Anthropologies of Class: Power, Practice and Inequality Edited by James G

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-08741-5 - Anthropologies of Class: Power, Practice and Inequality Edited by James G. Carrier and Don Kalb Index More information

Index

A Consumer’s Republic (by L. Cohen), 90–91 Antunes, Juarez (mayor of Volta Redonda), abrazo (the hug), 158–59 158–59 absolute expediency, 128–29, 130 aristocracy of labor. See labor aristocracy accumulation by dispossession, 42–43, 44–45, Arrighi, Giovanni, 183, 184, 185 105 n 7, 150. See also primitive Arthur D. Little (consulting firm), 169, accumulation 170–71 Act 184. See Industrial Tax Exemption Act of spread of export processing zones, 176 Puerto Rico Arthur D. Little (person), 171 Adivasi assemblage and globalization, 188–89 circular migration, 124 AssociaciodeVe´ ¨ınats (residents’ association), education in Kerala, 125 111 Indian scholarly approach to, 129–30 Es Barri, 102–03, 111–12 Kottamurade, 120 changing membership, 112, 113 Adivasi identity. See also indigenism plans to improve area, 113 class analysis, 130 renewal of, 112–13 class processes, 125 autonomous practices of the self, 72, 73, ADL. See Arthur D. Little (consulting firm) 84 Aiyyappan, A., 119 Alicia’s rejecting exploitation, 86 Akathi (Kottamurade woman) ethnography describes, 74 anti-indigenism, 129 AV . See AssociaciodeVe´ ¨ınats (residents’ Muthanga land occupation association) effects of, 128–29 involvement, 127 Bajo Segura (region in Spain), 80–81 social and economic position, 126–27 exploitation in, 77 Alicia (activist in Bajo Segura), 77–79, 82, 85 mixed economy, 77 Alliance for Progress, 172 questionnaire, 78–79 American Federation of Labor, 47–48 Balearics (region in Spain), 106 anthropological approach to class, 14–16, 167, banana workers, 49–50 194 Bel and Biel (AssociaciodeVe´ ¨ınats members), disciplinary context, 8, 10–11 112–13 historical context, 13 Benedict, Burton, 166 political–economic, 11–13 Bengali cuisine, 145 anthropological definition of class Bensa¨ıd, Daniel, 105 changes in, 8, 14–15 Berle, Adolf and Gardiner Means, 34 fluid, 16–18, 106–07 Bolin, Richard, 176, 177 relation, as, 18–19 Bourdieu, Pierre, 6 anthropology bourgeois patriotic generosity, 171 British versus American, 8 Brazil uncertainty in, 39–40 auto workers, 158 anthropology of global systems, 183–84 bureaucratic unions, 162 anthropology of labor, 43, 44 corporatism, 154, 156–57

224

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-08741-5 - Anthropologies of Class: Power, Practice and Inequality Edited by James G. Carrier and Don Kalb Index More information

