Glossary of Nigerian and Japanese Terms

NIGERIAN TERMS AND PHRASES

Agbekoya Association of farmers (Yoruba). Ala fin Title of the Oba of Oyo. Emir Title of a Muslim ruler in Northern Nigeria. Iweonwe Literally, to rule oneself, and used for political independence (Igbo). Mulkin Kai Political independence (Hausa). Oba A paramount chief of the Yoruba. Obi A chief among the Igbos. Ominira Political independence (Yoruba). Ooni Title of the ruler of Ife. Saraukuna The nobility, members of the traditional ruling houses (Hausa). Sultan Islamic title meaning the Head of the Muslims. He is both the religious and political leader of the Muslims. Talakawa Commoners, all those who are not members of the ruling houses (Hausa).

JAPANESE TERMS AND PHRASES

Bakufu Literally 'tent government' and used to refer to the headquarters of the shogun during the feu• dal period. It became the target of contempt for the Restoration leaders who abolished it in fa• vour of the Emperor Meiji as the new focus of national political power, thus ending centuries of military rule in Japan. Bushido From the word bushi meaning warrior or the military aristocracy. Bushido refers to the general rules governing the behaviour of the samurai class.

171 172 Glossary

Chokigo Imperial pronouncements. Daimyo A feudal lord. From the fifteenth century the term refers to those feudal lords with a territory producing I 0 000 koku or more of rice. Dajokan First formal post-restoration government or the Council of State. Diet The Legislative body under the 1898 Meiji Con• stitution. Fudai 'House Daimyo' -those daimyo with hereditary vassalage to the Tokugawa Shogun. Fukoku Kyohei 'A rich Country and a strong defense', the pri• mary slogan of the early Meiji state leaders. Genro Elder statesman - a group of these served as the Emperor's advisers from the 1890s. Genro-in The Senate. Go no Landlords who personally farm their holdings. Haihan chiken The official abolition of fiefs and thus the main structures of Japanese feudalism, and the estab• lishment of prefectures (ken) in 1871. Han A fief or clan corresponding to the territory ruled by a daimyo. Hanbatsu Clansmen of the early Meiji government. Hoan Jorei Peace Preservation Regulations Act of 25 De• cember 1887. Hosho Supreme administrative body which also con• trolled legislative functions in the immediate post• restoration government. I shin Refers to the Restoration although sometimes used for revolution by some Japanese scholars. Jingikan Administrative division of state for religious (spir• itual) affairs set up by the early Meiji govern• ment. Jiyu Minken undo 'Movement for Liberty and Peoples' Rights' - a general term for the democratic movements of the 1880s. Kan Upper branch of state administration created in August 1869 of which there were two - the Executive and Shinto. Ken A Prefecture. Glossary 173

Kobu Daigakko Government- owned College of Engineering in the early Meiji period. Komunim Legislative body created during the government reforms of 17 July 1868. Koku Measurement of grain, roughly 5.2 bushels. Kyuminto Poor Peoples' Party - one of the parties created during the People's Rights Movements. Nihon kogyo Ginko-ho Industrial Bank of Japan Act (of 1902). Nihon no Seisho 'Political merchants of Japan'. Nodankai Agricultural discussion groups formed by the Gono after the Land Tax Reforms of early Meiji. Oyabun Kobun Vertical loyalties found in Japanese social struc• ture. Samurai Feudal warrior often in the service of a daimyo and paid in rice stipends. Sankin kotai 'Alternate Attendance' of the daimyo at the Sho• gun's court which requires the daimyo to spend several months of the year at the capital leav• ing his family in his residence as potential hos• tages of the Shogun. San Shoku Highest office of state created on the eve of the Restoration. Seido Torishirabe kyoku Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Sys• tems set up to draw the Meiji Constitution of 1889. Seisho 'Political merchants', those merchants in early Meiji who had close links with state officials. Seitaisho Document on the structure of government which contained the outlines of state in the post-Res• toration period drawn up on II June 1868. Shakaito Social Party, one of the political parties founded during the popular movements period. Shakinto Debtors' Party - another political party of the minken period. Shimpan Those daimyo who were collaterally related to the Shogun. Shinto Japanese traditional religion elevated by the Meiji regime as the state religion. Sho Lower divisions of administration created in the 15 August 1869 Meiji State reforms. 174 Glossary

Shogun Generalissimo or Commander. It is actually a short form of the term Sei-i-tai-shogun - a title given to the military dictator by the Emperor. Shosho Rescripts and official statements of the Meiji Emperor. Shugiin Approximation of a legislative body without legislative powers in early Meiji. Zaibatsu The 'business clique' or 'financial oligarchy' which emerged during the 1920s. Notes

Introduction

1. The Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia from 1936 to 1941 has not been regarded as colonisation for various reasons. First, Ethiopia es• caped colonisation during the 'scramble for Africa' in the late nineteenth century after defeating the Italian army in 1896. Second, by the end of the First World War, Ethiopian independence was recognised by world powers including Italy, and Ethiopia became a member of the League of Nations in 1923. Finally, the occupation was too brief to effect major changes in Ethiopia as colonisation did elsewhere in Africa. Amongst many ac• counts see Basil Davidson (1978), Roland Oliver (1991), Bill Fruend (1984) and Bahru Zewde (1991). 2. Although reliable figures were not available at the time, it was generally believed that Nigeria 'unlike many other African countries, ... has a sizeable class of educated men and women who are well trained to run its govern• ment, industry and armed forces' (Time Special Issue on Africa, 'The Light That Failed' 16 January 1984), p. 24. 3. Exception is made here of Bill Warren (1973), and Peter Evans (1979), who argued that certain Third World countries do indeed accumulate and control surpluses. 4. In this decade, Japan fought and won two wars: against China (1894-5), and against Russia (1904-5), both of which established Japan as a region• al power. 5. For an excellent account of the role of the state in the early stages of economic development, see Caporaso (1982, pp. I 03-11).

