An Introductory Guide to Wetland Plants Important to Waterfowl and Marsh Management in Central by Michael L. Schummer Roosevelt Waterfowl Ecologist Roosevelt Wild Life Station SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry

Disclaimer: This is not a complete guide to the wetland plants of New York, but a list of plants commonly occurring in managed and unmanaged wetlands that are 1/ food for waterfowl and other seed eating birds, 2/ cover for invertebrates eaten by ducklings and other fish and wildlife, and 3/ invasive plants that often require control to ensure a diversity of native plants can flourish. This should not serve as an ultimate guide to wetland plant management. Always follow herbicide labeling and regulations. Always obtain the proper permits before conducting wetland management activities.

Introduction: In my experience, few waterfowl enthusiasts (birders and hunters) fully understand the diversity of plants used by waterfowl for food and cover. My intent is to provide a VERY basic introductory guide to these plants and descriptions about their identification and management. In Marsh History, I provide some historical context about the loss of wetlands in the central New York region and why management of wetlands are critical to ensure quality habitats are available for migratory waterfowl. In Important Wetland Plants as Food, I cover the most common plants producing seeds, tubers, and vegetation eaten by waterfowl. Here I express the utility of annual plants in producing an abundance of food for waterfowl because these plants DO NOT return the next year from their roots; their only way of continuing to exist is from their production of seeds that must germinate the following year. As such they put an abundance of energy into producing many seed which waterfowl exploit as high-quality foods. Perennial plants produce about 1/10th the seed of annuals because they will regrow the next year from their roots. In Other Plants, I include those not used at all or primarily as food, but that provide other benefits to waterfowl. In Invasive Plants, I describe control measures. In Agricultural Crops, I describe the utility and drawbacks of crops as supplemental feed for some species of waterfowl. In Management Techniques, I briefly describe methods used to produce an abundance of natural foods for waterfowl.

Montezuma Marsh History: With greater than 4 Million Duck-Use-Days, the Montezuma Marsh is among the most significant migration stops for waterfowl in the Atlantic Flyway. As such, the Montezuma Marsh was the Audubon Society’s first ever globally significant Important Bird Area to be designated. In 1822, the initial Erie Canal was finally able to be constructed through the densely vegetated and expansive Montezuma Marshes. The Erie Canal began the drainage of the marshes through the Seneca and Oswego Rivers and onto . However, constriction at Jack’s Reef just to the east of Montezuma did not allow for greater drainage and substantial modification of the regions marshes until the mid-1850’s when the Canal Enlargement Plan was enacted. Prior to 1953, the outlet of was narrow and congested with wild celery (a favorite food of Canvasback) during the growing season. Even following the slow release of snow melt out of Cayuga Lake into the Montezuma Marshes, the wild celery and other vegetative growth greatly constricted water flow through the marsh. Entering from the north, several other creeks also regularly refilled the Montezuma Marshes with spring and summer rains. Of these creeks, the Black Creek, that runs through the Vanderbilt Marsh before entering Crusoe Creek and eventually the , is one of the largest watersheds in the Montezuma Marshes. An 1831 report to the New York State Assembly indicates that spring floods in the Montezuma Marsh were often not relieved until July, after which the water in Cayuga Lake continued to rise due to plant growth in the marsh that pushed water backwards in the system. Prior to the enlargement of the Erie Canal, the Montezuma Marsh was a “river of diverse vegetation”; or an area of ever shifting vegetation, water depths, river scouring, muskrat and beaver activity, and mudflats. This ever-changing marsh landscape produced an abundance of food and cover for a diversity of waterfowl and other wetland wildlife with areas of dense cattail (Typha spp.), flooded deep pools, winding marsh creeks, and drying mudflats. Waterfowl and other wetland wildlife were abundant in these diverse marshes. Prior to any development of the Seneca River, it is suspected that the water line of old shoreline of Cayuga Lake was at 380 feet above sea level; without water control, a shallow ever-changing marsh at the north end of Cayuga Lake would have encompassed much of what nowadays is the USFWS Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge, NYSDEC Northern Montezuma Wildlife Management Area, and many private farms, residential homes, and hunt clubs. In 1857, expansion of the Erie Canal changed everything for the plants and animals of the Montezuma Marsh when work at Jack’s Reef along the Seneca River was completed to widen and deepen the channel. In most locations, the channel was cut down 9 -10 feet. Less than a mile to the west of Jack’s Reef, Cross Lake was lowered by 4 feet in two weeks alone, leaving an immense expanse of diverse marshes along the lake “high and dry”. Nowadays these lands along Cross Lake are filled with cottages that still regularly flood and even lower elevation areas are colonized by monotypic stands of flood tolerant silver maple. The Montezuma Marsh was easy to drain after Jack’s Reef was cut and the new lock and dam on the outlet of Cayuga Lake regulated flow of water into the marshes. It is estimated that these modifications, promulgated by the Barge Canal, in the name of progress, allowing 70% of the acreage in the Montezuma Marsh to be drained for farming and other development. The full function of the Montezuma Marsh was gone forever and the diverse marshes created by the historic, unrestricted water mark of 380 feet above sea level was erased. The clouds of waterfowl and general abundance of other wildlife that attracted Native Americans to the region were reduced to a fraction of their historic numbers. Fortunately, the muck soils of the Montezuma Marshes support a diversity of dormant wetlands seeds and can quickly be restored to desirable wetland habitat. In the Montezuma Marshes, $8.97M ($2.46M NAWCA, $6.41 partner match) has been invested to restore and conserve 8,701 acres. Wetland restoration, enhancement and protection are a substantial focus of the Atlantic Coast Joint Venture with federal, state, and private landowners participating conserve wetlands and adjacent uplands in the Montezuma Marshes. Common conservation partners in the Montezuma Marshes include USFWS, NYSDEC, Ducks Unlimited, and the Audubon Society.