Index 225

coup of 1964, 157 Carrier, James, 93 responses, 157, 158 cat sterilization program, 102–03 development policy, 156, 157 CCOO. See Comisiones Obreras (union) divergent scholarly approaches to, 149 chakri (position), 139–40 economic crisis of 2008, 159–60 China economy, 156–57, 159–60 4 plus 1 households, 142–43 changes in, 150, 151, 156 export processing zones in, 177 Kubitschek reforms, 157 global economy, in, 189 multiculturalist ideology, 156 chips, 47 New Unionism, 157–59 CIG. See Confederacion´ Intersindical Galega regulatory capitalism, 159, 162–63 (union) rejection of Europe, 151, 155, 162 circulation union leadership and tactics, 157–58 class, and, 68–69 United States, and, 155–56, 157 Weber’s view of class, 29–30 Brazil Square (Volta Redonda), 152 class. See also anthropological approach to Brazil Takes Off (Economist article), 159 class; anthropological definition of Brazil: Land of the Future (by S. Zweig), 149, class; class consciousness; death of 155–56 class; Marx; wage relation; Weber Brazilian Workers Party, 150 analytical tool and ethnographic category, Burawoy, Michael, 6 149 bureaucratic unions capitalist accumulation and, 192–93 Brazil, 162 contingency of, 114–15 Britain, 162 culture, difference, 194 Ferrol, 63–64 death of, 3 Spain, 66–67 definition of, 1 emergent, 73 Calcutta middle class. See also Indian middle endogamy, 195–96 class explanatory concept, 1, 2–3, 4–5 affinal relations, 144 export processing zones, and, 180 attitudes toward education, 141, 142 fluid nature of, 15–16, 53–54 attributes, 135 geographical aspect, 35 Bengali, 135 historical changes in, 20, 56 children as insurance, 143 language of, 135 collective orientation, 142–43 logic of reproduction, 191–92 convenience foods, 146 Marx’s definition of, 29, 86–87 daughters’ domestic orientation, 140, 142 Marxian literature, 191–92 domestic relations, 147–48 perception of, 33, 41, 43 female education, 140–41 Ferrol, 59–60 female employment, 141–42 position in reproductive process, 194, food preparation, 145 195–96 government employees, 135, 139 social conflict and change, 38 inheritance, 143 n 4 social reproduction, and, 105–06 intensive parenting, 144 social space, and, 104–05 meat consumption, 146–47 Weber’s definition of, 29–30 position of girls, 140 class analysis pre-processed food, 146 indigenism, and, 130 women and food preparation, 145–46 scales of, 82–83, 86 Caliban and the Witch (by S. Federici), 46 class and consumption, 69, 134 capital flight, 186, 187–88 Calcutta, 24, 136–37, 144 capitalism everydayness, 145 dynamic, 32–33 Ferrol, 58, 66–67 innovation and social reproduction, 32–33 India, 132, 133, 134 capitalist accumulation Indian ethnography, 133 class, and, 192–93 middle class, 132–33 cycles, 187–88, 189–90 United States, 22–23, 90

226 Index

class and indigeneity social democracy, and, 60, 62 Brazil, 151 Spain, 70 India. See class consciousness, indigeneity Spain general strike, 57–58 and technical and managerial workers, 60 class and inequality, 37–38, 52 Thompson, E.P., 42 class and production, 18–19, 26, 87 variations, 161–63 Spain, 21 Volta Redonda, 161 class and race, 163 class formation, 49 class and social reproduction, 16–18, 21–22, E.P. Thompson’s view, 42 26 East St. Louis, 47–48 Calcutta, 133–34 Ferrol, 59–60 Indian family, 132–33 Kerala, 125 Indian middle class, 137–38 post-Keynesian, 41–42 class as conditional, 74, 80, 83–84, 86, 87 race aspects, 43–44, 48 Peruvian case, 80, 84–85 Walmart, 90 Spanish case, 80–81, 85 class identity class as relational, 14–15, 21–22, 25 consumerism, 133 breadth of, 14 education, and, 141 Calcutta, 135–36 food in Calcutta, and, 145–46 Es Barri, 23 class polarization, 194–95, 196 class boundaries, 34, 36–37, 63, 66–67 class politics and hegemonic cycles, 193 Calcutta, 144, 147–48 class position, 14–15, 57 India, 132, 137–38 class potential, 73, 80, 81–82, 83–84 class cloaca, 102 n 2, 108–09 class relations, 2, 134 class concept gentrification, and, 116 academic use of, 4 Indian middle class household, 138 among Ferrol activists, 62 social reproduction, and, 105–06 anthropology, 7–10 visibility of, 38–39 Ferrol, 66 class structure and social relations, 33, 86–87, historical background, 19 115 history (academic discipline), 4–5 Cohen, Lizabeth, 90–91, 92–93 re-emergence of, 6–7 Cold War. See development policy sociology, 5–7 Collins, Jane, 45, 46 twentieth century, 2–4 Comisiones Obreras (union), 55 n 2, 57–58, class conflict, 74, 86–87 61–62, 63–64 class consciousness, 23–25, 87–88. See also commodity consumption and class identity, desclasado (de-classed) 145–46 Brazil, 154 Companha Siderurgica Nacional, 150 consumer citizen, 97 Brazilian industrialization, 156 corporatism, 61–62 labor peace, 155 creation of, 56 privatization, 153 debt, 67–68 strike, 158–59 decline in Spain, 58–59 concept of class, 71 Ferrol, 54, 59, 66, 67, 68, 69 Condominas, George, 104–05 gentrification, and, 115 Confederacion´ Intersindical Galega (union), Global South, 149–50 61–62 history in, 66 consumer, 89, 91–92 India universal status, 93 emergence of, 135–36 consumer-citizen, 89, 91–92, 94 home versus outside, 137–38 history in United States, 91 indigenism, and, 120, 121–22 limitations of, 99 Marx and Weber, 30 neoliberal extension, 92–93, 97 organic intellectuals, 55–56 self-centered, 97 promotion of, 62 variants, 90–91 Sheffield, 160–61 versus other forms of citizenship, 96