Chapter 1: Explaining Underdevelopment: An Alternative Theoretical Perspective

l. The state is seen here as 'the means by which the political conditions of reproduction of a mode of production are assured in the class struggle' (Mittelman, 1983/4, p. 34). The state comprises various institutions (pol• itical, economic and ideological) which function to maintain the hegemony, legitimacy and the reproduction of the social order. 2. Class is used as an 'analytical construct' which 'must be understood as a relationship, in fact, two types of relationships simultaneously. On the one hand, class is defined by role in production, as production is organ• ized at any particular moment. On the other hand, at the same time, class is defined by opposition: classes exist only in opposition to other classes' (Sarnoff, 1982, pp. 112-13 ). 3. Underdevelopment is characteristic of a social formation in which the economy is disarticulated. For example, changes in the industrial sector tend not to produce concomitant changes in the agricultural sector. Furthermore,

175 176 Notes

the process of surplus expropriation is not cumulative and such forma• tions lack the capacity to achieve 'controlled transformation of the social structure' (Amin, 1976, pp. 202, 228, 334-64; Roxborough, 1976, p. 4). 4. For a review of such forces see Sutcliffe (1972); and on critique of the modernisation theory see Bernstein (1972). 5. The work of Fernando H. Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, (1978), Dependen• cy and Development in Latin America, is an exception from this criticism and their method of analysis is actually employed later in this chapter. 6. Exempt from this criticism is Bill Warren (1973), who saw possibilities of surplus accumulation in some Third World countries. He, however, overstated the case by maintaining that in some of these countries, auton• omous capitalist development is occurring' (Randall and Theobald, 1985, 1993, p. 116). The argument in this book is that without the necessary social transformations even such accumulation of surplus would not translate into capitalist development. 7. Stavrianos (1981, Chapter 17, p. 366) states that other Third World countries were different from Japan because 'they have experienced not centuries of isolation, but periods of colonial rule and neo-colonial exploitation'. In a similar tone, Gunder Frank (1975, p. 5, 1984, p. 28) (1975) insists that 'if Japan is industrialized that is due precisely to the fact that it was never colonized in the sense that other countries were'. See also Moulder (1977). 8. The other two logics are 'comparative history as the parallel demonstra• tion of theory' and 'comparative history as the contrast of contexts' (Skocpol and Somers, 1980, pp. 182-3). 9. These reviews are taken from Skocpol and Somers (1980, pp. 185-6), where other works and methodological designs are also reviewed. 10. This procedure is taken by Gary Hamilton (1977, pp. 877-91) who uses the 'Method of Difference' design. (Skocpol and Somers, 1980, pp. 186-7). 11. These factors might, however, be significant in conjunction with other variables, but not by themselves. For example, the structure of the agri• cultural sector might be linked with the historical time in which a back• ward country makes the entry into the modern world system. Skocpol discusses the possible ways in which the state may react to such situa• tions. (1979, p. 41 ). 12. Robert 0. Keohane defined hegemony as 'a situation in which one state is powerful enough to maintain the essential rules governing inter-state relations, and willing to do so' (1984, pp. 34-35; Keohane and Nye, 1977, p. 44). 13. While the same cannot be said of those emerging nations propounding socialist slogans, Nigeria seemed to have been accepted into the system as a Jesser partner. Japan was also not threatened, since no one could tell that it was going to be successful anyway.

Chapter 2: Economy, Society and the State in Pre-Independence Nigeria and in Pre-Meiji Japan

I. Moulder (1977, p. 73); from Totman (1967, p. 65ff). 2. In fact, in general, the Shogun's employment policy was designed to let certain daimyo in and exclude others from administration. Notes 177

3. Family rank measured in terms of the size relative to others. Other posi• tions, usually lower ones (and especially military) were completely her• editary, while others were competed for and awarded on the basis of contacts, nepotism, or ability (Totman, 1967, pp. 156-7, 167-8). 4. None the less, scholars continued to follow the original ranking of the relationships of father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. (Hane, 1986, p. 27). 5. Hane (1986, p. 23), from Murdoch, A History of Japan, vol. 3, p. 802. 6. Osaka was the centre of Japan's domestic commerce, Edo was the Shogunal capital with a population of over a million and a commercial capital, and Nagasaki was the centre of foreign commerce. 'Control of the cities be• came an important source of revenue' (Moulder, 1977, p. 72). 7. From Sansom, History of Japan, vol. 1, pp. 359-60, 368. 8. The eastern parts were conquered by the British in 1885, to be followed by the West (Yorubaland) in the 1890s and finally, the North fell in 1903. The eastern and western areas were merged into the British Pro• tectorate of Southern Nigeria, and the rest became the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The two Protectorates were finally amalgamated in 1914 as the British Colony of Nigeria. 9. In fact, a study of colonial administration in the years 1918-48 referred to the system as an 'administocracy' (Nicholson, 1969, Chapter 8, pp. 216-50). 10. This is just one version of colonial administration in Africa. Other forms include direct rule as practised by the French. There is also 'settler' col• onialism as in Kenya. In each case, however, the motives are the same - to control the local African population. II. For more details see Frederick Lugard (1922), The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa; and Kirk-Greene (1968). 12. Reproduced in Kirk-Greene (1965, pp. 43 and 44). 13. Address to the Nigerian Council, Lagos: Government Printer, (1920, p. 187). 14. These later became the regional Nigerian Marketing Boards whose activities are discussed in Chapter 6. 15. Davidson (1978, p. 217) noted that 'Nigeria had about 182,000 wage• workers in 1939, but some twenty-five "trade-union centers'" or "feder• ations" by 1943: and splits remained endemic as trade union bosses manoeuvred against each other or made off with the funds.' 16. Nigeria in the early 1950s and with a population of some forty million, 'had 150 lawyers, 160 doctors, and 786 clergymen' (Davidson, 1978, p. 223). 17. Awolowo's statement was taken from his book Path to Nigerian Free• dom (1947, p. 63). 18. In the early years of Nigeria's independence, there were such writings from people like Rene Dumont, False Start in Africa (1962), Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972); Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (1961); Amilcar Cabral, Unity and Struggle (1980), V. I. Lenin, Imperialism (1939), etc. While these and similar writings do not offer solutions, they at least spelt out some of the dangers to watch for, especially in the developing countries' relationships with the more advanced 178 Notes

world. Some of the writings - Cabral, Dumont and Fanon - actually dealt with major issues of domestic aspects of development. 19. Coleman further stated that a group of Nigerian youth actually formed the Red Army Club and in 1953 cabled the leaders of Russia in which they said that they 'hope this event (the 25th anniversary of the Red Army) will bring the youths of Nigeria closer to the youths of Soviet Russia' (1958, p. 249 and footnote 43). 20. Nigeria's earnings from such activities are analysed in Chapter 6. 21. For two contrasting views on foreign aid and its effects, see Berg (1987, pp. 14-16) and Gang and Khan (1986). 22. It is on record, for example, that when Nigeria, in the mid 1970s had surpluses in foreign reserves as a result of oil exports it still received loans from the IMF and though the loans were received in the name of national development, they were actually used to enrich individuals in government.

