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Chemical Warfare: Gas Offence, Gas Defence, and Smoke Pro­ duction. By R. Hanslian and F. Bergendorff, Berlin, 1924.-We publish short extracts from this book as we think they indicate clearly the wide range of . PREFACE. The .authors state that the purpose of the book is to give an unbiassed review of chemical warfare based on published facts. They state that a certain amount of information on chemical warfare . has been publish,ed in American and English journals. Although Germany was not the originator of chemical warfare, she maintained her lead in it throughout the war. German methods are therefore largely referred to. Where the claims of Germany and the Allies differ, both sides have been quoted. guest. Protected by copyright. INTRODUCTION. A very general chapter on toxic gases, their definition (i.e., gases, liquids or solids) and their method of use, chief methods of anti-gas pro­ tection, importance of gas discipline. and the psychological effect of gas on troops. I.-GAS OFFENCE. 1. DEVELOPMENT OF GAS ATTACKS. A brief historical summary of early uses of gas and smoke from ancient times to 1871 is given. Special reference is made to Article 23e of the Hague Convention wherein the use of weapons, or substances causing unnecessary suffering is forbidden. The words unnecessarg suffering are emphasized;

the argument being that firstly,. if there was one weapon introduced during http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ the war which could not be called useless that weapon was gas. Secondly,. statistics on the German and French sides show that the fatal casualties due to gas were only about three per cent. Moreover, other casualties soon made a complete recovery. By other weapons fatal casualties were twenty­ five per cent. 'l'herefore Article 23e of the Hague Convention does not. apply to gas. The only section of the Hague Convention which does apply is the clause forbidding the use of gas weapons from the air-particularly in reference to the defenceless civilian population-and the use of projectiles whose sole purpose is spreading of asphyxiating or toxic gases. It was on October 1, 2021 by realized that monoxide, prussic acid and' oxides of nitrogen must 'always be produced, and hence the proposed clause, "The explosive effect of such projectiles must exceed their toxic action." The insertion of this clause was not agreed to by England and America. England finally, in, J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

Ourrent Literature

1907, agreed to subscribe to it, but America did not .. Germany adhered to this strictly till May, 1916, when German Green Cross was introduced, as the French had already departed from the undertaking by using shell in February, 1916. This shell had little shattering effect, but con­ -siderable toxic action. The German prior use of lachrymators in shell, which had a considerable explosive action, and the use of gas clouds, which was but a revival of the ancient smoking out methods,. and had not even been referred to in the agreement, was but a formal transgression of the la,w of nations. Chemical Watjare Preparations by the Higher Commands of the l.larious countries.---':'In so far as Germany was concerned, no preparations had been made prior to the war for the use of chemical substances. Germany had relied entirely on the use of ordinary weapons. The French had introduced prior to the war a twenty-six millimetre rifle-grenade charged with ethyl bromo-acetate, and this had been used prior to the war against the apaches at Choisy-le-Roi. The French

'Pioneers carried these with them in the war, and instructions for their use guest. Protected by copyright. were issued by the French War Ministry on February 21, 1915. They also carried a gas hand-grenade cha,rged with ethyl bromo-acetate and -chloro-acetone. This was used for the first time in March, 1915. German Irritant Shell.-The German Army fired in the year 1914, on October 27, 3,000 shells charged with dianisidine. It was only, however, in the beginning of 1915 that a fifteen cubic metre German gas shell, charged 'with a mixture of xylyl and xylylene-bromide, was used. This was replaced iater by bromo-acetone and bromo-methylethylketone. . Militm'Y Necessity for Gas.-The stalemate of trench warfare turned the thoughts of the General Staff to the use of chemical warfare materials, as it was found that .explosive shell were of· little value against the opponent's trenches. Introduction of the Gas Cloud Method by the Germans.-The existence

·of large quantities of in Germany in the liquid state suggested the http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ pO$sibilities of its use. Contravention of International Law did not arise, as the toxicity of chlorine was not so great as that of ethyl bromo-acetate and chloro-acetone, which had already been used by the French. A brief description is given of the first German gas attack on April 22, 1915. A short historical account is then given of the developments of gas warfare. The part the Americans played in supplying gas shell and men and the preparation of gas warfare chemicals in the States up to the end of the on October 1, 2021 by war is briefly discussed. Brief reference is also made to the casualties by. gas warfare as given in the reports by .the Americans, English, French and Germans, which show that chemical warfare means were the most effective in causing -casualties in 'the World War. J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

