URBAN METABOLISM OF SIX ASIAN CITIES

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Asian Development Bank. Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2014.

1. Urbanization. 2. Urban Metabolism. I. Asian Development Bank.

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Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1

2 The Urban Metabolism Framework ...... 3

3 Measuring Urban Metabolism ...... 5

3.1 Available Statistical Data ...... 5

3.2 A New Streamlined Urban Metabolism Methodology ...... 5

3.3 Urban Patterns ...... 9

4 Urban Metabolism of the Six Asian Cities ...... 11

4.1 Bangalore ...... 11

4.2 Bangkok ...... 17

4.3 Ho Chi Minh City ...... 23

4.4 Metro Manila ...... 29

4.5 Seoul Metropolitan Area ...... 35

4.6 Shanghai Metropolitan Area ...... 41

5 Comparative Assessment of the Metropolitan Metabolisms ...... 47

5.1 Urban Spatial Metrics ...... 47

5.2 Assessing Urban Material Dependency ...... 48

5.3 Material Intensity of the Economy ...... 52

5.4 Typifying Urban Typologie ...... 54

6 Contributions from Urban Metabolism ...... 56

7 Conclusions ...... 60

8 References ...... 61

9 Appendix...... 63

10 Data Sources ...... 65 iv

List of Figures

Figure 1 Schematic Representation of Urban Metabolism ...... 4 Figure 2 Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of India and Bangalore, 2000 ...... 11 Figure 3 Direct Material Input of Bangalore, Disaggregated, 2000 ...... 12 Figure 4 Waste Production in Bangalore (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 ...... 12 Figure 5 Direct Material Input per capita of India and Bangalore, by End use, 2000 ...... 12 Figure 6 Urban Metabolism of Bangalore, Aggregated, 2000 ...... 13 Figure 7 Complete Urban metabolism of Bangalore, 2000 ...... 14 Figure 8 Bangalore Metropolitan Area Land Use ...... 15 Figure 9 Main Transport Networks in Bangalore Metropolitan Area ...... 15 Figure 10 Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of Thailand and Bangkok, 2000 ...... 17 Figure 11 Direct Material Input of Bangkok, Disaggregated, 2000 ...... 18 Figure 12 Waste Production in Bangkok (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 ...... 18 Figure 13 Direct Material Input per capita of Thailand and Bangkok, by End use, 2000 ...... 18 Figure 14 Urban Metabolism of Bangkok, Aggregated, 2000 ...... 19 Figure 15 Complete Urban metabolism of Bangkok, 2000 ...... 20 Figure 16 Bangkok Metropolitan Area Land Use ...... 21 Figure 17 Main Transport Networks in Bangkok Metropolitan Area ...... 21 Figure 18 Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of Viet Nam and Ho Chi Minh City, 2000 . . . 23 Figure 19 Direct Material Input of Ho Chi Minh City, Disaggregated, 2000 ...... 24 Figure 20 Waste Production in Ho Chi Minh City (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 ...... 24 Figure 21 Direct Material Input per capita of Viet Nam and Ho Chi Minh City, by End use, 2000 . . . . 24 Figure 22 Urban Metabolism of Ho Chi Minh City, Aggregated, 2000 ...... 25 Figure 23 Complete Urban metabolism of Ho Chi Minh City, 2000 ...... 26 Figure 24 Ho Chi Minh City Area Land Use ...... 27 Figure 25 Main Transport Networks in Ho Chi Minh City ...... 27 Figure 26 Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of the Philippines and Metro Manila, 2000. . . 30 Figure 27 Direct Material Input of Metro Manila, Disaggregated, 2000 ...... 30 Figure 28 Waste Production in Metro Manila (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 ...... 30 Figure 29 Direct Material Input per capita of the Philippines and Metro Manila, by End use, 2000. . 30 Figure 30 Urban Metabolism of Metro Manila, Aggregated, 2000...... 32 Figure 31 Complete Urban metabolism of Metro Manila, 2000...... 33 Figure 32 Manila Metropolitan Area Land Use...... 33 Figure 33 Main Transport Networks in Manila Metropolitan Area...... 35 Figure 34 Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of the Republic of Korea and Seoul, 2000. . . . 35 Figure 35 Direct Material Input of Seoul, Disaggregated, 2000...... 36 v

Figure 36 Waste Production in Seoul (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 ...... 36 Figure 37 Direct Material Input per capita of the Republic of Korea and Seoul, by End use, 2000 . . . 36 Figure 38 Urban Metabolism of Seoul, Aggregated, 2000...... 37 Figure 39 Complete Urban metabolism of Seoul, 2000...... 38. Figure 40 Seoul Metropolitan Area Land Use...... 39 Figure 41 Main Transport Networks in Seoul Metropolitan Area ...... 39 Figure 42 Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of the People’s Republic of China and Shanghai, 2000 ...... 41 Figure 43 Direct Material Input of Shanghai, Disaggregated, 2000 ...... 41 Figure 44 Waste Production in Shanghai (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 ...... 42 Figure 45 Direct Material Input per Capita of the People’s Republic of China and Shanghai, by End use, 2000 ...... 42 Figure 46 Urban Metabolism of Shanghai, Aggregated, 2000 ...... 43 Figure 47 Complete Urban metabolism of Shanghai, 2000 ...... 44 Figure 48 Shanghai Metropolitan Area Land Use ...... 45 Figure 49 Main Transport Networks in Shanghai Metropolitan Area ...... 45 Figure 50 Water and Built-Up area (Impervious Surface) of the Six Metropolitan Areas ...... 47 Figure 51 Direct Material Input per Capita of the Eight Metropolitan Areas, by Material Category, 2000 ...... 49 Figure 52 Cumulative share of the 28 Material Subcategories in the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000 ...... 49 Figure 53 Share of Metropolitan Direct Material Input by End Use, 2000 ...... 50 Figure 54 Share of the Direct Material Input of the Manufacturing Sector, by Industry Type, 2000 ...... 51 Figure 55 Material Use per Capita versus Product per Capita in the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000 ...... 52 Figure 56 Material and Economic Structure of Selected Metropolitan Areas, 2000 ...... 53 Figure 57 Material use Typologies of the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000 ...... 54 Figure 58 Material Consumption Typologies of the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000 ...... 55 Figure 59 Urban Metabolism Framework for Green Cities Parameters ...... 57 vi

List of Tables

Table 1 Economic Sectors and Activities ...... 7

Table 2 Nomenclature for Material Categories ...... 8

Table 3 Definition of Spatial Metrics ...... 10

Table 4 Spatial Characterization of the Bangalore Metropolitan Region ...... 16

Table 5 Spatial Characterization of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region ...... 22

Table 6 Spatial Characterization of the Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area ...... 28

Table 7 Spatial Characterization of the Manila Metropolitan Area ...... 30

Table 8 Spatial Characterization of the Seoul Metropolitan Area ...... 40

Table 9 Spatial Characterization of the Shanghai Metropolitan Area ...... 46

Table 10 Spatial Metrics of the Six Metropolitan Regions ...... 47

Table A1 Characterization of the Six Urban Areas ...... 63

Table A2 Regional Gross Domestic Product per Economic Activity, 2000 ($)...... 64

Table A3 Employment Structure of the Urban Areas (number)...... 64 vii

Abbreviations

DMC domestic material consumption

DMI direct material input

EU European Union

EUROSTAT Statistical Office of the European Union

GDP gross domestic product

GFCF gross fixed capital formation

HCMC Ho Chi Minh City

ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification

IT information technology

km2 square kilometer

MATCAT classification of categories of materials

MMDA Metropolitan Manila Development Authority

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PRC People’s Republic of China

UN Comtrade United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics viii

Acknowledgments

This report was made possible with the help and collaboration of many individuals from various institutions.