Chapter 3: Restoration and Social Transformation in Early Meiji Japan

1. Moulder attributes this theory to the works of Fairbank et al. (1965). 2. On the eve of independence in 1958 the President of Guinea severed all major economic, cultural and political ties with his former colonial over• lord, France, and even proceeded to dismantle some of the institutions of colonial rule by voting no to the French referendum demanding former colonies to remain within the French empire. However, in terms of re• placing those structures with appropriate ones, Guinea fell short of com• pleting the social transformation required for a new start. 3. The freedom which came with the end of feudalism was not absolute. Peasants were freed from their immediate exploiting master - the daimyo - just to be subjected to a different form of servitude to the new Meiji state as I argue in Chapter 5. 4. This is parallel to the pattern in England in the sixteenth and seven• teenth centuries, as I argued in the introduction and in Chapter 1. 5. Some see the land reform as a 'sweeping reform' that made the land• tenure system modern, while others see it as 'compromising in nature' making it 'semi-feudal'. Evidence could be found for both arguments in the fact that private landownership was established, but some former feudal lords were also compensated and the reforms did not totally emancipate the peasants (Ogura, 1967, pp. 3-4). 6. 'The stipends of the Samurai and the disposable income of the feudal lords totaled about 13 million koku of rice at the end of the Tokugawa period. This declined to 9 million koku in 1869 and to 5 million koku in 1871' (Nakamura, 1966, p. 159). 7. The state's share was to be '34 percent of the gross harvest or 40 per• cent of the net harvest. This includes the national land tax or 3 per cent of land value and a surtax of one-third of the national tax' (Nakamura, 1966, p. 160). 8. These activists trained under a scholar of an earlier generation- Yoshida Shoin- in the Chosu capital of Hagi during the 1850s. Although a samu- Notes 179

rai himself, Yoshida Shoin's ideological thought was shaped by patterns of social grievance. He often complained against men who were noble, 'inner Ietainers' or 'men of large stipend' and in his writings proposed changes such as replacing hereditary rank by ability in the allocation of privileges, and that 'scholarly recognition be given on the basis of achieve• ment' and not automatically for 'sons of high ranking families' (Huber, 1981, p. 44). 9. Yoshida Shoin for example 'sought to add a dimension of historico-mythical legitimacy to his highly unorthodox proposals. He associated them by juxtaposed similarity with what were for his readers specially validated contexts in the past' (Huber, 1981, p. 59-60). The past often rested with the exalted position of the emperor. The Restoration activists, however, found the easier way out. Since a dual authority existed - Shogun and Emperor - they demanded changes in the existing structure of the Shogunate and yet remained loyal to the Emperor as symbol of Japanese society. However, by doing so 'the Restoration ... severely limited, through a process of reduction and redefinition, the conceptual field and the range of action possibilities' (Tetsuo, 1985, p. 101). 10. In 1874 for example, a newspaper (Yomiuri) editorial on the occasion of the Emperor's birthday read as follows: 'Tomorrow is Tencho Setsu. Tencho Setsu is the birthday of Japan's tenno, Mutsuhito .... There are many people who do not know the name of Tenchi sama. But to be born in this country and not know it is like not knowing your parents' age. This is unforgivable. It must be carefully remembered' (Altman, 1965, p. 146, quoted in Jansen, 1977, p. 614). 11. In its 1932 thesis, the Japanese Communist Party was right to refer to the Emperor system - tennosei, as being 'the main pillar of political reaction and all of the relics of feudalism in the country' (quoted in Jansen, 1977, p. 613).

Chapter 4: Politics of Independence and Social Change in Nigeria

1. Martin A. Klein (1980, p. 11) defined the peasant as '(1) agriculturalists who control their own land which they work either as tenants or small holders, (2) they are organized largely as household units which meets most of their subsistence needs, and (3) in their relationship with other classes, they are ruled by other classes who extract a surplus either di• rectly (rent) or through control of state power (taxes).' 2. For more notes on the peasantry and the peasant mode of production that differentiates them from the capitalist, see Wachtel, 1977; Berger, 1978. 3. Alan Gilbert points out that the traditional ways of life have been altered drastically in such societies (1990, p. 20). Such new forms of accumula• tion by the state goes beyond the traditional forms. Thus in Nigeria, as in other African societies, traditional life has ceased to exist and cannot be used as an explanation for production relations. As my argument shows here, however, traditional political aspects have been employed to pre• serve loyalty and to prevent questioning of the logic of political rule. 4. The Fulani belonged to the traditional ruling class while the majority of 180 Notes

the Habe ruled in the old Emirate system of Northern Nigeria. 5. The lgbo translation was provided by Anthonia C. Kalu of the Connecti• cut College, USA. 6. Dr Okpara, Presidential Address, Lagos. Quoted in Odumosu (1963, p. 221). 7. Other variations also emerged such as 'African Socialism' popular with Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. 8. Daily Times (Lagos}, 23 December 1952, in Odumosu (1963, p. 222). 9. Action Group Party Independence Manifesto. 10. In his broadcast to the nation, the leader of the first coup d'etat, Major Kaduna Nzeogwu stated that the enemies among others were 'those that seek to keep the country divided permanently so that they can remain in office ... ; the tribalists, the nepotists' (quoted in Panter-Brick, 1978, p. 82; and Joseph, 1987, pp. 71-2). II. Lt General Olusegun Obasanjo, 'The Jaji Address', 12 September 1977. In Oyediran (1981, p. 143). 12. Ibid., p. 143. 13. A minority report of the Constitution Drafting Committee by two univer• sity professors Segun Osoba and Yusuf Bala Usman was not allowed to be circulated although the main report was circulated and debated upon. 14. Broadcast to the Nation, Radio Nigeria, Wednesday, 13 July 1983, by Mr Adisa Akinloye, Chairman of the NPN, published in The Guardian Lagos, Friday 15 July 1983, p. 5. 15. The author of the published article was Mohammed I. Hassan, a lawyer by profession and the Minister of Mines and Power under the NPN' s Second Republic, published in the New Nigerian as an advertiser's an• nouncement, Saturday 8 June 1983. 16. Dr Junaid Muhammed, in The Guardian (Lagos), Monday, 18 July 1983, pp. 5, 7. 17. The PRP faced such problems when it tried to introduce radical changes in one of the two states- Kaduna- where the party's candidate won the governor's race. The House Assembly, however, was dominated by the conservative NPN. The governor - Balarabe Musa - attempted to abol• ish the traditional taxation of the Emirate system using his executive powers. Not only was the move defeated by the NPN-dominated As• sembly, the Assembly quickly found reasons to impeach him and re• moved from office. 18. A detailed commentary of the Babangida transition programme and its potential effect on Nigerian politics appears in the conference paper by this author, 'The Military and Re-Democratisation in Nigera: The Babangida Experiment' University of Denver, February 1993. 19. For a commentary on the cancellation of the 12 June presidential elec• tions by this author see Mahmud, S. (1993) 'The Failed Transition to Civilian Rule in Nigeria', Africa Today, vol. 41, no. 4. pp. 87-95. 20. An illustration of this was to be found in the statement of Nnamdi Azikiwe who on the occasion of being sworn in as Nigeria's first President said, 'as for me, my stiffest early assignment is ended and my major life's work is done. My country is free, and I have been honoured to be its first indigenous Head of State. What more could one desire in life?' (No- Notes 181

vember 1960, quoted in K. A. B. Jones-Quarterly, A Life of Azikiwe (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965) p. 21).