Index 227

versus rights-bearing citizen, 100–01 disorganization, 50 versus worker, 93, 96–97, 99–100 class conflict, and, 49, 50 consumer-citizen-taxpayer-voter, 92 dispossession, 49, 50, 51. See also consumerism, 133 accumulation by dispossession; Coronelism, 152 primitive accumulation corporatism domesticity. See middle class Brazil Du Bois, W.E.B., 43–44, 47–48 decline of, 157 Dumenil,´ Gerard´ and Dominique Levy,´ re-emergence, 159–60 190 Spain after Franco regime, 55–56 East St. Louis, 47–48 class consciousness effects, 66–67, economic crisis, 183–84 70–71 anthropological response, 10 Confederacion´ Intersindical Galega effect on Walmart, 90, 97–98 policy, 61–62 effects in Spain, 58–59, 61–62, 68, Franco regime, 54 106 rejected by CCOO, 63–64 economy, social nature of, 30–31 Correa Lima (planner of Volta Redonda), 151, Elias, Norbert, 14 152 Engels, Friedrich, 2 cosmopolitan elites, 193–96 EPZ. See export processing zone cosmopolitanization and indigenization, Eriksen, Thomas Hylland, 165–66 195–96 Es Barri. See also gentrification Costco (Walmart competitor), 99–100 changing population and land prices, 111, counter-cyclical firm, 97–98 113 crisis of profitability, 193 class transformations, 104 CSN. See Companha Siderurgica Nacional degraded, 109–10 cultural polarization, 198–99 historical changes, 108–09 culturalist anthropology, 7–8, 9–10 renewal of, 111, 112, 113, 114 decline of, 10 renewal scheme, 111–12 tenants versus owners, 112 DaMatta, Roberto, 153, 161 Estado Novo. See also Vargas, Getulio´ Dahrendorf, Ralf, 34 European influences, 154 dangerous classes, 196 formulation, 153 Darkwater (by W.E.B. Du Bois), 43–44 industrial stress, 151 Darnton, Robert, 83 n 5, 103–04 paternalism, 152, 153–54 DBM. See Development Bank of Mauritius rejection of activism, 153–54 De Andrade, Oswald, 151 welfare orientation, 153–54 De Castro Gomes, Angela, 154–55 ethnography and class, 72, 74, 79–83 De Sousa Santo, Boaventura, 149–50 Eurocommunism, 62–64 De Souza Martins, Jose,´ 161 exploitation, 77 death of class, 3 kin, and, 78–79 Denning, Michael, 41, 45, 46 Peru, 80 desclasado (de-classed), 57, 59–60, 62. See export processing zone also class consciousness advocates of in Puerto Rico, 170–71 formation of, 58–60 anthropological approach to, 166–67 re-classing of, 69–70 anti-market, 171–72 development capital orientation, 171–72 Ireland, 173–74 competition’s effect on, 175 Mauritius, 177, 180 development, 181 Development Bank of Mauritius, 178 export-led development, 168 development policy foundation of in Puerto Rico, 169–72 Cold War, 168–69, 172 global investment flow, 176 manufacturing, 168 global political economy, in, 180 dirigisme (Leninism), 56, 63–64, 65 neoliberal response to Prebisch–Singer disinvestment. See gentrification thesis, 170