This report was prepared by a team from the In+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Portugal, comprising Paulo Ferrao, João Fumega, Nuno Gomes, Samuel Niza, André Pina and Luis Santos.

The direction and guidance provided by the former Chief Economist Changyong Rhee and Assistant Chief Economist Douglas Brooks of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) was instrumental in ensuring that the report is geared toward operational relevance in serving the knowledge interest of ADB’s client countries.

Representatives from ADB members participated in the inception workshop in Manila to share their perspectives and ensure that topics covered in the report reflect their most immediate needs and concerns: B. Mahendra from the Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority, Maria Josefina Faulan and Shiela Gail Satura from the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, Qiu Aijun from the China Center for Urban Development, Sang-Il Kim from the Urban Information Center of Seoul Institute, Saranat Kanjanavanit of the Green World Foundation based in Bangkok, and Nguyen Trong Hoa and Du Phuoc Tan from the Ho Chi Minh Institute for Development Studies. Toby Melissa Monsod and Rachel Racelis from the University of the Philippines contributed the perspectives of an urban economist and an urban planner.

Caroline Ahmad was the manuscript editor, and Jo-Marie Guillermo designed the report cover. Eugenia Go and Rhommel Rico coordinated and oversaw the production of this publication.

We thank Matthew Howells of the Department of External Relations and the Office of Administrative Services for ensuring the timely and smooth production of this report. ix

Foreword

Urbanization has been a potent force of growth and development across the world. The process has been slower to unfold in Asia, but has taken off rapidly since the 1980s. The urbanization rate in the region doubled from around 20% to 40% from 1980 to 2010, and is projected to reach over 60% by 2050 (ADB 2012).

The literature on agglomeration suggests that urbanization will bring about productivity increases and spur further growth and development badly needed to lift yet more people out of poverty. But the process of urbanization, especially when unplanned, which is often the case, brings its own sets of challenges that can be a drag on the productivity that cities supposedly promise. Cities across the developing world, especially in the hyper dense metropolises of Asia, face problems in the forms of congestion, pollution, slums, and environmental degradation. Aside from retarding growth, these problems have real costs to public safety, biodiversity and general well-being of city-dwellers.

In this context, the big question is: how can societies reap the benefits of urbanization while at the same time minimizing associated costs to the economy, the people, and the environment?

The urban metabolism framework is a useful tool as a starting point for answering the big question. It maps the activities of cities from their consumption of materials, the different activities associated with those processes, and the wastes produced. Information generated provides a diagnostic tool for identifying high waste generating or inefficient activities and identifying potential points of policy intervention. The tool also yields useful information for tapping potential for industrial symbioses, where the refuse of one sector can be used by another.

In this report, a streamlined urban metabolism approach based on material flow analyses was applied to six Asian cities—Bangalore, Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Manila, Seoul and Shanghai. The streamlined approach surmounts the lack of city level data, which is often cited as the most significant limitation preventing material flow analysis at the city level. The results provide a glimpse of material flows across sectors, and find that emergent patterns are highly dependent on income levels of cities. Further extension of the methodology could confirm these initial observations and create benchmarks for city typologies.

1

1. Introduction

The growing importance of urban areas1 can regions. Urban areas now account for more than 80% be illustrated by the fact that the largest 200 of the region’s GDP. Many of the cities have become metropolitan economies account for 14% of world centers of international trade and commerce and population and employment but generate more hubs for regional and international connectivity. As than 48% of global gross domestic product (GDP) economies mature and become more knowledge- (BI 2012). Metropolitan areas function as locations centered, Asian cities are also becoming globally for high-value economic activity in their nations important centers of education, culture, and and world regions. Almost four in five boast average innovation. They are also the key drivers for stronger incomes (as proxied by per capita gross value- and more relevant global environment–economy added) that exceed averages for their nations. This is interactions. particularly true in rapidly emerging areas of Asia and Eastern Europe, where the average incomes of major During their development stages, cities encourage metropolitan areas exceed those of the national by or discourage the development of particular margins of at least 90% (BI and LSE 2010). economic activities within their boundaries. At each stage, this defines their signature (typology), During 1993–2007, roughly half of the metropolitan including jobs; economic output; dependence on areas that achieved the strongest growth in gross material resources from elsewhere; and, depending value-added per capita and employment were on how they process the resources, impact on the located in rising nations of Asia, Latin America, and environment. Sustainable development depends on the Middle East, benefiting from new heights of a better understanding of how natural resource use global economic integration (BI and LSE 2010). correlates with urban economic activities. Providing a quantitative assessment of these correlations is The spectacular economic momentum of the past the role and ambition of the emerging field of urban 2 decades has turned Asia into one of the main metabolism. engines of global prosperity and Asian cities into prominent symbols of this success. In a closely Assessing the metabolism of urban areas provides related development, more than half the world’s important clues about their direct and indirect urban population now lives in cities in Asia and the environmental impacts as a result of their use of Pacific—cities that are also home to most of the natural resources. Deepening the research on urban world’s slum dwellers, despite the fact that the region metabolism can also help identify the most effective has managed to improve the lives of an estimated infrastructure design and technology choices for 172 million slum dwellers during 2000–2010 (UN- diverse cities in different development contexts, Habitat 2010). such as those for waste management, as well as the potential for establishing a circular economy.2 As urban expansion and new patterns of economic activity interact, novel configurations have emerged, The size and speed of the urbanization processes such as mega urban regions, urban corridors, and city occurring throughout the world have raised valid

1 In this report, an urban area refers to the metropolitan area, 2 A circular economy pertains to a system wherein wastes are according to the administrative boundaries defined by each eliminated or minimized by reusing or upgrading end-of-life government. products for other applications and through as many cycles as possible. 2 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

concerns about the overall sustainability of urban metabolism concept is intended to support the systems. As the number of people living in densely crafting and implementation of sustainable policy populated areas grows, the threats and opportunities design through three distinct contributions: for promoting more healthy and sustainable ways of living also increase. In Asia, while economic growth 1. Benchmarking quantitative data on resource has enabled poverty levels to be reduced, the use and waste generation. This can facilitate the environmental costs induced are already being felt identification of best practices by enabling clear by the urban population (Lindfield and Steinberg comparisons of quantitative indicators of diverse 2012). urban areas (e.g., Siemens 2011).

