the flat Campanian Ignimbrite bank, which at that time was at maximum þ0.5 m higher than the Roman sea level. Inside the small coves along the palaeo riverbed, large Roman ships docked, as currently the depth of channels and coves ranges between 2 and 3 m bsl. Therefore, the Roman coastline very likely corre- sponds to the current depth of 6.5/7 m. After this period, also subsidence processes occurred. The average rate of subsidence Fig. 9. Morphoscopic analysis of granules: a) ternary diagram of 250e350 mm quartz detected in the 1992e2000 period (Geoportale Nazionale, Italy; grain distribution and related percentage (see Table 1): NA, not abraded, but trans- http://www.pcn.minambiente.it/), by radar with PSI technique e parent and angular; BT, blunt translucent, with subrounded to round edges, more or SAR (Permanent Scatter Interferometry e Synthetic Aperture Ra- less hyaline; RO, rounded opaque, with well-rounded edges and opaque (sensu Angelucci and Palmerini, 1964); the sample F7 is absent, as it contains no quartz dar) from ERS satellites with ascending orbit, is 1.5 mm/yr. This granules; b) sample S11: autochthonous carbonate and volcanic fine gravel and datum if projected to the last 1700 years returns a subsidence of granules, with bioclastic material, containing also some allochthonous fragments of 2.5 m. However, it should be considered that most of the lowering marble and metamorphic rocks not outcropping in Campania, probably attributable to of the Late Quaternary sedimentary sequence has ended after the Roman ship ballasts and artefacts. deposition of ignimbritic mass.

6. Conclusions newly formed tuff outcrop, linking up again at the basic level moved about 10 km to the west, so forming meandering river beds. Several areas along the Mediterranean coasts show submerged The post-glacial sea level rise moved the shoreline eastward, with ruins of Greco-Roman Period down to few meters below the cur- regression of the coastal platform facies, and consequent genesis of rent sea level (Auriemma and Solinas, 2009). The causes of marsh and lagoon environments. During the Graeco-Roman Period archaeological remains submersion are mainly attributed to the (3800e2300 yr BP), the coastal dune and wet areas at the back interactions between sea level rise and subsidence, while in vol- were formed. canic areas the adjunctive effect of tectonics, seismicity and locally About 2300 yr BP, the Roman age road, paved in limestone, bradyseismic phenomena determined a higher and rapid soil perpendicular to the shoreline and facing Mt. Cicoli, was built after downlift as in Campania (Aiello et al., 2007; Putignano et al., 2014). the cut of the dune. The Roman road, today partly buried by post- Considering volcano-tectonics, historical seismicity, and Roman sand deposits, continues along the same direction and is geomorphic, sedimentary and geoarchaeological analyses, the likely part of a network of coastal roads which served the port area, possible morphodynamics of the Sinuessa coastland during the last with activities developed on the surface of the flat tuff bedrock. 2500 years is here described. Probably, this road ended to the beach, which at that time was The archaeological remains found along the sea bottom facing placed at the present 11 m depth. Actually, a palaeobeach and a Sinuessa are likely attributable to port facilities linked to the ac- millstone quarrying were found at that depth, about 1 km far from tivities of the colony in the Roman imperial period. The discovery of the present shoreline, and the latter could be dated to an early pilae at 8 m depth, which were originally placed at least at sea period of its use (since 2500 yr BP). level of that time, suggests that a significant lowering of the tuff Sea level slowly rose up to a depth equal to the current 8m. platform, on which such structures are based, occurred. Conse- Anthropic activities as port facilities developed over the flat area, at quently, since the sea level along this Tyrrhenian coastal sector has that time emerging, until the III century AD. Actually, the history of risen about þ1.25 m from Roman times to today (Anzidei et al., the coastal town seems end around this century, together with the 2003; Lambeck et al., 2004a) and considering a maximum tidal port activities (Crimaco, 1993). In the literature, it has been erro- range of ±0.5 m, the site with pilae downlifted about 6.5 m, due to neously hypothesized a probable silting of the port; on the contrary, tectonic deformation. Romano et al. (1994) suggest that the M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 209

