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The Effects of Level of Goal Evaluation on Mood And KEEPING YOUR EYES ON THE PRIZE VERSUS YOUR NOSE TO THE GRINDSTONE: THE EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF GOAL EVALUATION ON MOOD AND MOTIVATION ___________________________________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia ___________________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy ___________________________________________________________ by LINDA HOUSER-MARKO Dr. Kennon Sheldon, Dissertation Supervisor AUGUST 2007 © Copyright by Linda Houser-Marko 2007 All Rights Reserved The undersigned, appointed by the Dean of the Graduate school, have examined the dissertation entitled KEEPING YOUR EYES ON THE PRIZE OR YOUR NOSE TO THE GRINDSTONE: THE EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF GOAL EVALUATION ON MOOD AND MOTIVATION presented by Linda Houser-Marko a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. ___________________________________ Kennon Sheldon, PhD ___________________________________ Lynne Cooper, PhD ___________________________________ Laura King, PhD ___________________________________ Anna Bardone-Cone, PhD ___________________________________ Vicki Conn, PhD Many thanks go to my dear husband Shaun who has supported me in so many ways throughout this process. Thanks as well to my parents Bob and Betsy who always expected the best from me. And most of all, this dissertation is dedicated to my two young daughters, Claire Charlotte and Maggie Belle, who inspire me with their boundless energy. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge all those who have helped with my academic research. First I would like to thank Professor Ken Sheldon for his advice, guidance, support and patience in this long endeavor. I would also like to thank all of my committee members for their guidance, patience and support throughout the years, for both my master’s thesis project and this dissertation project. Thank you to Lynne Cooper, Laura King, Anna Bardone-Cone, and Vicki Conn. I would like to thank my lab mates for their support and camaraderie—thank you to Neetu Abad, Chuck Nichols and Alex Gunz. A special thank you toYuna Ferguson for providing feedback on early drafts. Thank you to all of our undergraduate research assistants for their help on all of our projects as well. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................ii ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................vi Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................1 2. Study 1...................................................................................................................14 Introduction Method Results Brief Discussion 3. Study 2...................................................................................................................26 Introduction Method Results Brief Discussion 4. Discussion..............................................................................................................41 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................51 APPENDICES 1. Tables of Results....................................................................................................59 2. Figures....................................................................................................................69 VITA......................................................................................................................76 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Study 1: Analysis of Variance for Expectancy.... ………………………………….....60 2. Study 1: Analysis of Variance for Negative Affect…………………………...............61 3. Study 1: Analysis of Variance for Positive Affect………………………….................62 4. Study 1: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Expectancy.........................................................................................................................63 5. Study 2: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Final Negative Affect..................................................................................................................64 6. Study 2: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Final Positive Affect ...................................................................................................................65 7. Study 2: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Expected Course Grade......................................................................................................66 8. Study 2: Multilevel Mixed Model Predicting Weekly Negative Affect........................67 9. Study 2: Multilevel Mixed Model Predicting Weekly Positive Affect..........................68 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Feedback loop diagram..................................................................................................69 2. Study 1: Means for Expectancy.....................................................................................70 3a. Study 1: Means for Negative affect……………….....................................................71 3b. Study 1: Means for Positive affect…….……………..................................................72 4. Study 1: Regression results for Expectancy with ACSW..............................................73 5. Study 2: Regression results for Negative Affect............................................................74 6. Study 2: Regression results for Expected Grade............................................................75 v ABSTRACT The level at which a goal is evaluated can lead to differing mood and motivation during the process of goal pursuit. Though higher level primary goals provide meaning and direction for a person, evaluating progress on that primary goal is risky. This notion was tested with a 2 x 2 experiment in which framing level (sub-goal or primary goal) and feedback valence (success or failure) were manipulated for participants (n=118) during a computer game in the laboratory. Positive mood and expectancy decreased and negative mood increased the most for those who received primary goal failure feedback. Study 2 was a short longitudinal experimental study that took place over 8 weeks throughout which participants (n=113) evaluated their progress on a primary goal (Grade goal) or sub-goal (Study hours goal) for a specific course. Success or failure varied naturally for individuals. Evaluating progress on a primary goal was associated with more extreme mood. Specifically, when progress was lacking, the primary goal focus was associated with decreases in mood and expectancy. These results indicate that a person might be better off evaluating goal progress at the lower, sub-goal level, especially when receiving negative feedback. vi KEEPING YOUR EYES ON THE PRIZE VERSUS YOUR NOSE TO THE GRINDSTONE: THE EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF GOAL EVALUATION ON MOOD & MOTIVATION INTRODUCTION The phenomenon Consider two people who plan to run in the city marathon in six months. Each person sets forth on a simple training program: to run several times every week in training for the marathon. After two months of running every week, Chris faces a dilemma. His boss asks him to make an important presentation to the company executives and gives him a week to complete his research and prepare the presentation. Under the time crunch of his looming deadline, Chris decides to forgo running for one week. After the presentation, Chris comes down with a cold and skips running for another week. When his wife asks him how his training is progressing, Chris says, “Lousy. I’ve already skipped two weeks of running so far and I don’t feel like I’ll ever be able to run a marathon. I’m not sure I want to run next week.” Likewise, Kathryn faces her own obstacles. Two months into her training, her boss sends her to Singapore for a week to scout new vendors for her company. Faced with the busy travel schedule and the prospect of running in an unfamiliar city, she decides to skip running for her week abroad. Shortly after returning, Kathryn twists her 1 ankle while running and her doctor tells her to stay off it for a week. When a friend asks Kathryn how her training is progressing, she says, “Fine, I have to skip running this week, but I’ll get back to it next week. I’m just taking it a week at a time.” Chris and Kathryn have the same long-term or primary goal, to run a marathon, and the same short-term or sub-goal, to train by running every week until the marathon. Both advance equally well in the pursuit of their goals, but Chris and Kathryn evaluate their ongoing progress in vastly different ways which results in equally varied outlooks on their future pursuits. Chris interprets his recent training activity in terms of the primary goal. For Chris, the failure to run for two weeks out of the entire six months makes him expect failure on the future marathon. Chris is evaluating at a high level. His evaluation of progress throws the pall of failure onto the entire primary goal. In contrast, Kathryn evaluates her training as a series of discrete sub-goals. She temporally isolates her failure on a sub-goal and does not let the experience color her feelings toward the primary
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