Moreover, the impacts of urban areas stretch far 2. Enhancing clustering techniques3 for the beyond their administrative boundaries, contributing development of city typologies that may consider directly or indirectly to more intensive land use the specificities of urban areas, such as climate, and greater resource extraction, waste generation, demographics, governance, urban morphology, and greenhouse gas emissions. Understanding the and economic structures, together with the relationship between the consumption of materials, characterization of the key urban economic sectors water, and energy in urban areas, and the locations and their resource use intensity. where these resources are extracted or produced, can provide relative measures of the ecological 3. Providing a basis for the assessment of alternative footprint of different cities and help assess the real policy scenarios, i.e., how different policy measures, impact of those cities (Lindfield and Steinberg 2012). through their impact on the economic structure, change the mix, type, and volume of natural resources Not only are the environmental impacts dictated on which the urban systems depend, and the nature by how economic activities in urban areas, but the and volume of waste products (PwC 2012). concept of promoting a transition to sustainable urban systems depends to a large degree on the The material dimension of urban metabolism is one structural transformations that urban areas undergo of the most relevant in assessing the sustainability of over time. Identifying the main environmental, social, urban areas. However, a major challenge in assessing and economic development issues within each urban urban sustainability is the lack of standardized criteria area can support the design of sustainable urban for data collection at the city level. In particular, there development plans (Lindfield and Steinberg 2012), is little understanding of the correlation between and this constitutes another major contribution of resource use and urban economic activities. This is the urban metabolism approach developed in this partly due to the lack of a standardized methodology document. based on publicly available data to quantify the urban metabolism of the major world cities. Designing policies that promote green urbanization is not an easy task. Each city must be able to diagnose The report develops and demonstrates the application its current levels of consumption, identify its own of a simplified urban metabolism methodology to six targets, and implement its own sustainability plan Asian metropolitan areas: Bangalore, Bangkok, Ho (Lindfield and Steinberg 2012). Designing optimal Chi Minh City, Metro Manila, Seoul, and Shanghai. water, energy, waste, and mobility infrastructure; These cities were chosen as case studies because pursuing opportunities for promoting a circular of their importance, economic structure, and data economy; and identifying best practices for the availability. critical activities of each city are important steps 3 Cluster analysis is a statistical tool used to determine natural in the path towards green urbanization. The urban groupings from observed data. 3

2. The Urban Metabolism Framework

Urban metabolism provides a framework for analyzing Material flow accounting allows the consumption the technical and socioeconomic processes that of a system to be visualized for a particular base occur in cities. This includes assessing the inputs, year, corresponding to a static analysis of flows; but outputs, and stores of energy, water, and materials of it also permits an evaluation of the consumption an urban area (Kennedy et al. 2011). trends of an economic system through a time series. In addition, data computation methodologies allow The concept is grounded on the analogy with the flows to be broken down into urban activities (Rosado metabolism of living organisms, as cities can et al. 2013)—intermediate consumption (economic transform raw materials into infrastructure, human activities) and final consumption (households, biomass, and waste (Wolman 1965, Bai 2007, services, and state). Kennedy et al. 2007). They can also be analyzed as an ecosystem to incorporate relationships between The material flows of an urban area are illustrated in and among cities (Kennedy et al. 2011). Indeed, Figure 1. They include approximating the dynamics of natural ecosystems is often presented as an objective when developing • inputs: domestic extraction of resources, and sustainable cities, as natural ecosystems are imports of raw materials and products; considered to be the most sustainable systems on earth. • outputs: emissions and wastes, and exports of raw materials and products; Ideally, the study of urban system metabolism should capture the complex cross-scale relationships • internal processes: intermediate and final among the natural environment, the transboundary consumption; and implications of engineered infrastructure, and the social agents and institutions that shape interactions • addition to stock: share of the consumption that in the city systems (Ramaswami et al. 2012). The is accumulated in the system. lack of data and systematic metrics for engineered infrastructure and social agents and institutions, Imports to an urban area may come from the rest however, prevents such an ideal from being realized. of the country or from abroad. Together with locally extracted materials, imports are used by the urban The material aspect of the interaction in cities economic activities to produce goods and services presents an opportunity for analysis, nonetheless. that will be consumed within the city by other While the material dimension is only one component economic activities and by the citizens, or exported of understanding the metabolism of cities, it (to the rest of the country and to the rest of the world). allows the development of reliable metrics for the A portion of the materials consumed is accumulated assessment of urban material flows and stocks. The in the material stock of the local economy (as consumption and production of materials is crucial buildings, infrastructure, and durable goods). The for assessing the sustainability of a city in terms rest leaves the economy as valuable products, of efficient functioning, resource availability, and waste, and emissions (to the local environment or environmental protection (Brunner 2007). beyond). In addition, a large fraction of materials is 4 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

imported and largely reexported. These materials are urban area (through its harbors, train stations, and termed transit or crossing flows. This fraction does airports) functions essentially as a gateway to other not become part of the urban economy because the regions.

Figure 1: Schematic Representation of Urban Metabolism

Source: Authors 5

3. Measuring Urban Metabolism

3.1 Available Statistical Data • Specific regional data from national and metropolitan governments were compiled based The development of the proposed methodology for on the distribution of employment, population, and accounting for the material flows of urban areas was local extraction of raw materials. based on datasets that are widely available to the public. The most relevant international datasets used 3.2 A New Streamlined Urban for the analysis of urban metabolism are as follows: Metabolism Methodology

• The United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics The study undertook an assessment of the (UN Comtrade) database describes the imports and six metropolitan areas using metrics such as exports of all countries in the world. It reports the demographics, and economic and physical structure. weight and value exchanged between one country The physical structure of an urban economy is and another for all product types, using the Standard described by the material throughput of that International Trade Classification (1- to 5-digit level) economy. To measure these flows, the following or Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding elements need to be considered: inputs—domestic System. extraction of resources, and imports of raw materials and products; internal processes—intermediate and • Modelling Opportunities and Limits for final consumption; addition to stock—accumulation Restructuring Europe towards Sustainability of materials in the system; and outputs—emissions (MOSUS) compiled domestic extraction data and wastes, and exports of raw materials and for all countries. This database, managed by the products. Sustainable Europe Research Institute, reports the domestic extraction of materials divided into several The material inputs of an urban area derive from materials using the economy-wide material flow locally extracted materials, imports from the rest accounts classification (EUROSTAT 2001) for 1980– of the country, and/or imports from abroad. The 2002 and in 12 material subgroups for 2003–2009. raw materials and intermediate goods imported are used by economic activities to produce final goods • The Organisation for Economic Co-operation that will eventually be used for final consumption, and Development (OECD) compiles input–output either by the economic activities themselves or by tables for all OECD members and 15 non-OECD the citizens and the government, or exported. To member economies, which report the monetary describe the production structure of the urban area exchanges between producers and consumers in in mass units, it is necessary to allocate materials to an economy. The tables have been compiled for economic activities. three periods—mid-1990s, early 2000s, and mid- 2000s—although not all countries have all periods. Few countries maintain accounts at the regional For each country, the input–output total table, level, much less distinguish between urban and domestic table, and import table are available using rural attributions. Niza et al. (2009) and Rosado the International Standard Industrial Classification et al. (2013) developed a method to account for (ISIC) (Revision 3). 6 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

