Glossary of Nigerian and Japanese Terms NIGERIAN TERMS AND PHRASES Agbekoya Association of farmers (Yoruba). Ala fin Title of the Oba of Oyo. Emir Title of a Muslim ruler in Northern Nigeria. Iweonwe Literally, to rule oneself, and used for political independence (Igbo). Mulkin Kai Political independence (Hausa). Oba A paramount chief of the Yoruba. Obi A chief among the Igbos. Ominira Political independence (Yoruba). Ooni Title of the ruler of Ife. Saraukuna The nobility, members of the traditional ruling houses (Hausa). Sultan Islamic title meaning the Head of the Muslims. He is both the religious and political leader of the Muslims. Talakawa Commoners, all those who are not members of the ruling houses (Hausa). JAPANESE TERMS AND PHRASES Bakufu Literally 'tent government' and used to refer to the headquarters of the shogun during the feu­ dal period. It became the target of contempt for the Restoration leaders who abolished it in fa­ vour of the Emperor Meiji as the new focus of national political power, thus ending centuries of military rule in Japan. Bushido From the word bushi meaning warrior or the military aristocracy. Bushido refers to the general rules governing the behaviour of the samurai class. 171 172 Glossary Chokigo Imperial pronouncements. Daimyo A feudal lord. From the fifteenth century the term refers to those feudal lords with a territory producing I 0 000 koku or more of rice. Dajokan First formal post-restoration government or the Council of State. Diet The Legislative body under the 1898 Meiji Con­ stitution. Fudai 'House Daimyo' -those daimyo with hereditary vassalage to the Tokugawa Shogun. Fukoku Kyohei 'A rich Country and a strong defense', the pri­ mary slogan of the early Meiji state leaders. Genro Elder statesman - a group of these served as the Emperor's advisers from the 1890s. Genro-in The Senate. Go no Landlords who personally farm their holdings. Haihan chiken The official abolition of fiefs and thus the main structures of Japanese feudalism, and the estab­ lishment of prefectures (ken) in 1871. Han A fief or clan corresponding to the territory ruled by a daimyo. Hanbatsu Clansmen of the early Meiji government. Hoan Jorei Peace Preservation Regulations Act of 25 De­ cember 1887. Hosho Supreme administrative body which also con­ trolled legislative functions in the immediate post­ restoration government. I shin Refers to the Restoration although sometimes used for revolution by some Japanese scholars. Jingikan Administrative division of state for religious (spir­ itual) affairs set up by the early Meiji govern­ ment. Jiyu Minken undo 'Movement for Liberty and Peoples' Rights' - a general term for the democratic movements of the 1880s. Kan Upper branch of state administration created in August 1869 of which there were two - the Executive and Shinto. Ken A Prefecture. Glossary 173 Kobu Daigakko Government- owned College of Engineering in the early Meiji period. Komunim Legislative body created during the government reforms of 17 July 1868. Koku Measurement of grain, roughly 5.2 bushels. Kyuminto Poor Peoples' Party - one of the parties created during the People's Rights Movements. Nihon kogyo Ginko-ho Industrial Bank of Japan Act (of 1902). Nihon no Seisho 'Political merchants of Japan'. Nodankai Agricultural discussion groups formed by the Gono after the Land Tax Reforms of early Meiji. Oyabun Kobun Vertical loyalties found in Japanese social struc­ ture. Samurai Feudal warrior often in the service of a daimyo and paid in rice stipends. Sankin kotai 'Alternate Attendance' of the daimyo at the Sho­ gun's court which requires the daimyo to spend several months of the year at the capital leav­ ing his family in his residence as potential hos­ tages of the Shogun. San Shoku Highest office of state created on the eve of the Restoration. Seido Torishirabe kyoku Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Sys­ tems set up to draw the Meiji Constitution of 1889. Seisho 'Political merchants', those merchants in early Meiji who had close links with state officials. Seitaisho Document on the structure of government which contained the outlines of state in the post-Res­ toration period drawn up on II June 1868. Shakaito Social Party, one of the political parties founded during the popular movements period. Shakinto Debtors' Party - another political party of the minken period. Shimpan Those daimyo who were collaterally related to the Shogun. Shinto Japanese traditional religion elevated by the Meiji regime as the state religion. Sho Lower divisions of administration created in the 15 August 1869 Meiji State reforms. 