228 Index

export processing zone (cont.) Indian middle class, 138–39 regional commodity flow, 176 General Electric (US company), 174–75, spread of, 175–76 187 state relationship, 167, 171–72 General Workers Federation (Mauritius), superexploitation, 181 178–79 transnational capitalist class, 181 gentrification, 104 n 5, 107 accumulation, and, 104, 113, 114, 115 familia siderurgica. See steel family class relations, 106–07, 116 Featherstone, Liza, 95–96 destruction of value, 109, 113–14 Federici, Sylvia, 46 disinvestment, 107–08, 110 fent barri (making neighborhood), 103 n 4 Es Barri, 104, 112 Fernando (uncle of Alicia), 77–78 geography (discipline), 107 Ferrol, 54 urban labor in, 106, 107–08, 113, 115 labor unions, 61 global cities, 188 Ferrol activists Global Insight (consulting firm), 94–95 generational differences, 63–64, 71 globalization Trotskyites, 61, 66–67, 71 class consciousness, and, 69 differences from older activists, 65 expansion, versus, 186–87 reject gradualism, 58, 63–64 hegemonic decline, and, 185–87, 198–99 similarities with older activists, 64–65 label, 184–85 use of class, 62 neoliberalism, and, 187 Ferrol shipyards, 54, 61 globalization discourse, 185, 199 Ferrol workers, 54 discrete cultures, 184 aspiration to become middle class, 58–60 gradualism, 60, 66, 70–71 generational differences, 56, 57, 65–66 Graeber, David, 11, 12 organic intellectuals, 56 Gramsci, Antonio, 53–54, 87 n 7 Fianna Fail,´ 173 finance capital, 187–88, 190, 193 Harris, Mark, 105–06 financial bubbles, 186 Harvey, David, 11–12, 105 financial class, 16, 67, 68 accumulation by dispossession, 42–43 financialization, 185, 186, 190 neoliberalism, 49, 189–90 flexible accumulation, 187 hegemonic cycles, 187, 188, 189–90 Fomento Industrial (Puerto Rico), 169 after World War Two, 193 Ford Motor Company, 91 class politics, 193 Fordism, 91, 187 class, and, 192–93 class politics, 192–93 hegemonic decline, 183–84, 188–89 fragmentation of the working class, 70 class politics, 193–94, 196, 198 Francisco (activist in Ferrol), 58–59 effect on migration, 193 Franco multiculturalism, and, 199 death of, 55 political centrism, 196, 198 dictatorship, 54 Herzfeld, Michael, 107 Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration, higher journalism, 39 91–92 historical bloc, 53 Franquesa, Jaume, 107 history (the past), 86 From Dawn to Sunset (film), 91 praxis, and, 87 Fuco Buxan, 57–58, 62–64, 65 Hobsbawm, Eric, 75, 76, 84, 85 home. See class consciousness, India Galbraith, John Kenneth, 91–92 homework, 78–79 Garc´ıa-Delgado, Carlos, 111 Huasicancha (region in Peru), 74, 75, 76 Garibi Hatao (Eradicate Poverty) campaign in India, 122 Indian cuisine, authentic, 145 gender. See social reproduction Indian middle class. See also Calcutta middle gender relations class Calcutta middle class, 141, 142–43 affinal relations, 138 class identity, and, 134, 135 approaches to, 131