Chapter 5: State and Capitalist Development in Early Meiji Japan

l. Dates for these phases might vary depending on what emphasis is being made. For this project, I refer to periods when significant changes were introduced in the structure of the Meiji state in its relationship to civil society. 2. The article stated that 'the practice of discussion and debate shall be universally adopted, and all measures shall be decided by public argu• ment' and an older translation reads, 'an assembly widely convoked shall be established, and thus great stress shall be laid upon public opinion' (McLaren, 1979, p. 8). 3. In fact most 'liberals' in Japan at the time as I will show later in the chapter, took the interpretation literally to demand for assemblies - de• mands which were brutally suppressed by the state. 4. The Komunin discussed such issues as taxation, formal dress, postal service, coinage and the establishment of a standard system of weights and measures. 5. Although fear of the spread of Christianity among the oligarchs was seen as the reason behind the elevation of Shinto into political prominence, there were other ideological and political reasons. Since Shinto doctrine upholds the divine ancestry of the Emperor, its elevation meant his exal• tation as well. 6. That is Mimbusho (Civil Affairs), Okurasho (Finance), Hyobusho (War), Kyobusho (Justice), Kunaisho (Imperial Household), and Gaimusho (Foreign Affairs). 7. The Dajokan and Jingikan were parallels of the ancient governmental structures of the same names dating back to the Nara period, 'an age when emperors sometimes ruled' (Craig, 1986, p. 50). The six sho also resembled their ancient counterparts (Wilson, 1957, p. 73). 8. In fact, McLaren (1979, p. xlvii) went back as far as 1870-1 when the han was changed and the daimyo transferred their registers to central authorities as the decisive point when 'there was thereafter but "one central government", the Emperor's, and "one universal authority" the Emperor's'. 9. Other scholars such as Nobutaka Ike (1950) traced its beginnings to the closing days of the Tokugawa although he admitted that it did not be• come prominent until the early 1870s. l 0. Prime Minister 1889-90, and a military bureaucrat. He later rose to the rank of Field Marshal during the Meiji era. II. The military Yamagata developed as a result was on the lines of the Prussian model and thus became so autocratic that a minor mutiny in 1878 drew the execution of the leaders, and opposition from both mili• tary and civilian alike was brutally repressed (Norman, 1975, p. 440). 12. Cited from Tsuda Shigemaro (1928) Meiji Seijo to Shin Takayuki (His Majesty, the Meiji Emperor and his Subject Takayuki), Tokyo, p. 307. 13. Quoted from Jwakura ko Jikki, vol. II, p. 949. 14. In July 1875, for example, every editor in Tokyo was arrested at least once, and either heavily fined or imprisoned. In response to a call for 182 Notes

freedom of speech by a Japanese journalist, the stringent laws of 1875 were further tightened in 1882, 'so that the proprietor and manager of a newspaper were made equally liable to punishment for views expressed in their journals' (Norman, 1975, pp. 444-5). 15. Article Four of the Regulations was the most infamous. It stated that, 'Any person residing or sojourning within a distance of three ri [7.5 miles] radius around the Imperial Palace or around an Imperial Palace of resort, who plots or incites disturbance, or who is judged to be scheming something detrimental to public tranquility, may be ordered by the po• lice, or local authorities, with the sanction of the Minister of State for Home Affairs, to leave the said district, within a fixed number of days or hours. And anyone who, being thus ordered to depart, fails to comply within the appointed time, or who after departure, is again guilty of any of the aforesaid offenses, shall be liable to penalty of from one to three years' minor confinement, and further, to police surveillance for a period not exceeding five years, such surveillance to be exercised within the district of the offender's original registration' (McLaren, 1979, p. 503). 16. E. H. Norman (1975, pp. 448-9) also stated that names like Ueki Emori and Oi Kentaro who were active in the Minken were scarcely mentioned in official documents. 17. Cited in E. H. Norman (1975, p. 443) and, indeed when the Emperor handed the Constitution on II February 1889, to Prime Minister Kuroda, the symbolic gesture was the fact that 'the Constitution was a gracious gift from the Emperor to his subjects and not a contract, much less a concession won from the Throne by popular demand' (Storry, 1962, p. 116). 18. The Upper House - House of Peers - comprised of members of the re• constituted nobility and formal feudal lords and some representatives of the highest tax-payers. The Lower House was composed of elected indi• viduals, but on a suffrage based on property ownership which, conse• quently, in the first few years, amounted to a little more than 'one percent of the population' (Storry, 1962, p. 118). 19. Members of the Privy Council were appointed by the Prime Minister, and Cabinet Ministers were also 'automatically appointed as Council• lors' (Ito Hirobumi, in Beckman, 1957, pp. 93-4). 20. B. S. Silberman (1967, p. 82) in his studies of the Genro refers to it as 'an informal structure' - which served through most of the Meiji era as 'the primary structure of decision- and policy-making and political inte• gration'. Its members consisted at first seven men: Kuroda Kiyotaka (1848- 1900), Matsutaka Mashayoshi (1835-1924), Saigo Tsugumichi (1843-1902), Oyama Iwao (1842-1916), Ito Hirobumi (1841- 1909), Inoue Kaoru (1836- 1915), and Yamagata Arimoto (1838-1922). Two later additions were Saionji Kimmochi (1849-1940) and Katsura Taro (1848-1913) (Silberman, 1967, p. 1970). 21. Article 61 of the Constitution stated that 'No suit which relatP.s to rights alleged to have been infringed by the alleged measures of the executive authorities, and which should come within the competency of the Court of Administrative Legislation, especially established by law, shall be taken cognizance of by a court of law' (Uyehara, 1910, p. 132). Notes 183