174 Glossary Shogun Generalissimo or Commander. It is actually a short form of the term Sei-i-tai-shogun - a title given to the military dictator by the Emperor. Shosho Rescripts and official statements of the Meiji Emperor. Shugiin Approximation of a legislative body without legislative powers in early Meiji. Zaibatsu The 'business clique' or 'financial oligarchy' which emerged during the 1920s. Notes Introduction 1. The Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia from 1936 to 1941 has not been regarded as colonisation for various reasons. First, Ethiopia es­ caped colonisation during the 'scramble for Africa' in the late nineteenth century after defeating the Italian army in 1896. Second, by the end of the First World War, Ethiopian independence was recognised by world powers including Italy, and Ethiopia became a member of the League of Nations in 1923. Finally, the occupation was too brief to effect major changes in Ethiopia as colonisation did elsewhere in Africa. Amongst many ac­ counts see Basil Davidson (1978), Roland Oliver (1991), Bill Fruend (1984) and Bahru Zewde (1991). 2. Although reliable figures were not available at the time, it was generally believed that Nigeria 'unlike many other African countries, ... has a sizeable class of educated men and women who are well trained to run its govern­ ment, industry and armed forces' (Time Special Issue on Africa, 'The Light That Failed' 16 January 1984), p. 24. 3. Exception is made here of Bill Warren (1973), and Peter Evans (1979), who argued that certain Third World countries do indeed accumulate and control surpluses. 4. In this decade, Japan fought and won two wars: against China (1894-5), and against Russia (1904-5), both of which established Japan as a region­ al power. 5. For an excellent account of the role of the state in the early stages of economic development, see Caporaso (1982, pp. I 03-11). Chapter 1: Explaining Underdevelopment: An Alternative Theoretical Perspective l. The state is seen here as 'the means by which the political conditions of reproduction of a mode of production are assured in the class struggle' (Mittelman, 1983/4, p. 34). The state comprises various institutions (pol­ itical, economic and ideological) which function to maintain the hegemony, legitimacy and the reproduction of the social order. 2. Class is used as an 'analytical construct' which 'must be understood as a relationship, in fact, two types of relationships simultaneously. On the one hand, class is defined by role in production, as production is organ­ ized at any particular moment. On the other hand, at the same time, class is defined by opposition: classes exist only in opposition to other classes' (Sarnoff, 1982, pp. 112-13 ). 3. Underdevelopment is characteristic of a social formation in which the economy is disarticulated. For example, changes in the industrial sector tend not to produce concomitant changes in the agricultural sector. Furthermore, 175 176 Notes the process of surplus expropriation is not cumulative and such forma­ tions lack the capacity to achieve 'controlled transformation of the social structure' (Amin, 1976, pp. 202, 228, 334-64; Roxborough, 1976, p. 4). 4. For a review of such forces see Sutcliffe (1972); and on critique of the modernisation theory see Bernstein (1972). 5. The work of Fernando H. Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, (1978), Dependen­ cy and Development in Latin America, is an exception from this criticism and their method of analysis is actually employed later in this chapter. 6. Exempt from this criticism is Bill Warren (1973), who saw possibilities of surplus accumulation in some Third World countries. He, however, overstated the case by maintaining that in some of these countries, auton­ omous capitalist development is occurring' (Randall and Theobald, 1985, 1993, p. 116). The argument in this book is that without the necessary social transformations even such accumulation of surplus would not translate into capitalist development. 7. Stavrianos (1981, Chapter 17, p. 366) states that other Third World countries were different from Japan because 'they have experienced not centuries of isolation, but periods of colonial rule and neo-colonial exploitation'. In a similar tone, Gunder Frank (1975, p. 5, 1984, p. 28) (1975) insists that 'if Japan is industrialized that is due precisely to the fact that it was never colonized in the sense that other countries were'. See also Moulder (1977). 8. The other two logics are 'comparative history as the parallel demonstra­ tion of theory' and 'comparative history as the contrast of contexts' (Skocpol and Somers, 1980, pp. 182-3). 9. These reviews are taken from Skocpol and Somers (1980, pp. 185-6), where other works and methodological designs are also reviewed. 10. This procedure is taken by Gary Hamilton (1977, pp. 877-91) who uses the 'Method of Difference' design. (Skocpol and Somers, 1980, pp. 186-7). 11. These factors might, however, be significant in conjunction with other variables, but not by themselves. For example, the structure of the agri­ cultural sector might be linked with the historical time in which a back­ ward country makes the entry into the modern world system. Skocpol discusses the possible ways in which the state may react to such situa­ tions. (1979, p. 41 ). 12. Robert 0. Keohane defined hegemony as 'a situation in which one state is powerful enough to maintain the essential rules governing inter-state relations, and willing to do so' (1984, pp.