Index 229

attributes, 132, 137–38 class analysis, and, 22–24, 25, 39 changing size, 142–43 class aspects, 12–13, 15–18 daughters versus sons, 138 class, and, 69 expansion of, 131 common anthropological orientation, 164 exploitation in household, 138–39 export processing zones, 166–67 family size, 138 Mauritius, 165–66 female education, 140 reproduction, and, 32–33 gender relations, 132–33, 138–39 sociology approach to class, 6–7 inheritance, 143 London dockworkers, 47 intergenerational aspects, 142–43 low prices–low wages tradeoff, 99–100 indigenism lowest and worst use of land, 107–08, 110 encouraged by NGOs, 119–21 Lula da Silva, 158, 159–60 exclusion, and, 122, 129–30 Luxemburg, Rosa, 42–43, 45, 53, 150 Industrial Tax Exemption Act of Puerto Rico, 170–71 Magnitogorsk, 156 Irish Transport and General Workers Union, making history, 72, 80, 81, 84–85 174–75 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 38–39 Manifesto da poesia pau-Brasil (by O. de Jacinto, Sabino (pastoralist and activist in Andrade), 151 Huasicancha), 75–76, 82, 84–85 Manifesto of the Communist Party (by Marx Janu, C.K. (head of Adivasi Gothra Maha and Engels), 28–29 Sabha), 118–19, 126–28 Manolo and Manuel (residents of Es Barri), 109–11 Kaoshiung Harbour export processing zone, Marcus, George, 39–40 175–76 Mario (activist in Ferrol), 58 Kerala poor, 122, 125, 130 market power, 29–30 Keynesianism, 99–100 Marx, Karl, 2, 28, 44–45 class conﬂict, and, 198 epistemology, 86–87 consumption, and, 89, 91–92 historical context, 28–29, 34, 35 globalization, and, 190 importance of economy, 29, 30–31 view of consumer-citizen, 89 social reproduction, 31–32 Kodagu (area in India), 123–24 Mauritius, 164 Kottamurade anthropological views of, 165–66, 180 class polarization, 125 colonial economy, 177 economic condition, 123–24 export processing zone, 165 education, 125 export quotas, 179 effects of land occupation, 126 general strike, 178–79 migration, 123–24 global economy, in, 165–66 Krugman, Paul, 183, 189 global factors and local development, Kubitschek, Juscelino, 157, 158 180 Kula ring, 38–39 superexploitation, 181 World Bank and IMF view of, 165 labor aristocracy, 59–60, 62, 64–65, 69 Mauritius export processing zone Labor Code (Brazil), 153–54 competitors, 178 Lapavitsas, Costas, 68 country-wide, 178 Lefebvre, Henri, 102, 104–05 decline, 179 Lembcke, Jerry, 49 economic development, 181 Lenin, V.I., 60 established, 178 Lima, Correa (planner of Volta Redonda), growth, 179 151–52 labor relations, 178–79 Linebaugh, Peter, 47 state ﬁnancing, 178–79 little emperors, 142–43 state relationship, 178 Little, Royal, 171 Mauritius Labour Party, 177 local and global, 180–81, 182, 183–84 Metalworkers’ Union of Volta Redonda, anthropological approaches, 7–8, 17–18 156–57