and disaggregate urban flows based on economy- This material balance principle is as true for the whole wide material flow accounting of the Statistical economy as for any of its subsystems (economic Office of the European Union (EUROSTAT 2001) sectors, firms, households, etc.). but requiring detailed statistics, particularly at the urban area level, such as statistics on international EUROSTAT (2001) defined direct material input trade; transport (within the urban area and between (DMI) and domestic material consumption (DMC) it and the other regions of the country); industrial as the main input material flow indicators. The production; mineral extraction; agricultural, forest, main output indicators are the domestic processed and fishery production; and industrial and municipal outputs and exports. Stock changes are accounted wastes and emissions. The streamlined urban for as net additions to stock. metabolism method applied in their work involves estimating the metabolism of an urban area using DMI measures the direct input of materials for national statistical data and scaling it down to an use in the economy, i.e., all materials that have an urban level, overcoming several data gaps, albeit with economic value and are used in production and some costs to precision. consumption activities. In practice, DMI equals domestic extraction plus imports.4 The structure of an economy is described by input– output tables, which are used to estimate the use DMC measures the total amount of material directly of materials by economic activities in a country used in an economy for own consumption. DMC considering the volume content per monetary unit. equals DMI minus exports, and is defined in the These tables map the sales from each economic same way as other key physical indicators such as sector to the others; the consumption of households; gross inland energy consumption. the consumption of the government; the acquisition of buildings and machinery by companies, The domestic processed output measures the total households, and the government (gross fixed capital weight of materials—whether extracted from the formation [GFCF]); and the exports. domestic environment or imported—that have been used in the domestic economy, before flowing to the Resource flows were allocated from the national environment. These flows occur at the processing, scale to different dimensions using proxies, such manufacturing, use, and final disposal stages of the as the number of workers per economic activity. production–consumption chain. For instance, material consumption per economic activity at a regional level (e.g., urban) was considered Once this has been accomplished at the national as a fraction of the national figure. This fraction is level, the metropolitan DMI can be derived by equivalent to the ratio between the local (urban) scaling down from the national data. In this context, number of workers per economic activity and the the following is observed: total (national) number of workers in that activity. 1. The DMI of the metropolitan area is smaller than Following the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of mass), the total of inputs must, by 4 DMI is not to be added across economies, because it includes definition, equal the total of the outputs plus the net the fraction of materials that are imported by other econo- mies. For example, to calculate the DMI of the European accumulation of materials in the system: Union (EU), intra-EU foreign trade flows must be netted out from the DMIs of member states because exports from one country would also be accounted for as imports to another Input = Output + Stock increases – Stock decreases country, and thus some materials in the resulting EU DMI would be double-counted. Measuring Urban Metabolism 7

the sum of the DMIs of the economic sectors present Table 1: Economic Sectors and Activities in the metropolitan area: Economic Sector Economic Activities Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and Agriculture and fishing DMIMetro < ∑ DMISector mining Mining and quarrying Food products, beverages, and 2. The DMI of the metropolitan area is equal to the tobacco sum of the DMCs of the economic sectors plus the Textiles, textile products, leather, and Biomass-related footwear exports of the metropolitan area: products Wood and products of wood and cork Pulp, paper, paper products, printing, DMIMetro = ∑ DMCSector + ExpMetro and publishing Coke, refined petroleum products, and nuclear fuel 3. The DMI of each sector equals the DMC of the Chemicals and fuel products Chemicals and chemical products sector plus the exports of that sector: Rubber and plastics products Construction Other nonmetallic mineral products DMISector = DMCSector + ExpSector products Basic metals Metallic products Fabricated metal products except Usually, the description of data in international machinery and equipment trade statistics provides a way of mapping Machinery and equipment not elsewhere classified material categories of imports of raw materials Office, accounting, and computing and intermediate goods to economic activities. machinery Assuming that the domestic extraction categories Electrical machinery and apparatus not elsewhere classified are distributed among the same activities as imports, Radio, television, and communication it is possible, through the input–output table, to Machinery and equipment equipment estimate the use of goods for each activity. Medical, precision, and optical instruments Motor vehicles, trailers, and The calculation of the input of materials to the semitrailers country was based on domestic extraction and trade Other transport equipment statistics (Food and Agriculture Organization of the Manufacturing not elsewhere classified; recycling United Nations, and UN Comtrade, among others). Utilities Electricity, gas, and water supply To distribute the input of materials by the multiple Construction Construction economic sectors, each material and product Wholesale and retail trade; repairs entering the economy is first allocated to the Hotels and restaurants economic sectors that process it. This is performed Transport and storage using correspondence tables linking commodities Post and telecommunications Finance and insurance (expressed in the Standard International Trade Real estate activities Classification, Economy-Wide Material Flow Renting of machinery and equipment Accounts, Harmonized Commodity Description Services Computer and related activities and Coding System, or combined nomenclatures) Research and development to economic activities (expressed in nomenclatures Other business activities such as ISIC and the Statistical Classification of Public administration and defense; compulsory social security Economic Activities in the European Community Education [NACE]), and conversion tables for nomenclatures of Health and social work materials and of economic activities. The economic Other community, social, and activities considered in this work are consistent with personal services the ISIC nomenclature (Table 1). Source: Authors based on ISIC 8 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The distribution of materials throughout the economic sectors (households, government, and economy is made by allocating them across all firms): economic sectors, final consumption, and exports according to the purchases made from each sector material input = products for transformation based on the sales registered. These calculations + local consumption enable the estimation of how materials are distributed within a country’s economy. The analysis For each sector, the products for transformation are of a large variety of materials and products that described as the products that enter an economic enter an economy has been facilitated by converting sector and leave it to be consumed elsewhere. them into a structured nomenclature of categories Local consumption includes the consumption by of materials, or MATCAT, as coined by Rosado et al. households, the government, and firms (materials (2013).

Table 2: Nomenclature for Material Categories The MATCAT establishes a correspondence Material Material Description of Material between products listed in the combined Category Code nomenclature and the materials that constitute FF1 Low-ash fuels them (Table 2). MATCAT considers 6 categories of Fossil Fuels FF2 High-ash fuels materials (fossil fuels, metallic minerals, nonmetallic (FF) FF3 Lubricants, oils, and solvents minerals, biomass, chemical, and others) and 28 FF4 Plastics and rubbers MM1 Iron, steel alloying metals, and subcategories. This enables a systematic analysis of ferrous metals the types of materials on which an economy is most MM2 Light metals Metals MM3 Nonferrous heavy metals dependent. In addition to the material composition (MM) of products, the database includes the average MM4 Special metals MM5 Nuclear fuels lifetime of each product. MM6 Precious metals NM1 Sand The proportion of workers employed in a sector is NM2 Cement used to estimate the amount of materials consumed Nonmetallic NM3 Clay minerals by each economic sector, as well as the amount of (NM) NM4 Stone materials and products produced by each economic NM5 Other (fibers, salt, inorganic parts of animals) sector for national and international export at the BM1 Agricultural biomass metropolitan level.5 The final consumption by BM2 Animal biomass households and government was estimated using Biomass BM3 Textile biomass (forestry, crops BM4 Oils and fats their share in the total population. and animal products) BM5 Sugars (BM) BM6 Wood Using this method, the material input to an urban BM7 Paper and board economy comprises of (i) inputs that enter the urban BM8 Unspecified biomass area to be transformed by its productive sectors and Chemicals and CF1 Alcohols (ii) the materials that are locally consumed by the Fertilizers CF2 Chemicals and pharmaceuticals (CF) CF3 Fertilizers and pesticides O1 Unspecified 5 The authors recognize that such an approach does not ac- Others (O) count for the productivity effects of economies of agglom- O2 Liquids eration. Source: Rosado, L., S. Niza, and P. Ferrão. (2014) Measuring Urban Metabolism 9