Important Wetland Plants as Food Annual Smartweed – several species, diverse, including Pennsylvania (usually pink Flower) and Pale Smartweed (usually white flower) Description: Annual, produces a hard flattened, lens-shaped black to brown seed. Colonizes drawn down areas that have not been de-watered for some time, often in a monotypic crop. Ok as waterfowl food but because of their hard outer shell the energy available to waterfowl is limited, many ducks eat these and defecate them (poop them out!) whole and undigested. Perennial varieties also exist and often grow in wetlands that have not been drawdown. Flowers at the surface; they produce SUBSTANTIALLY less food than annual smartweed. Responds to early season drawdown.

Bidens, Sticktights, Beggarsticks – Several species Description: Yellow flower, seed sticks to your clothes, you hate these and your dog hates these in the marsh, but they are quality duck food. High in protein for a seed. Plant flowers later in summer/early fall, produces compass like yellow flowers. Important for pollinators in late fall when few plants are flowering. Responds to mid-season and VERY dry drawdowns at our northern latitude.

Yellow Nutsedge, Chufa Description: Perennial, versatile waterfowl food that produces an abundance of tiny seed annually as well as tubers. Seeds are preferred by pintail and green-winged teal; the plant dies back in Fall and produces tubers that all waterfowl will eat by dig out of the marsh mud with their bills. Early to mid- season drawdown at northern latitudes. Disking will spread this plant by cutting up tubers.

Barnyard Grass, Millet, Walter’s Millet Description: Annual weed, considered the world’s worst agricultural weed, millet is by far the most universal duck foods that can be produced by use of drawdowns in the marshes of central New York. These brown seeds eaten by nearly all ducks are produced in abundance on dense clustered seed Walter’s Millet heads. Early to mid-season drawdowns. Close relative of Japanese Millet but requires less care and will produce seed among an abundance of other quality wetland plants. Walter’s millet has long awns and red-seed head in appearance relative to common barnyard grass. Barnyard responds to early season drawdown and Walter’s mid-season, Walter’s millet matures much later only showing heads by late-August.