Fig. 10. Shoreline position about 39 kyr BP compared to the present one. Large dashed line represents the shoreline during the Campanian Ignimbrite emplacement, about 10 km to the west of the current one, likely corresponding to present-day depth of about 60 m (Waelbroeck et al., 2002); fine dashed line is the relic of submerged drainage network; white area is the ignimbritic submerged bank on which the archaeological remains of Sinuessa lie; open circle indicates the Roman age dock area.

subsidence of the areas adjacent to Mt. Massico maybe lasted up to Giusti (1928) performs a detailed history of Sessa from 1348 to historical times. This fact was supported by Pagano (1974), whom 1868 describing two incidents of plague (1538 and 1656), which indicated the presence of ruins of a Roman town in the stretch of decimated the population, and effects of the Garigliano River sea off the present-day city of Mondragone, from the shoreline flooding (including the devastating flood of November 1813), which down to 20 m depth, depth resized to around 8 m in this work. reached the study area. This author refers to a single earthquake of Billi et al. (1997) indicate normal faulting oriented NWeSE in 26th July 1805, strong but without damage, and does not describe the western sector of Mt. Massico, near the coastline. Cinque et al. other earthquakes with relevant consequences. Therefore, signifi- (2000) define both the activity of this fault, starting ~36 kyr BP up cant ground vertical movements in the described period, able to to the present, and its length of 6 km, with vertical slip rate of determine the submersion of the coastal area of Sinuessa, can be 0.1e0.5 mm/yr. Is recalled that until the end of the '90s the age of excluded. Moreover, the author writes of militias coming from the the Campanian Ignimbrite, previously known as Campanian Gray sea, who disembarked in the near ports of Garigliano River and Tuff, was ~37 kyr BP (Rosi and Sbrana, 1987), while this pyroclastic Pozzuoli since 1544, but never at Sinuessa. Even Gasperetti (1993) formation is re-dated ~39 kyr BP (De Vivo et al., 2001). Therefore, reports that in 1483 already occurred a lowering of the coast, and the ground lowering has been recalculated in our work, although that the sea invaded part of the territory between Sessa and the event has an uncertain temporal collocation but with a time Mondragone. So, if there was tectonic activity then occurred before constraint to the Roman period, and probably attributable to recent 1348 AD. tectonic phases. Crimaco (1993) and Zannini (2005) date back to around 300 AD Bibliographic research on historical earthquakes in the study the decline of Sinuessa and its port facilities. Castagnoli (1998) re- area (Nappi, 1981; Guidoboni, 1989; Guidoboni et al., 1994; Boschi ports the effects of malaria that decimated the population until the et al., 1997; Castagnoli, 1998; Working Group CPTI, 1999, 2004; III century AD. This disease is related to the development of Marturano, 2002; Guidoboni et al., 2007; La Greca, 2007) yielded marshlands along much of the coast of Gulf of Gaeta, due to post- no results. Cascella (2002) and Galadini and Galli (2004) report the glacial sea level rise (Abate et al., 1998; Ferrari et al., 2013). damage suffered by the city theater of Sessa Aurunca, of Augustan It should be considered as well a small contribution of subsi- age, to the earthquake of 346 AD, with probable epicentre in Mt. dence, related to the magma chamber contraction of the nearby Matese (La Greca, 2007). Seems that these damages were also Roccamonfina Volcano, following the gradual cooling, whose ac- repaired previously (by a noblewoman of imperial rank named tivity has ended about 50 kyr BP. Anzidei et al. (2003) proposed a Matidia) following an earthquake, before the end of the II century similar hypothesis for the volcanic arc of Aeolian Islands (Sicily), AD (Camodeca, 2005). estimating a subsidence rate of 1.87 mm/yr for the last 2000 years. 210 M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213

Fig. 11. Schematic geological sections showing (a) the coastland of Sinuessa in Roman age and (b) coastal changes during the last 2500 years, desumed both by geomorphological and geoarchaeological elements. Legend: 1) marine deposit; 2) palaeobeach; 3) Campanian Ignimbrite; 4) concealed or inferred fault; 5) palaeo sea notch; 6) vertical ground motion; 7) cylindrical depression of carved millstone; 8) amphorae and anchor findings; 9) Roman pilae; 10) limestone flagstones of Roman road; 11) sea level of IVeV century BC; 12) sea level of Roman age (2 kyr BP); 13) post-Roman sea-level rise; 14) current sea level. BeB0 represents the trace of geological section (see Fig. 6); depth is in meters bsl.