that enter the economic sectors and only leave it analysis. This analysis used visual image analysis. as waste). The international exports originating In this method, different objects in the image are from the urban area are estimated based on the recognized and classified based on visual variables international exports estimated at the national level (shape, texture, size, color, and location), and the for each economic activity. Domestic exports are data are transformed into geographic information. then calculated as follows: The procedure allows the identification of three domestic exports = material input – local consumption distinct classes of area: impervious surfaces, pervious – international exports surfaces, and water. All elements in the images were identified at a scale of 1:30,000 through aerial imagery The material input to an urban area, as calculated from Bing Maps (Painho and Caetano 2006). by this method, is equal to the direct material input (DMI) (domestic extraction + imports), with the Impervious surfaces (built-up areas) are a notable local consumption being equal to the domestic feature of urban areas. They include the following material consumption (DMC) (DMI – exports). structural elements: continuous urban fabric, discontinuous urban fabric, other (impervious) areas The methodology described in this work does not outside the urban fabric, industrial or commercial calculate the flows of materials that cross an urban units, road and rail networks and associated land, area. However, this is not an issue, as the total and ports and airports. material input to an urban area is determined by the total final consumption and the exports; therefore Permeable surfaces are areas without impermeable the materials that cross the urban area are not ground or floor constructions, thus allowing accounted in the inputs, thus leading to a correct infiltration of water. Examples include arable material balance. land, permanent crops, pastures, heterogeneous agricultural areas, forests, scrub and herbaceous 3.3 Characterizing Urban Patterns vegetation, and open spaces with little or no vegetation. Remote sensing data, such as satellite images and aerial photographs, play an important role in the Areas classified as water include inland waters study of urban footprint evolution because they allow (water courses and water bodies) and marine waters the identification of recurring patterns in land use (coastal lagoons and estuaries). changes. Recent research uses remote sensing images to quantitatively describe the spatial structure of Recent advances in spatial analysis, particularly in the urban environments and thus characterize patterns development of spatial metrics, have made it possible of urban morphology. The three different methods to compare urban form, urban growth, and changes for obtaining data for mapping land cover in urban through time (Taubenbock et al. 2008). They also areas are field data collection, aerial photography, capture the spatial heterogeneity of each fragment and satellite imaging. among the fragments of the same class and among classes (Herold et al. 2003). A fragment (or patch) The extraction of information from digital aerial is a fairly discrete area of relatively homogeneous photographs and satellite imagery can be performed conditions at a particular scale (McGarigal and using digital image processing and/or visual image McComb 1995). A class is a group of patches that share the same characteristics (e.g., the urban area class). 10 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Spatial metrics describe area, aggregation, and shape. aggregated or disaggregated, while those referring The metrics characterizing the area quantify the to shape describe the morphology of the patch. The landscape composition, those describing aggregation metrics in this analysis are based on McGarigal et al. refer to the tendency of patch types to be spatially (2002) and are described in Table 3.

Table 3: Definition of Spatial Metrics Spatial Metric (class) Range Unit Detail Measure Percentage of the metropolitan area comprised of PLAND (Area) 0 < PLAND ≤ 100 Percent impervious surface Area Number of patches of impervious surface per total PD (Aggregation) PD > 0 Number per impervious area Fragmentation 100 hectares (number of continuous urban areas) ENN Distance between patches, allowing estimating the (Aggregation) ENN > 0 Meters isolation of urban areas Dispersion Mean patch Measure of the circularity of the patches CIRCLE (Shape) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 size (low values represent circular patches) Geometry Mean patch Shape irregularity of the urban area SHAPE (Shape) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ size (low values represent low complexity) Shape Irregularity

Source: Based on McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C.; Ene, E., 2002. FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps, version 3.0. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 11

4. Urban Metabolism of the Six Asian Cities

4.1 Bangalore equipment sector (9%).

The Bangalore Metropolitan Region is part of Bangalore is well known for its achievements in the Karnataka State in India and is the state’s main hub information technology (IT) sector. According to for administration, culture, commerce, industry, and Software Technology Parks of India, Bangalore’s IT knowledge. The Bangalore Metropolitan Region exports rose from about $1 billion in 2001 to more Development Authority is an autonomous parastatal than $10 billion in 2006. agency created by the state government to plan, coordinate, and supervise the development of the The city has also benefited from employment areas within the Bangalore Metropolitan Region. generated by spin-offs of the IT industry. The The most important administrative area within the other main sectors of industry are textiles, metropolitan region is the Greater Bangalore area, automobile, machines, aviation, space, defense, and which comprises the city of Bangalore, the industrial biotechnology. These activities are scattered across hub of electronics city, seven city municipal councils, 20 industrial areas. one town municipal council, and 111 villages around the city. Despite having above-average per capita incomes, the high price of the land and amenities in Bangalore The state of Karnataka has created numerous Metropolitan Region—a result of the exponential other organizations to manage services such as development of the city—have created areas of the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board, poverty that account for 220,000 households, Bangalore City Police, Bangalore Metropolitan housing approximately 1.1 million people (Sudhira et Transport Corporation (bus-based), Bangalore al. 2007). Slums are therefore a significant feature of Metro Rail Corporation (rail-based), Regional the Bangalore urban landscape. Transport Office (vehicle licenses and taxes), Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (power In 2000, the DMI of the Bangalore Metropolitan Area distribution), and the Lake Development Authority was 60.4 million tons. DMC was estimated at about (regeneration and conservation of lakes in Bangalore 54.6 million tons, or approximately 1.4% of India’s urban district). DMC. This corresponds to a per capita figure of 6.5 tons for Bangalore, compared to 3.9 tons per capita The reference year for this study was 2001, and for India as a whole in the same year (Figure 2). at that time, the Bangalore Metropolitan Region had a population of 8.4 million, representing 0.8% Figure 2: Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of the total population of India, and a density of of India and Bangalore, 2000 1,000 inhabitants per square kilometer (km2) (Appendix). The metropolis had 3.4 million workers and a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of $2,300 measured at purchasing power parity. Bangalore’s GDP represented 1.4% of national GDP.