Rice Cut Grass Description: A perennial that acts like an annual. Partial drawdowns facilitate colonization of this plant as it spreads by underground rhizomes that can sprout through shallow water. Produces an abundance of seed for a perennial, forms monotypic stands if wetlands that are continually partially drawdown and, as such, can reduce wetland plant diversity. This plant is often invasive where drawdowns are not completed properly across extended summer seasons. Seeds and plant have silica spike that can cut skin and stick to clothing and dogs. High energy seed for waterfowl that is easily digestible but does not produce as much seed as annual grasses (e.g. millet). Ducks often will not use monotypic stands until freeze thaw events create openings in the marsh.

Pigweed (Amaranth) and Goosefoot (Chenopodium) – two species Description: Two species that react similarly to drawdowns. Colonize during VERY dry years or with VERY early drawdowns that sustain dry soil conditions. TINY seed, eaten by most waterfowl but selected by green-winged teal and pintails when available.

Goosefoot plant (right) and leaves (below)

Panic Grass – many species Description: Sprawling, thin seed head. Produces seed rapidly in late summer (hence, Panic Grass!), TINY shiny brown seeds, selected by green-winged teal and pintails, but eaten by all dabbling ducks. Initiates growth with mid-season drawdowns. Plant height predicts production but still produces less seed weight than average millet plant. Witch grass, heavily haired on the stem and leaves, is common in the Montezuma region, and unique to the region grows in a stunted form on shallow soils with marl close below. This plant on these marl soils produces seeds, but a limited number relatively to other more fertile soils.

Water Plantain Description: Similar to Rice Cut Grass, this perennial can produce an abundance of seeds like an annual. Seeds Produces greatest seed abundance with early or mid-season drawdown that retains soil moisture throughout the growing season either through rainfall or regular flushing of the system with shallow floods. Small disk-shaped seeds drop to the surface with plant disturbance where they float for extended periods and are available for ducks to eat.

Pondweed seeds and vegetation – various species (Potamogeton spp.) Description: Perennial, submerged aquatic plants. Heavy single seeds, many half-moon shaped, some with horns, heavily coated, may be difficult to digest by waterfowl; vegetation of some pondweeds consumed by wigeon, gadwall, geese, swans and diving ducks. These large seeds occur in about 15% of samples from Montezuma and are heavy, but they often occur in deeper water areas only accessible to diving ducks or in areas previously with deep water where the water has been lowered to allows access to foods for waterfowl and other birds that use shallow water.

Sago Pondweed (Stuckenia pectinate) – different genus than the pondweeds above which are Potamogeton spp. Description: Submerged aquatic plant. Common throughout central New York in clear water wetlands, does not tolerate siltation or disturbance by carp. Important food item for waterfowl as the entire plant is eaten, seeds are half- moon shaped with small horn. Sago pondweed does not compete well where Milfoil and Coontail, or other aquatic plants occur in abundance.

Milfoil – Eurasian (exotic) and native Description: Submerged aquatic plant. Fan-like leaves. Eurasian milfoil can be invasive but also often mixed with other aquatic plants in wetlands. Eaten by gadwall, wigeon, geese, swans and some diving ducks. Outcompetes sago pondweed for space. Harbors invertebrates eaten by waterfowl.

Coontail Description: Submerged aquatic plant. Whorled leaves. Seed, flattened, and three spiked. Eaten by gadwall, wigeon, geese, swans, and some diving ducks. Can outcompete sago pondweed. Harbors invertebrates eaten by waterfowl.

Softstem bulrush Description: Perennial, long green stalk up to 10 feet tall with reddish brown spikelets, fruit is small, brownish red to black. Grows in shallow marshes, often dominates in years follow a drawdown when water is held throughout the growing season. Occurs in about 10% of soil samples in the Montezuma region, but less than 1% of the seed biomass.

Carex - MANY species Description: Carex is an extremely diverse genus of wetland plants with over 2,000 species. All carex are perennial and most produce three-sided triangular or two-sided lens-shaped seeds. Occur from dry edges to standing water, most require moist-soil where they are not in standing water during the growing season to flourish. Seeds eaten by waterfowl. Occur in 20% of soil core samples in the Montezuma region but account for less than 1% of the total seed mass in the marshes.