22. Thus, on their visit to Germany, the Bureau for the Investigation of Con• stitutions attended lectures by the jurist Rudolf von Gneist, who advised -and was accepted by Ito- that 'question of diplomacy, military organ• ization, and similar matters should not be subject to the decisions of the Diet' - the legislative arm of the government (Ike, 1950, p. 174). 23. Or, as Beckman (1957, p. 90) stated in another way, the Meiji Constitu• tion merely established 'an oligarchical clan control in a modern politi• cal form'. 24. Tokyo Times, 11 May 1878, pp. 55-6, in Smith (1955, p. 43). 25. The only known opposition from among the oligarchs was the conserva• tive member - Saigo Takamori - who disagreed not in principle but on timing (Smith, 1955, p. 43). 26. Tsuchiya and Okazaki, Shihon Shuki, pp. 129-30 in (Smith 1955, 43). 27. The first railways 'consisted of twelve engines, 56 passenger cars, and 158 freight cars on the Tokyo-Yokohama line alone carried over 2,000,000 passengers in 1880. Twenty-six engines, 110 passenger cars, and 225 freight cars carried over 3,000,000 passengers over 58 miles of track between Kobe and Otsu in the same year' (Smith, 1955, p. 43). 28. So intensive was the state effort that by 1884 there was an extensive railway system in Japan spanning various economic districts - industrial and agricultural - and also linking coast to coast (Shigenobu, 1910, pp. 1, 437). 29. Another reason for denying private ownership of telecommunications had to do with the state's fear that such ownership might interfere with the conduct of foreign relations (Smith, 1955, p. 45). 30. Tokyo Times, 7 April 1877, in Smith (1955, p. 48). 31. From Yoshino Sakuzo (ed.) (1927) Meiji Bunka zenshu (Collected Works on Meiji Culture), Tokyo, p. 30, in Smith (1955, p. 46). 32. It was reported that only two private mines in the country as late as 1877 were equipped with modern mining machinery and while the state owned only nine mines, 'these were equipped with modern machinery and were worked on a large scale' (Smith, 1955, p. 46). The foreign experts employed consisted of engineers, geologists, and metallurgists - and the Bureau of Mines had 34 foreigners on its technical staff in 1873, 35 in 1876, 28 in 1877, and 33 in 1880. 33. An American naval officer visiting the machine shops at Yokusuka in 1877 observed that the shops were well supplied with every modern ap• pliance of machinery for successfully carrying out extensive engineering work (Tokyo Times, 22 December 1877, p. 348, in Smith (1955, p. 48)). 34. This is a clear contrast to the state's role in Nigeria where, as I will show in the next chapter, state intervention in the economy has led to the collapse of whatever entrepreneurial class was emerging by inde• pendence. 35. The political merchants were defined as 'businessmen who had close financial and political links with factions in government and bureauc• racy' (Broadbridge, 1966, p. 11). 36. A full text of the order is contained in Meiji zaisei shi (A History of Finance in the Meiji Period), Tokyo, (1927), vol. XII, pp. 231-2. 37. This was the period when such prominent combines as Mitsubishi were 184 Notes

founded, primarily on Yataro Iwasaki's military contacts, designed to be one of the world's greatest shipbuilding, engineering, commercial and financial combines, and rose 'to a powerful position in the Japanese econ• omy' (Broadbridge, 1966, p. 11; see also, G. C. Allen, 1980, Chapter 8). 38. The enthusiasm that the development process raised is evident in the emergence of groups eager to study western ways and the emergence of such catchwords in the early years of the Restoration, as Bummei kaika (Civilization and Enlightenment) and the emergence of groups of intel• lectuals such as the Meirokusha (Sixth-year of Meiji Association) mem• bers of which believed that 'capital supply and investment programs could by themselves achieve little unless the changes were accepted and a dy• namic will for development was born out of them'. These and other ac• tivities generated by the Meiji development programme are discussed in Hirschmeier (1964, pp. 114-25).

Chapter 6: State, Class and Underdevelopment in Nigeria

1. Editorial, 'The State in Africa,' Review of African Political Economy, no. 5 (January-April 1976), p. 1. 2. It was observed then that 'outside the agricultural sector, over sixty per cent of those listed by the Federal Office of Statistics as employed in Nigeria are public employees' (including employees in various levels of government - local, provincial, regional (and later state), and federal) (Taylor, 1962, pp. 89-90). 3. For example, regime changes both peaceful and violent have never come from the masses but from various factions of the ruling classes. Mass protests have occurred, although these have been limited to University campuses. The majority of the population, especially the peasants, have been practically very tolerant, except in the two major cases of Agbekoya and Bakalori incidents. 4. The Federal Government of Nigeria defined civil servants 'as servants of the government of Nigeria, other than the holders of political or ju• dicial offices, who are employed in a civil capacity and whose remuner• ation is paid by the Government' (contained in the first issue of Federal Civil Service Manpower, Lagos, 1970, p. 3). 5. The military ruled Nigeria from 1966 to 1979, and has ruled from 1983 until the present. The current military regime under General Abacha an• nounced on 1 October 1995, that the military would stay in power for three more years. 6. Eddie Madunagu (1982, pp. 74-9) listed 22 popular protests by students and workers between 1944 and 1959 during the colonial period which were dealt with in such manner, and others after independence till 1979 which met similar brutal army and police repression. 7. Such antagonisms have led to attacks on local officials and at times even forced the closure of local government offices in rural areas for up to two years (Berry, 1987, p. 206). 8. Cited in Berry (1987, p. 206). 9. New Nigerian (Kaduna), 3 May 1980 (in Andrae and Beckman, 1985, p. 116). See also Usman (1982), for a more detailed account. Notes 185

I 0. Amendment 53 of the 1969 Decree included the following provisions listing activities which are regarded as constituting an offense: (a) for an em• ployer to take part in a lock-out and for a worker to take part in a strike; (b) for any person to organize, or do any act preparatory to organizing a lock-out or strike; (c) for any person to incite any other person or group of persons to take part in a lock-out or a strike; (d) for any worker or workers, or any person acting or purporting to act on behalf of any worker or workers, to threaten to take part in or organize a strike; (e) for any person to publish in a newspaper, on television or radio, or by any other means of mass communication, any matter which, by reason of dramati• zation or other defects in the manner of its presentation, is likely to cause public alarm or industrial unrest. It further stated that 'Any person con• victed of an offence under this section shall be liable to imprisonment for a period of five years' (quoted in Eze, 1981, p. 98). 11. Each region - East, North and West - had separate Marketing Boards producing a major cash crop(s) in which the region had a geographic advantage. Thus the East grew palm produce (oil and kernel) and rubber, the North, groundnut and cotton, and the West cocoa. 12. As a result, the oil industry was indeed nationalised - a move inter• preted as 'a confrontation over the distribution of a given amount of surplus profit between the producer states and the oil companies' (Nore, 1980, p. 71). 13. Through a careful and systematic arrangement the Algerian state oil cor• poration - SONATRACH - was able to nationalise the technical struc• ture serving the oil industry and by doing so 'was able to acquire 100 per cent ownership of the exploration and production companies ... and achieve almost total control of operations. Dependence on foreign sources of essential exploration and production technology was reduced or elim• inated' (Turner, 1980, p. 200). 14. Some of the prominent state enterprises that have existed since inde• pendence include: the Nigeria Airways Authority; the Nigeria Railways Corporation (NRC); the Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA); the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA); the Nigerian Telegraphs and Telecom• munication (NIT); The Nigerian Mining Corporation (NMC), etc. 15. The ECA's explanation for failures of these enterprises tend to be mainly technical, neglecting the more important political and social causes. The ECA's explanations includes: (l) political upheavals which create uncer• tainty and a high turnover of staff in managerial and executive positions, leading to (2) the management of key economic institutions by people with relatively little or no relevant experience, (3) low managerial ca• pacity in qualitative and quantitative terms, and that (4) the proliferation of public enterprises - has inevitably resulted in the dissipation of scarce financial, human and other resources, leading to 'undercapitalization of many enterprises' (ECA Report, 1983, pp. 29-30). 16. Cases have varied from mass dumping of mail by workers of the postal service; inadequate power supply that had earned NEPA the public name 'Never Expect Power Always'; and the public often refers to the Nige• rian Airways elephant logo as the reason why it can't fly. 17. Report of the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), (1983, p. 28). 186 Notes