The sectors that contributed most to regional GDP (t/cap) DMC per capita in the assessment year were services (57%) and manufacturing (27%). The bulk of employment in India Bangalore Bangalore was in the service sector (63%), biomass DMC = domestic material consumption, t/cap = tons per capita. products industries (20%), and machinery and Source: Authors. 12 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The DMI of the Bangalore Metropolitan Region was materials consumed in 2000.6 composed mainly of biomass (30.7 million tons, or Figure 4: Waste Production in Bangalore (a) by Waste 51%), nonmetallic minerals (18.9 million tons, 31%) Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 Years, Stemming and fossil fuels (7.6 million tons, 13%) (Figure 3). The from the Materials Consumed in 2000 main subcategories of biomass entering Bangalore (a) (b) were unspecified biomass (BM8), which includes pasture, representing 47% of the total biomass; agricultural biomass (BM1), representing 38%; and wood (BM6), representing 11%. For fossil fuels, the main subcategory was low-ash fuels (FF1) with 73%; while for nonmetallic minerals, stone (NM4) Waste production (kt) production Waste accounted for 96% of the materials in this category. (kt) production Waste Together, these five subcategories of materials accounted for 88% of the DMI of the Bangalore kt = thousand tons. Metropolitan Region. Source: Authors. The use of materials by the economic sectors of Figure 3: Direct Material Input of Bangalore, Disaggregated, 2000 Bangalore is significantly different from that of India as a whole (Figure 5). Of the materials that pass through the urban area, 10% (5.9 million tons) are not consumed there, but are exported to the rest of the country or to other countries. By comparison, India only exported about 2% of its DMI. The main end uses of the materials consumed in the urban area are DMI (kt) the manufacture of biomass-related products (26%

Figure 5: Direct Material Input per Capita of Bangalore and India, by End Use, 2000 FF MM NM BM CF O 8 FF = fossil fuels, MM = metallic minerals, NM = nonmetallic minerals, BM = biomass, CF = chemicals and fertilizers, O=others, DMI = direct 7 material input, kt = thousand tons. 6 Source: Authors. 5

4 Almost all of the materials were imported, either 3 from outside the country or from other areas of 2 the country. Only 6.8% of the DMI was extracted in (t/cap) DMC per capita 1

the metropolitan area, and this consisted mainly of 0 biomass (79%) and nonmetallic minerals (15%). India Bangalore

DMI = direct material input, GFCF = gross fixed capital formation, t/ Excluding fossil fuels, 71% of the materials that cap = tons per capita. Source: Authors. were consumed within the urban area in 2000 were estimated to have been disposed of as wastes in the 6 The waste estimation by year was obtained by considering same year, while 28% are expected to be converted the average lifetime of the products entering the urban area. For example, an apple is transformed to waste in the year it to residues after 35 years. Figure 4 shows the waste enters the urban area, while a car will stay in the urban area production by waste type in 2000 (Figure 4a) and in for more than a decade before becoming waste. In the case of construction, materials used normally turn into waste after the following 50 years (Figure 4b) stemming from the 30 years or more. Bangalore 13

of DMI). The final consumption of households and consumption of households and government. government is responsible for 23% of DMI, while the Nonmetallic minerals account for 45% of the service sector accounts for 15%. Bangalore’s large materials used by services, while biomass accounts textile industry (particularly the silk industry), which for 34%. The use of fossil fuels is spread out through is one of the largest in the country, is responsible for the economy, with 26% consumed in the production the significant consumption of biomass products by of biomass products, 23% going to the final the manufacturing sector. consumption of households and government, and 15% used by services. Figure 7 provides a more detailed The urban metabolism of Bangalore, illustrated picture of the urban metabolism of Bangalore, in Figure 6, shows that biomass is the main type of matching the 28 subcategories of materials with the material used, accounting for 79% of the production 36 economic sectors, final consumption, gross fixed of biomass-related products and 86% of the final capital formation (GFCF), and exports.

Figure 6: Urban Metabolism of Bangalore, Aggregated, 2000

Bangalore Direct Material Input 60.4 million tons

S01 – Agriculture and mining BM – Biomass S02 – Biomass-related products CF – Chemicals and fertilizers S03 – Chemicals and fuel products FF – Fossil fuels S04 – Contruction products MM – Metallic minerals S05 – Metallic products NM – Nonmetallic minerals S06 – Machinery and equipment O - Others S07 – Utilities S08 – Construction S09 – Services SEXP – Exports SFC – Final consumption SGFCF – Gross fixed capital formation Source: Authors. 14 t n.e.c ater supply ater etail trade; repairs trade; etail allic mineral products allic mineral s Activities e, hunting, forestry and fishing forestry e, hunting, als er and related activities er and related ansport equipment ansport sonal services als and chemical products als and chemical ommunity, social al machinery and apparatus n.e.c al machinery and apparatus acturing n.e.c; recycling al, precision and optical instruments and optical al, precision ootwear e, accounting and e, accounting and f and publishing and nuclear fuel ex c equipment c and per – Agricultur – Mining and quarrying – F – T – W – P – Cok – Chemic – R – Other nonmet – Basic met – F – Machinery and equipmen – Offic – Electric – R – Medic – Mot – Other tr – Manuf – Electricity, gas and w – Construction – Wholesale and r – H – T – P – F – R – R – Comput – R – Other Busines – P – E – H – Other c – F

S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 and tobacco beverages ood products, S06 leather products, extiles, textile S07 and cork wood of ood and products printing ulp, paper, paper products, S08 S09 S10 products petroleum e, refined S11 S12 ubber and plastics products S13 S14 products metal abricated machinery and equipment cept S15 S16 omputing machinery S17 S18 and communication adio, television S19 S20 S21 S22 and semitrailers trailers or vehicles, S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 and restaurants otels S28 and storage ransport S29 ost and telecommunications S30 and insurance inance S31 activities eal estate S32 machinery and equipment of enting S33 and development esearch S34 S35 ublic admin. and defence; S36 ompulsory social security ducation SEXP – Exports ealth and social work SFC formation capital fixed – Gross SGFCF inal consumption Figure 7: Complete Urban Metabolism of Bangalore, 2000 Bangalore, of Metabolism 7: Complete Urban Figure s s als al biomass euticals ents als and t s errous metals errous t metals ohols pharmac and solv and f – Agricultur – Animal biomas – T – O – S – W – P – U – Alc – Chemic – F – L – H – L – Plastics and rubber – I – Ligh – N – Special met – N – P – Sand – Cemen – Cla – S - Other – N – Liquids

Source: Authors. Source: Bangalore Material Input Direct 60.4 million tons BM1 BM2 BM3 BM4 BM5 BM6 extile biomass BM7 ils and fats BM8 ugars CF1 CF2 oods aper and board nspecified biomass CF3 FF1 FF2 FF3 and pesticides ertilizers ash fuels ow FF4 igh ash fuels MM1 oils ubrificants, MM2 MM3 alloying steel ron, MM4 MM5 MM6 metals heavy onferrous NM1 NM2 uclear fuels NM3 y metals recious NM4 NM5 O1 O2 tone onspecified Bangalore 15

The low level of consumption for GFCF can be The dispersive growth pattern, which was linked to the significant proportion of the population accelerated by the creation of employment clusters living in slums. The prevalence of slum dwellers also around the periphery of the city, has accelerated explains the importance of biomass consumption. the fragmentation of the urban form, weakening the Nonetheless, the increasing spatial distribution of connection between residential and employment households and employment clusters, coupled with areas. This has an impact on the distribution of economic growth due to the increase of IT services, infrastructure including transport network, with suggests that the metropolitan area will require the more peripheral areas that are appearing within significant amounts of nonmetallic minerals in the the Bangalore Metropolitan Area becoming more future to build the housing, transport networks, and isolated and having much lower road densities. waste collection systems needed to support this Figure 9 shows the main transport networks in the development. Bangalore Metropolitan Area.