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(2) GAS WARFARE CHEMICALS. The nature of the so-called gases is discussed and the methods of classification adopted by the Germans and the Allies are given. Typical examples of each class are mentioned, wi th general particulars of their toxic effect anq the mode of use (i.e., from shell, projectors or cylinders) . For the purposes of the book, the following classification is adopted :­ (a) Lachrymators. (b) Lung irritants. (c) Prussic acid type. (d) . (e) Arsenic gases. (f) Gases from high explosives. Under each section, the gases used during the war .are enumerated; their physical and physiological properties, their tactical importance and mode of use being given:-

(a) Lachrymators. guest. Protected by copyright. Xylyl bromide and xylylene bromide. Bromo-acetone and bromo-methylethylketone. Bromo-benzylcyanide. Dimethyl-sulphate. (b) Lung Irritants. Chlorine. Chloro-methy lchloroformate. Phosgene. Trichloromethylchloroformate (). Chloro-picrin. (c) Prussic Acid. Hydrocyanic acid. (d) Mustard Gas.

Dichlorodiethylsulphide. http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ German Yellow Oross shell, with small bursting cha,·ge. German Yellow Oross H.E. shell. 'l'his latter type of shell combined the properties of a gas and H.E. shell and was first used iu March, 1918. The gas and H.E. were con­ tained in separate compartments. The upper chamber contained the fuse H.E. The intermediate part was filled with an iron parabolic diaphragm. Such shell were known as Z.B. and were also used later with Green Cross Mling. In consequence of the heavy explosive charge a complete~onver­ S10n of the mustard gas into vapour took place. (e) Arsenic Oompounds. on October 1, 2021 by Diphenylchloroarsine. Phen y ldichloroarsine. Dipheny lcyanoarsine. . 15 J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

226 Ourrent Literature

Ethyldibromoarsine. Meth y ldichloroarsine. Ohlorovinyldichloroarsine. (j) Gas from H.E. shell. .-Advantages of use of carbon monoxide: failure to detect its presence in the atmosphere, and penetration of respirator. Disadvantages: its lightness, difficulty of loading compressed into projectiles. It is stated that the technical difficulties of its use might be overcome in the future, and attention is drawn to the adoption by the American Navy of the Burrell respirator containing hopcalite, which gives protection against carbon monoxide. . Tables ,are then given of data for the different gas weapons used by the various countries. Particulars are likewise given of the various weapons used by the English, French, Russians and Italians, but the data are not so complete as in the case of German projectiles. guest. Protected by copyright. Statistics of the chemicals filIed into shell, number of projectiles filled and total weight of gas chemicals made by America are also given.

0. TECHNIQUE OF GAS ATTACK. (A) Cloud Method. Particulars are given of the arrangements made for a gas-cloud attack, such as nature and number of cylinders required for a given front, personnel for operating and installation, weather and terrain considera­ tions. The organization of the attack and the gases which are suitable are also discussed. Deductions are drawn from war experience as to the military value of such attacks. Details are then given of 'a number of German gas-cloud attacks during 1915-1917 on . both fronts, data as to wind direction and velocity, time of duration of cloud, and number of casualties caused to the Allies, any other relevant data where available being included. http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ Brief summaries are also given of the French and English gas-cloud attacks during the same period. More detailed data are given of several Russian gas-cloud attacks. (B) Gas Shell. This section opens with a discussion of the development of the use of gas "hell for bombardments, and the factors, such as weather and terrain, which have to be considered in relation to the tactical importance of this method.

(A) German Tactics. on October 1, 2021 by German tactics are then discussed in detail in reference to the early . type of gas shell and, subsequently, the development of definite types of bombardment for offensive or defensive purposes, as fresh chemical shell were introduced. J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

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. Types of Gas Bombardment ;- (A) Gas Surprise A ttack or Small Gas Bombardment.-N umber and nature of shell are laid down and meteorological conditions specified. An example of an, attack of this nature is given by reference to German 'gas attacks on the Italian front on November 23 and 24, 1917. (B) Gas Barrage.-(a) (b) Medium and Heavy Gas Bombardments, and (c) Gas Curtains. The nature of these types of bombard­ ment is discussed, and the amount of ammunition required to gas given areas considered. Data are given for attacks on the Eastern and Western fronts during 1916-1917. (C) H.E. Gas Shell.-The use of typical H.E. gas shell developed by the Germans is discussed. (D) Drenching of an area by Gas Bombardment.-The special use of Yellow Cross Shell for contaminating a given area is .referred

to, and detailed particulars are given from attacks in the guest. Protected by copyright. Western Front in 1917. Protection of German Troops against Ge1'1nan Gas Bombardment.­ Distances from front line trenches for bombardment with different shell are laid down. Development of Gennan Gas Artillery Tactics during 1918.-The special development of tactics during 1918 are discussed, and detailed accounts are given of the gas bombardments 'during the March and April 1918 offensive. Casualties oj the English Army by German Gas Bombardments.­ Casualty tables, as given in " Medical History of the War," are reproduced. Tactical Considerations.-The task of the artillery in gas bombardment is finally summarized, and it is laid down that the fundamental condition for the success of a gas bombardment depends on the rapidity with which