18. The military has ruled from 1966 to 1979, and from 1983 to the present. 19. In July 1966 when the military first took over political power the Nige• rian Army numbered 80 000 men, a naval strength of 5000 and an Air Force of 9000. By July 1979 the number had risen to an estimated total armed force of 186 000 of which the army accounts for 173 000, the navy 6000 and the Air Force 7000. 20. They include 'permanent secretaries of ministries and deputy permanent secretaries, directors and deputy directors ... secretaries to local govern• ments, and general managers of parastatals [public enterprises and cor• porations]' (Koehn, 1990, p. 59). 21. Progress Report, Second National Development Plan, Lagos, 1972, p. 35. 22. Report of Enquiry into activities of Gowon's Regime (1966-75) by Gen• eral Muritala Muhammed (in Turner, 1976, p. 76). 23. One state governor - Jim Nwobodo of Anambra state - was later con• victed in court of misappropriating N4-5 billion, while his Plateau state counterpart Solomon Lar was convicted of stealing over N30 million in public funds 'enough to pay over three-fourths of the arrears in civil servants' salaries [in his state]' (Kraus 1989, p. 234, from West Africa, (London), 1 October 1984, p. 1986). 24. The Governor Abubakar Rimi in a disagreement with the Emir was re• ported to have summoned the Emir to answer queries which the Emir felt was an insult. In the events that followed, supporters of the Emir burned down the residence of the Governor's political adviser and killed him. There has not been a reprisal after this incident. 25. For a detailed discussion of the Tributary Mode, see Shepherd (1987). 26. Other classes at least operate under some form of organisation or another even if weak ones. There are, for example, the Nigerian Chamber of Commerce and Industry for the merchant class, the Nigerian Labour Congress for the workers, the Civil Service Workers' Union for state employees, and the Academic Staff Union for faculty of Nigerian Uni• versities, among others.

Conclusions

I. In a recent assessment, an observer referred to the Nigerian industrial sector as 'the major post-independence economic disappointment' (Peter Mulanga, New African, (London), October 1990, p. 32). 2. Some of the prominent groups include: The Civil Liberties Organization; the Constitutional Rights Project; and Women in Nigeria. Along with earlier established organizations such as the Nigerian Labour Congress and the Nigerian Student Unions, these groups have been making radical demands upon the state. Bibliography

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GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS AND REPORTS

Nigeria

Federal Government of Nigeria (1962) National development plan, 1962-1968 (Lagos: Federal Government Printer). -- (1970) Second national development plan, 1970-1974 (Lagos: Govern• ment Printer). -- (1975) Third national development plan, 1975-1980 (Lagos: Govern• ment Printer). -- (1977) Third national development plan, revised (Lagos: Government Printer). -- (1981) Fourth national development plan, 1981-1985, guidelines (La• gos: Government Printer). -- (1982) Fourth national development plan, 1981-85 (Lagos: Government Printer). -- (1976) Report of the Constitution Drafting Committee (Lagos: Govern• ment Printer). -- (1960) Parliamentary debates (Senate): 26 November, 1960 (Lagos: Government Printer). -- ( 1962) Report of the Coker Commission of 1nquiry into the affairs of certain statutory corporations in Western Nigeria (Lagos: Government Printer). -- (1957) Report of the tribunal appointed to inquire into allegations re• flecting on the official conduct of the Premier of and certain persons hold• ing ministerial and other public offices in Eastem region of Nigeria (London: HMSO). -- (1972) Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree no. 4, 1972, supplement (Lagos: Government Printer). -- (1977) The Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree. (Amendment no. 2) (Lagos: Government Printer). H. Clifford (1920) 'Address to the Nigerian council. Lagos: Colonial Office'.

Japan: Meiji Era.

McLaren, W. W. (ed.) (1979) Japanese government documents (of the Meiji era), 2 vols (Tokyo: Contains almost all essential material on the subject).

UNPUBLISHED

Mahmud, Sakah Saidu (1993) 'The military and redemocratization in Nigeria: The Babangida Experiment', paper presented at the International Conference on Democracy and Democratic Transitions. University of Denver, 25-27 February 1993. Sanusi, Haroun Usman (1982) 'State and capitalist development in Nigeria: a political economy', PhD dissertation, Northwestern University. Index

AG, see Action Group Bakufu, 34, 171 Abacha, General Sanni, 100 Baran, Paul A., 16, 27, 49, 50, 60, Achebe, Chinua, 95, 153 139 Action group, 42, 93-4 Beck, Clark L., 66 Africa, 1, 15, 49, 50 Becker, David G., 3, 29, 66 public enterprise system, 146 Beckman, George M., 116 colonial structures in, 66 Bellah, Robert, 8, 68, 77 African development, 15 Bernstein, Henry, 16 African independence, 164 Berry, Sara S., 137, 157 African masses, 55 Bette1heim, Charles, 56 Agbekoya, 137 Bienen, Henry, 94 Agrarian question, 81-2 Biersteker, Thomas, 150 agricultural management, 71-2 Bottomore, Tom, 93 agricultural production, 74 Brenner, Robert, 25 in colonial Nigeria, 44-5 Bretton, H. L., 55 in Tokugawa Japan, 'Bringing the State Back In', 10, in Meiji Japan, 74 21-2 License Buying Agents, 141 British colonial administration, 3, see also under Nigeria, Japan 41 agricultural sector, 83 Broadbridge, Seymour A., 119 agricultural surpluses Brownsberger, William N., 88, 90 in Nigeria, 140 Buhari, General Muhammed, in Meiji Japan, 143 99-100 Ake, Claude, 151, 155, 157 and 'War Against Indiscipline', Alavi, Hamza, 133 100 Allen, G. C., 169 Amin, Samir, 16 Cabral, Amilca, 79, 93, 130 ancien regimes, 31' 34 Caiden, Gerald E., 89 Anglo-Nigerian Defense Pact of Caporaso, James, 16 1962-3, 149 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 26, Asia, 1, 49 135 authoritarian regimes, 136 Charter Oath, authoritarianism, 28 see under Meiji, Emperor and militarisation, 147 China, l, 23, 29, 50 depoliticisation of society, 135 Class struggles methods of rule in, 136-7 and Meiji Restoration, 63-4 see also under Nigeria and social transformation, 22-3 Awolowo, Chief Obafemi, 94 class theory of industrialisation, 60 Azikiwe, Chief Nnamdi, 94 and Japanese development, 61 Azumi, Koya, 60, 62 Clifford, H., 45 Cohen, Dennis L., 19 Babangida, General Ibrahim B., 100 Cold War, 55 Bakalori peasant protests, 137 Coleman, James, 53, 94