The urban development of Bangalore is concentrated Figure 9: Main Transport Networks along the transport networks, with residential areas in Bangalore Metropolitan Area outside the city center and cores of industrial parks in the periphery. Figure 8 presents the spatial distribution of three classes of land use in the Bangalore Metropolitan Area: industrial area, built- up area, and water.

Corroboration with ground data reveals that the IT industry and other large companies cluster around the industrial parks, while small and medium- sized enterprises are dispersed in residential and commercial areas and along the main roads. Source: OpenStreetMap. http://www.openstreetmap.org Figure 8: Bangalore Metropolitan Area Land Use The results of the analysis of spatial metrics in the Bangalore Metropolitan Area are in Table 4. Urban areas (impervious surfaces) occupy only 8.6% of the total area of the metropolitan region, indicating that most of the territory is composed of pervious surfaces (such as vacant space, natural areas, and agricultural areas).

The results of analysis of shape complexity (irregularity and geometry) vary. The metropolitan area is classified as low for shape irregularity Source: Authors. (SHAPE). This means that the urban areas in Figure 8 have linear and simple forms, indicating a tendency 16 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

toward a coherent urban form. The geometry of of the geography of the area, such as the numerous the urban areas (CIRCLE) is classified as medium, lakes that characterize the metropolitan area, but it which indicates that despite being somewhat may also be due to of fragmentation of the landscape coherent, the urban areas tend to be elongated. The by strong zoning policies. Finally, the nearest neighbor fragmentation of the urban form (PD) is classified as distance (ENN) metric was classified medium-high, high, which means that the Bangalore Metropolitan showing that the urban form of Bangalore tends to Area includes a large number of small urban areas, in be dispersed. addition to central Bangalore. This can be the result

Table 4: Spatial Characterization of the Bangalore Metropolitan Region Description Unit Range Measure Value Classification Square Metropolitan Area kilometers 8,010 Percentage of class (PLAND) Percent 0 < PLAND ≦ 100 Area 8.6 Low Shape index distribution (SHAPE) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ Shape Irregularity 1.5 Low Related circumscribing circle (CIRCLE) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 Geometry 0.6 Medium Number per Patch density (PD) 100 hectares PD > 0 Fragmentation 0.8 High Spatial metric Spatial Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN) Meters ENN > 0 Dispersion 872 Medium-high

Source: Authors. Bangkok 17

4.2 Bangkok Bangkok (the consolidated urban area) hosts production, commercial, and service activities; The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration is while manufacturing dominates the peripheral areas responsible for area-wide functions, such as of the metropolis. Despite the spatial dominance urban and regional planning, water and sewerage, of manufacturing in the suburbs and parts of the transport and traffic, drainage and flood control, and consolidated urban area, the proportion of workers environmental protection, because its area-wide employed in manufacturing decreased from 67% in nature, size, and scale demand regional cooperative 1990 to 49% in 2000, while the share of the service action (Laquian 2005). Mayoralties have autonomy sector increased in both areas. over functions such as waste collection, cleaning and maintenance of local roads, running of day The rapid increase in Bangkok’s population—from 9.4 care centers, nurseries and preschool facilities, tax million in 2000 to 14.6 million in 2010—contributed collection, and levying of service fees and charges. to a decrease in the quality of infrastructure and Metropolitan mayors are elected, increasing their services provision. It also increased the city’s poverty power and influence. index because most immigrants from the rural areas had low levels of education and income, and poor Bangkok—Thailand’s capital—is situated along the housing conditions. In 2000, slums accounted for banks of the Chao Phraya River, and is one of Asia’s about 1.0 million residents, and were located mainly commercial and transport hubs (Siemens 2011). It is in the center and consolidated urban area of Bangkok one of the world’s most popular tourist destinations (Choiejit et al. 2005). and home to all of Thailand’s major financial institutions. The city also serves as the regional The direct material input (DMI) of the Bangkok headquarters of numerous multinational companies. Metropolitan Area was 211.9 million tons in 2000. The city’s domestic material consumption (DMC) In 2000, Bangkok Metropolitan Region had a was estimated at 170.6 million tons—about 37.2% of population of 9.4 million, representing 15% of the Thailand’s DMC. This corresponds to a per capita population of Thailand, and a density of 1,200 figure of 18.1 tons for Bangkok, compared to an inhabitants per km2 (Appendix). The metropolis had average of 7.5 tons per capita for Thailand as a whole 6.4 million workers and a gross domestic product in the same year (Figure 10). (GDP) per capita of $17,000 measured at purchasing power parity. Bangkok’s GDP represented half of Figure 10: Domestic Material Consumption per Capita national GDP. The sectors that contributed most to of Thailand and Bangkok, 2000 regional GDP in the assessment year were services (64%) and manufacturing (29%).

Most of Bangkok’s population was employed in the service sector (36%), agriculture and mining (34%), the biomass products industries (12%), and the machinery and equipment sector (8%). The (t/cap) DMC per capita employment structure varies according to the city Thailand Bangkok area. Commercial, financial, and service sectors DMC = domestic material consumption, t/cap = tons per capita. are highly concentrated in central Bangkok. Middle Source: Authors. 18 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The DMI of Bangkok Metropolitan Area was (Figure 12b stemming from the materials consumed composed mainly of nonmetallic minerals, totaling in 2000 (footnote 6). The materials accumulated 85.8 million tons (40% of the DMI); biomass, totaling within the urban area are nonmetallic minerals, 64.0 million tons (30%); and fossil fuels, totaling 46.7 mainly used for construction. million tons (22%) (Figure 11). Figure 12: Waste Production in Bangkok (a) by Waste Type The main subcategory of nonmetallic minerals that in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 Years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 entered in Bangkok was stone (NM4), representing (a) (b) 88% of total nonmetallic minerals. The most significant biomass categories were agricultural biomass (BM1) (63%), wood (BM6) (12%), and unspecified biomass (BM8) (11%). Low-ash fuels (FF1), accounted for 60% of all fossil fuels. Together, Waste production (kt) production Waste these five subcategories of materials accounted for (kt) production Waste 75% of the DMI of the Bangkok Metropolitan Area.

Almost all of the materials were imported either kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors. from outside the country or from other areas of Thailand. Only 0.9% of the DMI was extracted from The consumption of materials by the economic the Bangkok Metropolitan Area, and this consisted sectors of Bangkok is significantly different from that exclusively of biomass. of the country as a whole (Figure 13). Of the materials that pass through the urban area, 19% (41.3 million Figure 11: Direct Material Input of Bangkok, tons) are not consumed there, but are exported Disaggregated, 2000 to the rest of the country or to other countries. By comparison, Thailand only exports about 14% of its DMI. The main end uses of the materials consumed Stone in the urban area are gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) (25% of DMI), the manufacture of biomass Low-ash Nonspecified Fuels Biomass products (12%), and utilities (9%). Wood DMI (kt)

Agricultural Figure 13: Direct Material Input per Capita of Thailand and Biomass Bangkok, by End Use, 2000

FF MM NM BM CF O

FF = fossil fuels, MM = metallic minerals, NM = nonmetallic minerals, BM = biomass, CF = chemicals and fertilizers, O=others, DMI = direct material input, kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors.