artillery tactics can be changed to meet varying battle conditions, i.e., to http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ . b~ able to vary the nature of the gas shell to battle and weather conditions. (B) Tactics of the Allies. The authors emphasize the fact thg,t the tactics of the Allies were based on a study of German practice. Reference is made to the Allies classification into three types ;- (1) Irritant or neutralizing shell. (2) Lethal shell. (3) Semipersistent and persistent shell, and the various objects for

which such shell can be used .. on October 1, 2021 by Each class of shell is then discussed 'in relation to England, France and America, in so far as instructions were laid down for rate of fire and calibre for a gi ven area. A special detailed account is given of the English gas bombardment on the Western Front, June 16, 1917. J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

228 ourrent Literature The American proposal for use of gas shell fitted with irritant and persistent gases is discussed.

(C) Gas Bom,bardments by other Weapons. CA) Hand Grenades. Brief reference is made to the limited use of such grenades with a chemical filling by the French, Germans and English.

(B) 'Trench l}[ortars or ProjectOJ S. A general account is given of the development of the various types of German mortars for use in gas bombardments and particulars as to nature and weight of fillings, rate of fire, etc. The several types and their use are then discussed in detail. Ca) Light Gas Bombardments by Trench Mortm·s.-Type of mortar, weight of filling, range, number of mortars required for a bombardment, number ·of projectors to be fired, rate of fire. Data of attack on Eastern

Front, July 28, 1917, are given. guest. Protected by copyright. (b) Medium Gas Bombardment by Trench M ortars.-Some data .are ,given as to numb~rs of mortars and projectiles required to put up a bombardment over a given area. (c) Heavy Gas Bombardment by Trench Mortars.-Data are given of a heavy attack on Eastern Front on October 27,1917. Cd) Concentrated Gas Bombardment by Trench Mortars.-Data are ,given of the requirements of this type of bombardment. Stokes Mortar.-An account is given of the use of the Stokes mortar, .charged with gaR, by the Allies. (3) Method of Projecting Gas by Trench Mortars. The practical value of this method of projecting gas is discussed, witl;! particular reference to the development of the Livens Projector and its use

at Lens March 31,1918. The development of the eighteen cubic millimetre http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ German gas mortar is then described and particulars of the design and use are given. Detailed accounts of a German trench-mortar attack in the 12th Isonzo battle on the Italian Front on October 24, 1917, and .of an American attack against the Germans on August 18, 1918, are also given. n.-GAS DEFENCE. The importance of gas defence and the lack of any preparations by all .combatants before the War is cliscussed. on October 1, 2021 by I.-ANTI-GAS MEASURES FOR HERSONAL PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL. The two main· types of respirator are briefly discussed, i.e., the filtering or, absorption apparatus and the self-contained oxygen breathing sets, and the advantages and disadvantages of both types compared. J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

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(A) Gas Masks 01' Respirators. The first type of protection introduced directly after the first gas attack is briefly referred to, and the essential minimum requirements of any respirator are laid down. (a) Germany.-A detailed account of the evolution and development of the German respirator is then given from 1915-1918. Reference, among other things, is made to masks for men of irregular features and for wounded men, to the disinfection of masks and the protection necessary for substances of the Blue Cross type. Special reference is made to the attachment of a cotton-wool pad to the outside of the drum to protect against particulate matter of the Blue Cross type. Mention is also made to a special respirator produced for the German Navy alld to the provision of "breathing pads" for civilians behind the lines. A description is also given of the post-war development of the German respirator for industrial purposes, known as the" Optolix " respirator. (b) Allies.-Detailed descriptions are also given of the development and guest. Protected by copyright. evolution of the various types of gas masks by the .English, French, Russians and Americans. The post-war developments of the American respirator are also referred to in detail, especial mention of the adoption by the American Navy of the Burrell Hopcalite type of respirator being made " Attention is drawn to the general importance of gas discipline to enable gas masks to be worn under fighting conditions. (B) Light Self-contained Oxygen-breathing Sets. A detailed description is given of the various self-contained oxygen­ breathing sets used by the Germans and English. Special reference is made to the post-war development· of such sets, and des·criptions are given of the new Drager and Hanseatic (Audos) types. The 1914 model of the Audos apparatus weighs 7'5 kilogrammes. http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/

(0) Protective Olothing. Reference is made to the essentials of protective clothing, and the development of such clothing by the Americans and English is briefly alluded to. The use of protective ointments by the Allies is also mentioned:

(D) Gas Protection of Animals.