204 Index 205 colonialism and underdevelopment, ECA, see Economic Commission 2 for Africa Commodity Marketing Boards, 45, Eberhard, Wolfram, 21, 51, 52 46 Economic Commission for Africa comparative historical method, 10, (ECA), 23-4 report on public enterprises, 146 'logics-in-use' of, 24 economic development, 27, 161 'method of agreement' design, 24 Ethiopia 'method of difference' design, 24 non-colonization of, I Confucian tradition, 32 emerging new classes, 84 see also Japanese development Emmanuel, Arrighi, 16 corruption, 10 Europe and misappropriation of surplus, Eastern, 23, 25, 26 151-2 Western, 26, 49, 54 defined, 88 Evans, Peter, 21 in Nigerian First Republic, 90, Eze, Osita, 138 152 in the National Petroleum Fairbank, John K., 178 Corporation, 152 feudalism, 33 under Yakubu Gowon's military in Japan, 62 regime, 152 in Nigeria, 33 see also Nigeria, Traditional Rule Forest, Tom, 46 Cuba, 1, 23, 29, 50 Four-year Development Plans, 150, 165 Davidson, Basil, 40, 42, 43, 47, 48, poor implementation of, 150 49 Second National Development Dillard, Dudley, 139, 145 Plan, 150 dependency theory, xi, 4, 16, 20, Frank, Gunder, 16, 50, 135 151 French Revolution (1789), 8 contributions of, 16 Fukoku kyohei, 28, 97 criticisms of, 16 see also developmental ideology world system perspective of, 4 depoliticisation of society, Gerschenkron, Alexander, xii, 5 see authoritarianism on ideology, 75, 92 development, 1 on national wealth, 130 and class struggles, 8 on obstacles to capitalist capitalist, 15 development, 5, 130 socialist, I on technological borrowing, 53-4 theories, 15 Gemeinschaft, 91 developmental ideology, 28, 76, Gesellschaft, 91 93 Gibney, Frank, 66, 77 Fukoku kyohei, 28 Gilbert, Alan, 23, 48 Developmental states, 56 Gowon, General Yakubu, 145 Dobb, Maurice, 33 Gran, Guy, 82 dominant classes Greiffenhagen, Martin, 91 in Nigeria, 154-6 Gromyko, Anatoly, 80 struggles for supremacy within, Gurley, John G., 84 155 Dudley, Billy J., 95 haihan chiken, 65 206 Index

Hall, John W., 32, 33 Kirk-Green, A. H. M., 40-1, 42 Halliday, Jon, 28, 169 Koehn, Peter, 147 Hamilton, Nora, 21 Kohli, Athul, 28 Hane, Mikiso, 37, 39 Kuznets, Simon, 53 Harris, Nigel, 153 Hayami, Yujiro, 71, 72, 73 LBAs, see License Buying Agents Hirschmeier, Johannes, 126, 127 LDCs, see Less-developed Countries Houses of Chiefs, 86-7 Latin America, 25, 49, 54, 55 see also traditional rule Less-developed Countries, 17 Huber, Thomas H., 76 compared with Meiji Japan, Hyden, Goran, 81, 82 128-9 Leys, Colin, 16 ideology, License Buying Agents, 141 defined, 91 Lippit, Victor, 23 role of in overcoming Lloyd, Peter C., 33, 97 backwardness, 92-3 Lonsdale, John, 131 see also developmental ideology; Lugard, Sir Frederick, 41 Meiji; Nigeria independence, 2 Mackintosh, John P., 86-7 and national development, 80-1 Marx, Karl, 47 Inoue, Kaoru, 76 on colonialism, 48 International Monetary Fund (IMF), on ideology, 91-2 54 on state and capitalist Ito, Hirobumi, 64, 76, 116 development, 139-40 McLaren, W. W., 66, Ill, 114 Japan, I, 4 Meier, Gerald M., 88 feudal rule under the Shogun, 4 Meiji, non-colonisation of, 49, 61; see abolition of feudalism during, 65 also Japanese exception bureaucrats, 63 theory Constitution of 1889, 107, ll6: Restoration movement and and Western institutions, independence, 2; see also 116; as a design for Japanese Meiji imperialism, 117; as bulwark Japanese culture, 60 of autocracy, 115; position of Japanese development, 8, 19-21, 25 Emperor in, 77, ll5, l16-17 see also Meiji early period (1868-93), 4-6; 'Japanese exception', compared with independent theory of, 21, 30 Nigeria, 6-10, 29; emergence Jensen, Marius B., 63, 70, 76, 77 of debating societies in, 70; Jiyu Minken undo (Movement for state-building experience as Liberty and Rights), 112 improvisation, I 08 state response to, 112-13 Emperor, 4: appeal to masses for see also Meiji support of the state, 67, 70; Joseph, Richard, 3 restoration of, 2, 4, 10, 30, 31, 51, 54; and the Charter Kano, Mall am Aminu, 87, 94 Oath, 69-70 and native administration in ishin, 16 Northern Nigeria, 94 leaders: as 'progressive class', see also NEPU; PRP 63; centralising or Index 207

rationalising aims of, 69; trade imbalance with Western compared with Nigerian countries, 118 leaders, 69, 71; see also merchant class Meiji: oligarchs in Nigeria, 156-7 oligarchs, 63, 66, 76, 107, 113: in Meiji Japan, 125-6; see also and control of the state, 116; 'Political merchants'; and national development zaibatsu strategy, 165 Middle East, 25, 54 restoration movement, 56: military expenditure, see Table 6.4, compared with African 148 independence movements, 63, military rule see Nigeria 64 Mittelman, James H., 16 Meiji state, 43, 74, 107 Miyamoto, M., 66 abolition of feudalism by, 118 modernisation theory, xi and class changes, 67 Moore, Barrington Jr, 19, 20, 34, and concentration of capital, 69, 38, 63, 72, 73-4, 106 118-19 Moulder, Frances V., 24, 25, 35, and industrialisation, 118, 124: 36, 37, 3~ 5~ 6~ 61-2 government campaign for, Muhammed, General Muritala, 152 127; machine production Musa, Balarabe, 152 factories, 122; military industry, 124; selectivity in NCNC, see National Convention of state participation, 123; Nigerian Citizens shipbuilding, 123-4; textile NEPU, see Northern Elements industry, 122; Western Progressive Union mining methods, 123 NLC, see Nigerian Labour Congress and social transformation, 65 NNPC, see Nigerian National as prerequisite for development, Petroleum Company 65 NPC, see Northern People's creation of banks as source of Congress domestic capital, 119 NPN, see National Party of Nigeria economic problems facing, 118 Nakamura, James I., 74 ideology of, 75: use of Emperor National Convention of Nigerian system as, 76, 77 Citizens, 43, 93, 94 land tax reforms of, 118 national ideology promotion of private capitalist and social transformation, 75 class, 125-6; see also National Party of Nigeria, 98-9 'political merchants'; and national unity, 98-9 zaibatsu on ideology, 98 provision of infrastructure, Nellis, John R., 75 119-22; compared with neo-colonialism, 66 Nigeria, 121-2; railways, Nigeria 120; telecommunication authoritarianism in, 135-6 system, 121; telegraph, colonial state in, 30, 34, 39, 40 121 compared with other African religion (shinto) and, 109, 110 countries, 3 role in capitalist development, corruption in, 10; see also 5-6 corruption support of merchant class, 63, 68 entrepreneurial class, 132 208 Index