230 Index

middle class social reproduction in Calcutta, 145–46 aspirations in Ferrol, 58–60 threat to Indian middle class, 131–32, 134 cultural project, 135 neoliberalism differentiation of in Calcutta, 136–37 consumer-citizen, 92 differentiation of in India, 133, 134 declining profit levels, 188 emergence in India, 135–36 displacing globalization, 196 family values, and, 136, 137–38 effect in Spain, 55–56 gentrification, 107 globalization, and, 187 perception of in Calcutta, 135 normal capitalist accumulation, 185, 189–90 role of women, 137–38 state role, 187 Miguel (activist in Ferrol), 59–60 surplus populations, 45–46 militant particularism, 80, 81–82 New Cultural History, 5 Miller, Daniel, 94 New Deal, 169 Moncloa Agreement (Pacto de la Moncloa), New Economic Sociology, 6 55–56 New Labour and unions, 162 Moore, Henrietta, 11 New Public Management, 198 Moscoso, Teodoro, 170, 177 New Social History, 4 link with Arthur D. Little (consulting firm), New Unionism, 149–50 172 new vegetarianism, 147 transnational capitalist class, 172 Nixon, Richard, 157 Mouvement Militante Mauricien (Mauritius), 178–79 O’Regan, Brendan, 173–74 Multi Fibre Arrangement of 1974, 179 old pensioner widows, 103 multiplication of the proletariat. See also On Work and Wealth (by W.E.B. Du Bois), proletariat; working class 47–48 decline of industry, and, 20 organic intellectual, 53, 54–55, 56 East St. Louis, 48 class concept, and, 56 Eric Wolf, 50–51 labor conflict, and, 61 London dockworkers, 47 ownership and control, 34–35 Marx’s view, 42–43 neoliberalism, 49 Paniya, 118 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 46 changing class relations, 125 multitudes, 194–95 Wayanad, 118 n 2 Muthanga land occupation, 118, 126 Paraiba Valley (Brazil), 151 conflict over Adivasi traditions, 127 Partido Popular Democratico´ (Puerto Rico), ending of, 128 169 opposition to, 127–28 party, 30 support for, 125 Point Four program different from Prebisch–Singer thesis, Native’s point of view, 9, 10, 11, 38–39 168–69 Naxalite movement, 122 Puerto Rico, 169–70 neoliberal de-democratization, 97 police and politics, 72–73, 85 neoliberal reform political class, 194 Calcutta middle class, 136–37 hegemonic decline, 196, 198 meat consumption, 146–47 political–economic anthropology, 7, 11–13 effect on Calcutta food preparation, 145–46 changing position of the state, 13 effect on Calcutta households, 139–40, culture in, 9 143–44 decline of in 1980s and 1990s, 8, 9–10 effect on child-rearing in Calcutta, 144 emergence of in 1960s and 1970s, 8–9 effect on education in Calcutta, 143–44 political–economic system, 15–16, 25–26 gender relations in Calcutta, 139–41 Popular and Trade Union Front, 158–59 importance of English in Calcutta, 143–44 postmodern anthropology, 9–10 India, 122–23, 124–25 decline of, 10 Indian middle class, 139 post-structuralism, 4–5

Index 231

Prato (city in Italy), 193–94 Shannon Free Zone praxis, 72, 73, 74, 80, 81, 85, 87–88 advertisement, 174 Prebisch–Singer thesis, 168 early labor practices, 174–75 neoliberal response to, 170 effect of EEC rules, 175 Presidente Vargas plant, 150–51. See also General Electric (US company), 174–75 Volta Redonda resembles Puerto Rico export processing army control, 158 zone, 174 labor hierarchy in, 156 state relationship, 174 privatization, 153 Shefﬁeld unionism, 160–61 public and private realms, 152 Sklair, Leslie, 172 primitive accumulation, 29, 44–45. See also Smith, Neil, 107 accumulation by dispossession Soares, Renato, 158–59 production social democracy and class consciousness, Marx’s view of class, 29 66–67 social reproduction, and, 105 Social Democratic Party (Germany), 66 proletariat social order, 36–37 fragmentation, 67 social reproduction, 31 remaking of, 52 Calcutta middle class, 142–43 spread of in the twentieth century, 3 gender, and, 132, 137–38 public and private in Brazil, 153 Indian middle class, 137–38 Puerto Rico production, and, 105 argument against independence, 170 uncertainty of, 31–32, 38, 41–42 discontent in, 169 social space, 104 export orientation, 170–71 created by class struggle, 104–05, 115 export processing zone production of, 115 advertisement, 170–71 social relations, and, 113–14 features, 171–72 social system, 37–38, 39 foundation, 169–71, 172 Soros, George, 198 Textron Corporation, 171, 172 Spanish economic policy, 54–56, 61, purchaser as citizen, 92 71 n 3 versus other sorts of citizenship, 94 Spanish hegemony, 189 purchaser-consumer, 91 stable working class versus the poor, 41 Stande¨ , 30, 35–36 Ramon´ (activist in Ferrol), 62–63, 64, 65 state decline, 13 Ranciere,` Jacques, 72–73 status groups, 30, 35–36 relations of production and consumption, Stedman Jones, Gareth, 4–5 99–100 steel family, 152, 159–60 rent gap hypothesis, 107–08, 111 end of, 158 ownership, 112 Stephen’s Green Club (Dublin), 173–74 Rhodes-Livingston Institute, 50 stories in anthropology, 83 stray cats, 102, 109 Sam’s Club (division of Walmart), 99 Strifﬂer, Steve, 49 saving money as moral, 94 surplus population, 41, 50–52 Scott, Lee (of Walmart), 94–95, 97–98 systematic theory, 15–16 SFADCo. See Shannon Free Airport Development Corporation Technological Tupi, 151 SFZ. See Shannon Free Zone Textron Corporation, 171 Shannon, 173 leaves Puerto Rico, 171–72 air travel links, 173 Senate hearing, 171 relationship with Shannon Free Airport The Great Cat Massacre (by R. Darnton), Development Corporation, 174 83 n 5, 103, 104 Shannon export processing zone, 173 Thompson, E.P., 4, 42, 73 n 2 Shannon Free Airport Development Tilly, Charles, 6 Corporation, 174 Todos Santos (All Saints Day), 75–76