Spikerush – several species Description: Mostly small plants, less than 1 foot tall, green round or angled stems, brown seed heads. TINY seeds with caps. Spikerush greens are foraged on by geese and swans, seeds are eaten by ducks, but at Montezuma only account for 0.5% of the seed mass. They occur in about 10% of our core samples. Do best in wet-soils or shallow flooding throughout the growing season.

Burreed Description: Perennial, erect with leaves that look similar to cattail except they don’t get as tall, have a ridge running down them and they are stouter in general than cattail. Seeds look somewhat corn shaped and occur on spiked balls. These balls are brown come Fall and crumble into individual seeds. Fair as food because, although this plant produces a large seed it does not produce much seed and often occurs in scattered patches. Depending on the year this plant occurs across 2-5% of the marsh area. Produces quality cover for broods and is used as nesting material by least bitterns and other marshbirds.

Arrowhead Description: Noticeably arrow shaped leaves, white flowers, produces thin, tan seeds, that are wedge-shaped. Can be common and abundant throughout Montezuma, often on edges of wetlands Soil cores suggest it does not contribute substantially to the amount of food available go waterfowl. However, the important part of this plant as food for waterfowl are the tubers. Muskrats also eat the tubers.

Tubers -----

Perennial Smartweed – swamp smartweed, marshpepper smartweed, dotted smartweed Description: Perennial, looks like annual smartweed (flowers white to light pink), but produces a shiny three-sided seed and much less seed because it is a perennial. Has underground stems and shoots that sprouts from nodes, mat forming. Often occurs in areas that with standing water and that remain overly wet throughout the growing season. Common on infrequently disturbed areas where what has been held for extended periods of time. Can become invasive. Drawdowns reduce perennial smartweed and promote annual smartweed.

OTHER PLANTS Swamp Loosestrife (AKA Tanglefoot) Description: Perennial, not to be confused with purple loosestrife which is highly invasive and provides few benefits to waterfowl, swamp loosestrife is an important plant as cover for broods and as roost areas for migrating waterfowl. Woody at the base w/ long arching slender stems that bend downwards and root at the tip when they come in contact with mud. As such, it also goes by the name “tangle foot” because it can be difficult to walk through where it has rooted at two ends. Excellent brood cover because ducklings can get out of the water at night and it provide overhead cover from avian predators. Duck also use it as roost cover during Fall migration.

Buttonbush Description: Perennial shrub that tolerates extended flooding, produces low hanging branches for roosting by broods and migrating ducks. Flower clustered on balls, that form into brown balls that crumble into hundreds of seeds in Fall. Seeds eaten by waterfowl. Deer and beaver browse can reduce buttonbush abundance, but it often resprouts from the stump.

Cattail Description: Perennial, common and important wetland plant throughout Montezuma. Provides no direct food benefit to waterfowl, but provides cover for invertebrates, nesting habitat for a diversity of marshbirds, visual isolation for broods and breeding waterfowl, and places for hunters to hide. Vital to the health of muskrat population as they eat and make their wintering huts from this plant. Can become invasive and greatly reduce wetland plant diversity, do not let dominate marsh. Muskrats are the best natural control as they can remove nearly all cattail cover over several years. Holding water on wetlands promotes cattail. It can be drowned but that makes wetlands of lower utility to waterfowl and many other birds because the water becomes too deep for the birds to feed.

INVASIVE PLANTS Phragmites/Common Reed Description: Perennial, tall grass, usually over 6 feet tall, with brownish red, plume seed head, highly invasive, outcompetes native vegetation and can change the elevation of marshes making them less hospitable to other plants. Herbicide is the only realistic treatment of this plant. Do not let establish, treat early before it can spread. Always follow herbicide application recommendations and ensure use of an approved aquatically labeled herbicide when using near water. Disking can spread this plant because tubers are chopped up and spread.