The cooling of the Roccamonfina volcano might have caused a Acknowledgements subsidence of about 1 m. Actually, the Tyrrhenian deposits (~125 kyr BP) are at þ5 m asl in a zone adjacent to the study area The authors warmly thank the Municipality of Sessa Aurunca (Abate et al., 1998), while in other areas of the coastal plain of (Caserta, southern Italy) for the financial support to marine surveys. Campania, tectonically stable, the same deposits are at þ6 m asl Special thanks are due to Authority of National Basin of Rivers Liri- (Brancaccio et al., 1991). Garigliano and Volturno, for providing of Subbottom Profiler data. Considering all the circumstances and assuming that the top of We are very grateful to the University of Naples Federico II and to the tuff platform emerged of at least þ0.5 m asl (operating height of the Italian Compagnia di San Paolo Foundation, for grant FARO 2012 the dock or breakwater) or was at the same height of sea level at the funded to the Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and time of the construction of Roman pilae, then a subsidence of 2.5 m Resources, for providing some marine sediment samples. Finally, and tectonic movements could be dated to the III century AD. These the authors wish to thank both the referees for their careful and movements likely occurred along a reactivated normal fault, painstaking work in reviewing this paper. This paper is an Italian approximately NeS trending, located near the coast. The disloca- contribution to the project IGCP 639 e International Geological tions of this area most likely have caused the collapse of the Correlation Programme “Sea-level change from minutes to ignimbrite outcrop, with archaeological findings, down to millennia” by UNESCO e IUGS (Project Leaders: S. Engelhart, G. about 4/4.5 m depth, with estimated slip rate of 2.35e2.65 mm/ Hoffmann, F. Yu and A. Rosentau). yr in the last 1700 years. At this depth should be added the contribution due to glacio-hydro-isostatic processes, which we References assumed equal to about 1 m. Moreover, our research shows that the Roman age shoreline was about 1 km off (i.e. westward) the Abate, D., De Pippo, T., Ilardi, M., Pennetta, M., 1998. Studio delle caratteristiche present-day coastline. morfoevolutive quaternarie della Piana del Garigliano. Il Quaternario, Italian e The valuation of entity and activity of different ground ver- Journal of Quaternary Sciences 11 (2), 149 158. Adam, J.P., 1984. L'arte di costruire presso i Romani. Materiali e tecniche. Longanesi tical motions, linked to volcano-tectonics and subsidence which & C., Milano. trigger shoreline retreat, through interdisciplinary investigations AdB, 2013. Piano stralcio Erosione Costiera e Litorale Domitio. Indagini geofisiche, allows definition of intervention strategies along eroding coast- Rilievo batimetrico multibeam, Indagini geologiche e geomorfologiche. In: Autorita di Bacino Nazionale dei Fiumi Liri e Garigliano e Volturno. Gazzetta lines and enhancement of coastal archaeological sites. Actually, Ufficiale n.146, 24.06.2013. the application of our methodology in this study area represents Aiello, G., Barra, D., De Pippo, T., Donadio, C., Petrosino, C., 2007. Morphological a sample element, useful for the integration of the mosaic of evolution of volcanic islands near Naples, southern Italy. Zeitschrift für Geo- morphologie N.F. 51 (2), 165e190. future conservation operations along similar Mediterranean Alessio, M., Bella, F., Improta, S., Belluomini, G., Calderoni, G., Cortesi, C., Turi, F., coastland. 1974. University of Rome carbon e 14 dates XII. Radiocarbon 16, 358e367. M. Pennetta et al. / Quaternary International 425 (2016) 198e213 211

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