232 Index

tourbanization, 108 Wacquant, Loic,¨ 6 transnational capitalist class, 172 wage relation, 45–47 trans-x discourse, 184 financial capital, 67–68 Truman, Harry S., 168–69 women’s labor, and, 46 wagelessness. See wage relation UNIDO. See United Nations International Walmart. See also economic crisis Development Organization anti-union, 96, 100–01 Union´ General de Trabajadores (UGT, Spanish driver of global practices, 93 Socialist union), 55–56, 58 economic crisis, and, 97 United Fruit Company, 49 hometown image, 93–94 United Nations International Development labor agitation, 100–01 Organization low-wage work, 93, 95, 96, 99 export processing zone feasibility study for poor as customers, 95–96 Mauritius, 177 poverty, and, 95–96, 98–99, 100–01 export processing zone survey, 175–76 purchaser as citizen, 94 promotes export processing zones, response to economic crisis, 99 176–77 retailing strategy, 89–90, 95–96 urban labor, 106, 108, 115–16 cost of to the USA, 95 devaluation of Es Barri, 109–10 economic crisis, 98–99 renewal of Es Barri, 113 saving money as moral, 94–95, 96 self-exploitation, 114 shoppers’ recession-related behavior, 98–99 Urban Leases Act of 1964, 108–09 size of, 89–90 US Navy Sixth Fleet, 108–09 Wayanad, 118 n 1 decline of agriculture, 123 Vargas, Getulio,´ 150. See also Estado Novo migration to, 122 statue, 152 Wayanad Environmental Protection Vasi (landowner in Kerela), 124, 125 Organization, 127–28 vegetarianism in Calcutta, 146–47 Weber, Max, 28 Vellichi (Kottamurade woman) historical context, 28–29, 35–36 indigenism, 129 importance of economy, 29, 30–31 Muthanga land occupation social reproduction, 31–32 effects of, 128, 129 WEPZA. See World Export Processing Zones involvement, 127 Association social and economic position, 127 What Is to Be Done? (by V.I. Lenin), 60 Vives Miro,´ Sonia,` 111 witch trials, 46 Volta Redonda. See also Presidente Vargas Wolf, Eric, 44, 50–51 plant working class civic activism, 153 erasure of, 51–52 company town, 151–52 fragmentation, 63, 65, 71 compared to Sheffield. See Sheffield Ferrol, 64–65 effects of privatization, 153 World Export Processing Zones Association, government of, 152 177 planning of, 151–52 Wright, Erik Olin, 34 public and private realms, 152–53, 158 urban layout, 152 Zweig, Stefan, 149, 155 utopianism, 156 view of Brazil, 155–56