Purple Loosestrife Description: Perennial, showy purple flower that blooms August-September. Square- stem, grows in moist-soil areas, tolerates moderate flooding but can be drowned. Once a problem in the Montezuma region it is now largely controlled using Galerucella beetles that kill the plant. No food utility to waterfowl because the seed is too small but the flowers are used heavily by pollinators. Expect a common predator-prey cycle between loosestrife and Galerucella beetles, whereby just when you think loosestrife is going to take over, the beetle population will increase, decimating the loosestrife, then the beetle population will crash, loosestrife returns and the cycle starts over.

Reed Canary Grass Description: Perennial grass, smothers other plants, produces an abundance of seed that remains in the soil for extended periods of time. Seed not consumed by waterfowl in any measurable amount. Tolerates flooding and will produce floating mats. Herbicide prior to temperatures reach 70°F in Spring for greatest kill, retreatment nearly always necessary. Treatment will release other plants the year after but because reed canary has a robust seed bank, it will likely come back in future years. Produces quality habitat for invertebrate and does stabilize shorelines and berms with extensive root system.

Agricultural Crops: Domestic crops such as corn, soybean, wheat, oats, etc. should always be considered a supplement to and not a replacement for native wetland foods. Although substantial success in hunting for some species of waterfowl can occur over crops, they should not be used as the primary means to attract and manage for waterfowl for several reasons. When available at appropriate densities, these “hot foods” enable waterfowl to store fat quickly for use during Fall migration and as a jump start to successful reproduction in the Spring, but waterfowl require a diversity of nutrients to survive. In fact, a mallard fed only corn will die because of lack of nutrition. Thus, incorporating crop management into wetland complexes can be important to help waterfowl meet their energy needs but not their overall nutritional needs; native pristine and restored wetlands nearby agricultural fields are necessary for waterfowl to survive and reproduce. Further, only a few select species of waterfowl regularly use agricultural areas including Canada Geese, Snow Geese, Tundra Swans, Mallards, Black Ducks, and Pintails; other species using crops in lesser abundance include Green-winged Teal and Wood Ducks. Nearly all species of waterfowl will use harvested crop fields if they are flooded, but these birds may not be selecting the area for waste grains. Crops, specifically corn, left standing and then flooded obviously produce the greatest density of food energy for waterfowl but these grains either need to fall over or have water high enough for the birds to access the grain. Research suggests that density of waste grains must be at a threshold level for waterfowl to feed in these areas, otherwise it is not worth their time searching a vast field for a few kernels. Typical farm practices nowadays, through highly efficient combine harvesters, has reduced many fields to the point they have limited foraging capacity for waterfowl; these fields either start the Fall season below the threshold density of food or birds quickly deplete the food in these areas. This may be why we see fewer and fewer field feeding mallards in the Cayuga Lake and other waterfowl rich regions of NY nowadays than in the past. Agricultural fields also do not provide habitat for the suite of other wetland wildlife that we like to see on the landscape such as muskrats, marshwrens, bitterns, herons, terns, and grebes. During shallow flooding, these areas are often the first to attract shorebirds and in Spring they are often first to thaw and attract an abundance of waterfowl. Native wetlands when draw down and managed properly to produce annual plant seeds and tubers can produce a similar or greater density of food than harvested agricultural fields and should remain the main focus of our waterfowl management efforts for viewing and hunting. Incorporated at the proper rate and density, agricultural fields are an important component of any wetlands complex where the focus is waterfowl management.

Management Techniques: Of vital importance in any wetland management is the incorporation of water control structures that allows managers to lower and raise water levels with the use of boards at the inlets and outlets of wetlands. In most areas of central New York the seasonal flooding, or hydrological regime, has been greatly altered to the point that relying on natural flooding and drying of the landscape to sustain quality wetlands for wildlife is impossible. In Marsh History, I described how the engineering of the Erie Canal destroyed the marshes of central New York. Nowadays, water control structures are used in wetland restorations to mimic the natural flood regime of the region to the best of our ability. Of note, no water control structure can replace the quality of habitat that once existed in the central New York region for wetland wildlife, but we can manage for a diversity of habitats from deep water to mudflat to ensure the needs of a diversity of wildlife of the region are met. If a wetland does not have a water control structure that does not mean that there is no management capacity, just that it is greatly limited. Some basic management needs still include, 1/ maintaining approximately 50% open water to 50% vegetated area, this ensures adequate plants as food but also areas for broods and other wetland wildlife, 2/ conduct plant surveys in the growing season and control invasive plants as necessary, and 3/ keep disturbance to a minimum for viewing and hunting of waterfowl. Here we provide bullet points of management techniques. This document should not be used as an ultimate guide, but rather a starting point. Always obtain the proper permits for any wetland work you will be conducting and always follow herbicide labeling and regulations. Remember, no single management technique is appropriate for all wetlands, and what is provided here are simple, introductory guidelines. Contracting with a wetland manager/consultant may be necessary to obtain the greatest results and waterfowl hunting and viewing success possible.