The German view is that horse masks are of value. An account is given on October 1, 2021 by of the masks used during the war by the French, English, Americans and Germans. The special horse-protective shoes, dog-masks, and German plgeon-bo~es are also described. . J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

230 Ourrent Literature

2.-COLLECTIVE PROTEC'fION,. The question of collective protection is considered m relation to the various anti-gas measures adopted by all sides :­ (a) Gas-tight dug-outs and dug-out curtains. (b) French earth filters. (c) Russian fire and smoke method for preventing gas getting into trenches. (d) Degassing of trenches by fans or pumps. (e) Detectors for chlorine. (j) Special indications of a gas attack by the enemy to be looked for. (g) Gas alarms. A detailed description is given of the Meteorological Service Organiza­ tion and its functions. Particulars are also given as to the care to be taken of weapons and apparatus, and the treatment of water and food exposed to gas.

III.- SMOKE PRODUCTION. guest. Protected by copyright. The uses of ordinary and toxic smokes are discussed generally and their iinportance in warfare :- (A) 01'dinary Smoke Production. 'l'he differeut smoke-producing materials used are discussed in detail, and the chief weapons in which they were used are described. The putting down of smoke screens by the Artillery is discussed in relation to meteorological conditions, terrain and calibre of shell required, as laid down in English, French and German manuals. The tactical uses of smoke in attack and defence are enumerated and advantages and disadvantages reviewed. (B) Toxic Smoke Production. The production of toxic smokes by use of NC (i.e., and

stannic chloride) and diphenylchloroarsine is des'cribed. http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ Fries' and West's description of the toxic smoke candle (BM) and dis­ persoid toxic smoke candle is quoted. The putting down Of smoke screens by aeroplanes and developments in the use of ordinary and toxic smoke bombs from aeroplanes in future warfare are referred to.

IV.-POST-WAR DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL WARFARE AND I1'S IMPORTANCE IN THE FUTURE. Reference is made to the campaign against Chemical Warfare after the

Armistice. Quotations are made from speeches or writings of Professor on October 1, 2021 by Smithels and the Prime Minister (Mr. Lloyd George). The Disarmament Conference at Washington and the prohibition of the use of gas are mentioned. Quotations by General Fries and others in American journals at the time are given. The opinions of experts in various European countries, as J R Army Med Corps: first published as 10.1136/jramc-47-03-10 on 1 September 1926. Downloaded from

Ourrent Literature 231 well as in America, in advocating the study of chemical warfare methods are noted. The possibilities of the d~opping of gas bombs from aeroplanes, or the sprinkling of gas from the air are pointed out and supported by reference to other writers. ' The developments in 1918 of the ,gas-cloud attacks, using gas tanks on railway wagons, and light portable gas cylinders are referred to. The use in future of mustard gas hand-grenades, and toxic smoke-candles must be expected. The Powers are daily making progress in constructing mobile heavy calibre guns or mines filled with gas. The development of the technique in using the different gases for specific purposes is alluded to. The question of protection is also discussed, especialiy.in relation to the development of a respirator for protection against carbon monoxide. The possibility is advanced of a soldier being equipped in future with a respirator container and self-contained oxygen breathing set, so that he can switch over from one to the other as required, and with suitable protective clothing which he can quickly don; by such means he will be in a position to meet guest. Protected by copyright. an,unknown gas. How far such requirements can be carried' out remains to be seen. Quotations are given from Liddell-Hart's paper in the R. E. Journal, . March, 1924, showing that from the English side such equipment will render the infantryman incapable of fighting. The use of gas-tight tanks to traverse gas-soaked areas is advocated. ' Reference is made also to the protection of the sailor in relation to the provision of Hopcalite respirators, or self-contained oxygen breathing sets. ,

CONCLUSION. In conclusion, it is stated that fundamental principles of war are not altered by the introduction of chemical weapons. The offensive spirit is Rtill the key to success in warfare. The inlportance of the chemical direction of warfare is only gradually being realized. Chemical warfare http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ has come to stay, a world domination will only come to the people who are most scientifically developed.

ApPENDICES. , Illustrations are given of the use of gas cylinders and projectors and smoke candles, respirators and self-contained breathing sets, used by most of the countries participating in the war, horse masks, dog masks and horse protective shoes. , Thl ee maps, taken from the Medical History of the War, are reproduced.

A table is given of the most import~nt gases used during the war, with on October 1, 2021 by their code names, physiological classification, physical properties, unbear­ able concentrations, and methods of using. Date of first use. A bibliography containing 84 references to journals, papers and books pu blished on Chemical Warfare, concludes the book,