ethnicity in, 32, 95 Nigerian constitution, independence, 100-1; translated independence, 70; lack of into local languages, 92 knowledge by citizens, 71 independence movements, 70 Second Republic, 98 indigenisation policy, 151 Nigerian development studies, indirect rule in, 32, 40 17-19, 25 labour reforms in, 138; see also Nigerian Labour Congress, 138 Nigerian Labour Congress Nigerian National Petroleum Marketing Boards, 140-1, 142-3; Company, 143 effect on cash-crop corruption in, see corruption, production, 142 Nigeria national development, 100-1 Nnoli, Okwudiba, 18 natural resource endowment, 3 Norman, E. H., 74, 106, 111-14, 117 oil sector in, 4, 90, 98, 143: Northern Elements Progressive failure of technical control Union (NEPU), 87, 93, 94 of, 144-5; compared with on social classes in Northern Algeria, 144, 145; revenue Nigeria, 87 from, 144, Table 6.3; state Northern People's Congress (NPC), monopoly of, 4 43,93 organised labour, 138; see also Nyerere, Julius K., 66 Nigerian Labour Congress petroleum industry, see oil sector OPEC, see Organization of post-independence period, 2-4, Petroleum-Exporting Countries 11 ; compared with early Obasanjo, General Olusegun, 96-7 Meiji, 2, 10 O'Donnell, G., 135 pre-capitalist formations, 33 Odumosu, Oluwole ldowu, 70 pre-independence period, 30, 33 Ogura, Takekasu, 74 public officials, 3 Okita, Saburo, 6 public regulatory agencies, 4 Organization of Petroleum regionalism, 162 Exporting Countries (OPEC), rulers as 'timid', 163 54 socialist slogans as ideologies, Onimode, Bade, 18 94,96 Osoba, Segun, 18 state: and commodity production, oyabun kobun, 77 141; compared with early Meiji, 6-9; and development, PRP, see People's Redemption 3-4; dominance of civil Party society, 132; intervention in Paden, John N., 86 the economy, 4, 140; post• Pearce, R. D., 48 colonial, 133 peasant mode of production state bureaucracy, 3, 149: and in Africa, 82 investment of public revenue, in Nigeria, 83 4; compared with the Meiji peasants, oligarchs, 149 as dominated class, 158-9 state enterprises, 146-7: and exploitation of, 73 expansion of the civil mobilisation of, 72 service, 147; privatisation of, People's Redemption Party (PRP), 134 98 Nigerian civil war, 96, 134, 147 on Nigeria's social problems, 99 Index 209

Perham, Margery, 83-4 social transformation, 2, 27, 28 'political merchants' (nihon no in Meiji Japan, 62 seisho), 126, 167 Stapleton, G. Brian, 3 and creation of zaibatsu, 126 State and foundation of Japanese autonomy of, 27: in Meiji Japan, capitalism, 126 27; in Nigeria, 27 pre-capitalist formations, 33 developmental, 56: intervention in and feudalism, 33 the economy, 5, II, 15 compared with capitalist non-developmental, 4 formations, 33 see also Japan; Meiji; Nigeria in Japan, 33-4 Stavrianos, L. S., 50 in Nigeria, 33-4 Stephan, Alfred, 21 Stone, Lawrence, 15 Reischauer, Edwin 0., 116 Storry, Richard, 32 relative autonomy of the state, 159 in Meiji Japan, 160 Takahashi, Kamekichi, 31, 59 in independent Nigeria, 159-60 Takuji, Shibahara, 71 'Revolution from above', 63 Taira, Koji, 31-2 Robinson, Joan, 168 Tanzania, 66 Rodney, Walter, 16 Tarr, Byron S., 146 Rosovsky, Henry, 105 Tetsuo, Najita, 76 Rotchacher, Albrecht, 91 Third World, 16, 21, 28, 161 Royal Niger Company, 47 underdevelopment in, 21 Russia, 53 Thomas, Clive V., 136 Tokugawa Japan, 30, 32, 75 Samurai class, 36-7, 48, 68 bakufu, 34 and bushido, 37 Confucian teaching in, 36-7 and Confucian teaching, 36-7, feudalism in, 38, 59 39 peasants in, 36, 71 sankin kotai, 36 samurai class in, 31, 36 Sansom, George, 64, 110 shogunate, 21, 34, 59: isolationist Sanusi, Haroun, 46 policy of, 25 Saul, John, 16, 134 social status of individuals, 31 Schwarz, Walter, 101 totalitarianism, 105 Scott, Bruce R., 66, 67 and authoritarianism compared, Shagari, Shehu, 99 106 Shenton, Robert W., 32 defined, I 05-6 Shogun, 34, 35, 36 in Meiji Japan, I 06-7 see also Tokugawa traditional institutions, 86 Sklar, Richard, 86, 94 as basis of personal rule, 87 Skocpol, Theda, 23, 24, 51-2 in Nigeria, 86-7 Smith, M. G., 89 traditional society theories, 60 Smith, Thomas C., 16, 121, 125-6 traditional rule, 10, 84, 85, 89, 155 social classes, 15 and corruption, 88-91 social relations, compared with rational-legal pre-capitalist, 54 authority, 98 social structures, 2, 131-2 in Nigeria, 85-8 capitalist, 139 the military and, 87-8 reproduction of, 139 Trimberger, Ellen Kay, 63 210 Index

Tsuchiya, Takao, 72, 123 working class: Tsukahira, Toshio, 34, 35, 36 ci vii servants as, 157 Turner, Terisa, 145 radicalism of, 157-8 conservatism among, 158 Umegaki, Michio, 65 World Bank, 54 underdevelopment, 2, 4, 11 world capitalist system, theories of, 15 hegemony of, 28 United States of America, 2, 50, 54 world economy theories, 60 Uyehara, U. G., 116 'world time', 21, 51-2, 53, 54, 56 Vietnam, 29, 50 Vogel, Ezra F., 7 Yoruba chiefs, 43 Yamagata Arimoto, 76 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 8, 40, 44, Yoichi, Higuchi, 77 48, 80, 164, 165 Young, Crawford, 93 warrant chiefs, 86-7 Youngson, A. J., 161 Warren, Bill, 54 Waterman, Peter, 168 Zaibatsu, Watts, Michael, 152 and monopoly of the Meiji Weber, Max, 89 economy, 127 Wilber, Charles K., 8 and political merchants, 126 Williams, Gavin, 17, 90, 141, 142 as recipients of Meiji state Wilson, George M., 108, 109, enterprises, 126-7 110-11 government stimuli for, 126-7