Wetlands without water control structures: Many landowners have wetlands they own or manage that do not have water control structures. Vegetative management can still occur in these areas. Of great importance is spending time in the marsh during the growing season and learning how to identify the plants growing in the marsh. Keeping records of water depths and plants species is important. If invasive plants such as Phragmites are identified, treating with herbicide will be important before this plant becomes established. If cattail is taking over your marsh, try to encourage muskrats to colonize by eliminating or reducing muskrat trapping until a substantial eat out of the marsh occurs. Cattail can also be managed with herbicide by hand-wicking or backpack sprayer. If you get seasonal drying of your marsh, use of small equipment on the edges such as an ATV with a disk can be used to disturb the soil and produce annual plants. When the water returns in the Fall this should provide an abundance of food for waterfowl. Simply cutting openings in the marsh also can provide areas for waterfowl to land. During dry years, wetlands can sometimes dry up nearly entirely and may produce robust vegetation that is difficult for waterfowl to find and land in, even after water returns in Fall. To make the water under this vegetation visible to waterfowl flying overhead, simply driving over some of the vegetation with an ATV, Argo, etc. can make openings for waterfowl to land. Do this as late as possible because running over vegetation can reduce seed production if done too early. September is a good period to manage vegetation for openings in your marsh, especially if seasonal drying allows you to drive equipment in the marsh. Wetlands with water control structures: Of vital importance is using your water control structure! Your wetland does not need to be draw down every year, but full to partial draw downs should be considered the norm for growing quality duck foods. Remove boards slowly, 6” every week starting in May is preferable because it produces soils of different moisture and temperature which helps a diversity of different beneficial plants germinate in your marsh. Having water at the desired level by 1 June would be considered an early drawdown, 1 July a mid-season draw down and 1 August a late-season drawdown. If you can’t get the water off by 1 August then don’t bother, you likely will not get seed production from that point on in most years. These dates differ greatly from published literature for southern latitudes. The difference is that, although we don’t reach the soil temperatures they do in the south, we have longer days at our northern latitude and plants seem quite adapted to producing seed quickly, even with a mid to late season drawdown. A full draw down is considered to be completely dewatered except for the borrow ditch, a partial drawdown dewaters 20-50% of the wetland and passive management would be keeping water on the entirety of the wetland basin throughout the growing season. At times, it may be desirable to keep water on your wetland through the growing season, especially if you have a diverse perennial plant community and need to promote muskrats to help reduce your area of cattail. Natural drying will likely occur at edges and produce a limited amount of annual plants in passively managed wetlands. That said, passive management should not be the normal management technique for attracting migrating waterfowl for viewing and hunting. When passive management is used you still need to retain water in the majority of the wetland at 2 feet or less, with the majority of the wetland less than 18 inches during migration periods. Dabbling ducks bodies are no more than 18 inches from bill to feet and deep water areas reduce their ability to reach the bottom. During migration periods, if you can walk the majority of your wetland in hip waders, you are doing it right and you will have much greater viewing and hunting opportunities for waterfowl than in wetlands where chest waders are required. These shallow areas are also preferred by a diversity of other wetland birds. A common and major mistake of wetland managers is holding water too high in all wetlands. Some species require deeper water and within a complex a few deeper wetlands are recommended. They should not be the norm. That said, raising the water in at least a portion of your wetland to 3 feet late in the season (in late November to early-December and then holding steady) can help promote muskrat colonization and a cattail eat-out. When reflooding in the Fall, put boards back in slowly, raising the water level to that shallow level by early-October. Be sure not to drown growing plants before they seed; you can add boards and catch water to get plants “feet wet” which can stress them and promote them to set seed earlier. Keep raising the water throughout October and November, slowly making additional areas of the marsh available to waterfowl. Remember most early dabbling ducks (teal, wigeon, shoveler, gadwall, pintail) show up in early-October and big ducks like Mallards and Black Ducks late-November and December, so you don’t need to flood the entire wetland right away. Before reflooding your wetland in the Fall, help ensure openings in the wetland for waterfowl to land by light disking areas or driving an ATV or other equipment over vegetation. Disking: In areas that are dry enough for equipment, light disking to 6” or less can greatly increase seed and tuber densities for foraging waterfowl come Fall. The disking should be done as early in Spring-Summer as possible and may only be possible with an early draw down. Be careful with disking as it also can spread invasive plants like Phragmites. That said, this isn’t rocket science, if you have the capacity to draw down your wetland annually and disturb the soil to promote a variety of soil moistures and temperature, then you should get a diversity of seed producing plants. Pilot research at Montezuma has also shown that these activities do not reduce the frequency of perennial plants, so disking is expected to simply diversify the wetland plant community. Fall vegetative management: Draw downs can produce robust stands of annual vegetation that are difficult for waterfowl to access/land in. Without vegetative management, these areas will slowly break down through freeze and thaw events but may not be available to birds until November – January depending on the weather. To make openings use equipment with a disk or simply drive over vegetation. When water is captured in the wetland, these areas will be the first to be visible and be places for waterfowl to land and feed. If you have invasive plants you would like to control such as patches of Phragmites, cattail, or reed canary grass this is a good time to herbicide, especially if the basin is dry. Plants at this time of year are sending energy down to the roots and helps more the herbicide to the roots where you will get the greatest kill. Spraying in late-August and September at least 2 weeks before a frost is best. These areas, then flooded that Fall-Winter will hopefully become bare mud substrate the following Spring-Summer when your draw down occurs, promoting annual food producing vegetation. Mudflats and Fall draw downs: In areas where it was not possible to get water off of a wetland because of excessive Spring-Summer rains, beaver activity at the water control structure, or because you were in a passive or partial draw down management year, you can partially draw down your wetland in August – September. This creates mudflats for migrating shorebirds and blue-winged teal, concentrates animal foods for herons and egrets, and concentrates seeds and other foods for waterfowl in shallow water areas. Following this brief draw down, start rewatering for October – November to meet winter water management level goals. Disturbance: Keeping disturbance to a minimum is important in sustaining waterfowl on your wetland for viewing and hunting. The greater food abundance you have the more disturbance birds tend to tolerate, but excessive disturbance from constant human activities will always reduce the abundance of waterfowl on your wetland. Hunting no more than 2-3 times per week is recommended, but wetland managers should keep records to better understand their local hunt frequency that works for them. Sustaining waterfowl areas as inviolate refuges on off days is important, this includes no ATV activity to and from deer stands, no boat activity, no walking the dog on the berm, and no gun shots from other hunting activities nearby (e.g., upland bird hunting). If you have a large area to manage, waterfowl harvest as ducks/hunter/day generally increase with increasing nearby refuge, up to 50% of the area. So, designating a portion of your marsh as inviolate refuge to hold birds also may be important. Further a density of 1 hunting party per 50 acres of wetland is recommend; if possible 1 hunting party per 100 acres of wetland is ideal. At a density of 1 party/100 acres, waterfowl harvest and use of the marsh may be maximized. That is, when densities approach 1 party/100 acres, waterfowl often use nonhunted portions of marshes while hunting activity (i.e., shots fired) is occurring. This is an ideal situation because waterfowl are attracted to the marsh simultaneously with hunting which simultaneously meets the objectives of providing habitat for waterfowl and quality waterfowl hunting.