Excluding fossil fuels, 48% of the materials consumed

within the urban area in 2000 are estimated to have (t/cap) DMC per capita been disposed of as wastes in the same year, while 48% are expected to be converted to wastes after 35 Thailand Bangkok years. Figure 12 shows the waste production by type DMI = direct material input, GFCF = gross fixed capital formation, t/cap = tons per capita. in 2000 (Figure 12a) and in the following 50 years Source: Authors. Bangkok 19

The urban metabolism of Bangkok, illustrated in and accounting for 95% of all materials used for this Figure 15, shows that biomass is the main type purpose. The exports of Bangkok consist mainly of of material used for the production of biomass- fossil fuels (41%), biomass (28%), and nonmetallic related products (87%), the final consumption of minerals (20%). Figure 15 provides a more detailed households and government (74%), and services picture of the urban metabolism of Bangkok, (49%). For utilities, fossil fuels account for 71% of matching the 28 subcategories of materials with the the materials used. Nonmetallic minerals are mainly 36 economic sectors, final consumption, GFCF, and used for GFCF, with 58% of all nonmetallic minerals exports.

Figure 14: Urban Metabolism of Bangkok, Aggregated, 2000

Bangkok Direct Material Input 211.9 million tons

S01 – Agriculture and mining BM – Biomass S02 – Biomass-related products CF – Chemicals and fertilizers S03 – Chemicals and fuel products FF – Fossil fuels S04 – Contruction products MM – Metallic minerals S05 – Metallic products NM – Nonmetallic minerals S06 – Machinery and equipment O - Others S07 – Utilities S08 – Construction S09 – Services SEXP – Exports SFC – Final consumption SGFCF – Gross fixed capital formation Source: Authors. 20 t n.e.c ater supply ater etail trade; repairs trade; etail allic mineral products allic mineral s Activities e, hunting, forestry and fishing forestry e, hunting, als er and related activities er and related ansport equipment ansport sonal services als and chemical products als and chemical ommunity, social al machinery and apparatus n.e.c al machinery and apparatus acturing n.e.c; recycling al, precision and optical instruments and optical al, precision ootwear e, accounting and e, accounting and f and publishing and nuclear fuel ex c equipment c and per – Agricultur – Mining and quarrying – F – T – W – P – Cok – Chemic – R – Other nonmet – Basic met – F – Machinery and equipmen – Offic – Electric – R – Medic – Mot – Other tr – Manuf – Electricity, gas and w – Construction – Wholesale and r – H – T – P – F – R – R – Comput – R – Other Busines – P – E – H – Other c – F

S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 and tobacco beverages ood products, S06 leather products, extiles, textile S07 and cork wood of ood and products printing ulp, paper, paper products, S08 S09 S10 products petroleum e, refined S11 S12 ubber and plastics products S13 S14 products metal abricated machinery and equipment cept S15 S16 omputing machinery S17 S18 and communication adio, television S19 S20 S21 S22 and semitrailers trailers or vehicles, S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 and restaurants otels S28 and storage ransport S29 ost and telecommunications S30 and insurance inance S31 activities eal estate S32 machinery and equipment of enting S33 and development esearch S34 S35 ublic admin. and defence; S36 ompulsory social security ducation SEXP – Exports ealth and social work SFC formation capital fixed – Gross SGFCF inal consumption Figure 15: Complete Urban Metabolism of Bangkok, 2000 Bangkok, of Metabolism 15: Complete Urban Figure s s als al biomass euticals ents als and t s errous metals errous t metals ohols pharmac and solv and f – Agricultur – Animal biomas – T – O – S – W – P – U – Alc – Chemic – F – L – H – L – Plastics and rubber – I – Ligh – N – Special met – N – P – Sand – Cemen – Cla – S - Other – N – Liquids

Source: Authors. Source: Bangkok Material Input Direct 211.9 million tons BM1 BM2 BM3 BM4 BM5 BM6 extile biomass BM7 ils and fats BM8 ugars CF1 CF2 oods aper and board nspecified biomass CF3 FF1 FF2 FF3 and pesticides ertilizers ash fuels ow FF4 igh ash fuels MM1 oils ubrificants, MM2 MM3 alloying steel ron, MM4 MM5 MM6 metals heavy onferrous NM1 NM2 uclear fuels NM3 y metals recious NM4 NM5 O1 O2 tone onspecified Bangkok 21

The high level of consumption for GFCF can be Urban growth is traditionally driven by economic attributed to the economic growth and spatial growth and the accompanying opportunities expansion that Bangkok has been experiencing. for employment and investment. Most cities in Examples include the construction of the Bangkok developing countries tend to discover the challenges Metropolitan Rapid Transit and the beginning of resulting from urbanization rather than planning the construction of the Bangkok Art and Culture and preparing for the process. Choiejit et al. (2005) Centre in 2000, due to the increase in tourism and identify some of the problems that arise from financial services, and the significant size of the unplanned urban development. These include city’s manufacturing activities. The consumption degradation of agricultural areas (and thus of the of materials by the manufacturing sector mainly ecological structure of the metropolitan area); high supports the transformation of products for export. intensity of land use on the edge of both sides of Good transport networks are required to move the land transport routes, creating super-blocks with low materials from one industry to the other and also accessibility; low interconnection between the main from the metropolitan area to other parts in the networks and urban areas; mobility issues, especially country. for those living in outer Bangkok; congestion; and lack of public transport. Figure 17 shows the main Bangkok experienced rapid expansion and dispersion transport networks in Bangkok Metropolitan Area. during 1994–2002 (Angel 2007). The urban core area grew substantially along axes of transport and Figure 17: Main Transport Networks in development, increasing the density along those Bangkok Metropolitan Area axes and filling the vacant areas between them. The built area has grown more through densification than by expansion, as seen by the reduction in open space in the urban area. Figure 16 illustrates the spatial distribution of land use in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area. Current trends suggest that future development could lead to the dispersion of the urban area of Bangkok.

Figure 16: Bangkok Metropolitan Area Land Use

Source: OpenStreetMap. http://www.openstreetmap.org

The spatial metrics of the Bangkok Metropolitan Area are in Table 5. The proportion of the urban area (impervious surface) within the total area of the metropolitan region (PLAND) is 18.8%, corresponding to a classification of low. This implies that most of the territory is composed of pervious surfaces, such as vacant space, natural areas, and agricultural areas. Source: Authors. 22 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The metropolitan area is classified as medium-high number of urban areas with a significant continuous for shape irregularity (SHAPE). This means that area. In the case of Bangkok, this may be the result of the urban areas have complex forms, indicating a having one main urban center and four medium-sized continuous dispersion of the urban form through cities (Khlong Luang, Nakhon Pathom, Nonthaburi, the creation of new branches at a distance from the and Samut Prakan). Finally, the nearest neighbor main urban areas. The geometry of the urban areas distance (ENN) metric was classified as medium, a (CIRCLE) is classified as medium-high, showing result that reinforces the suggestion that Bangkok is that the urban form is elongated, tending toward tending toward dispersion, and reflects the existing sprawl. The fragmentation of the urban form (PD) connection between different urban areas. is classified as medium-low, implying a medium

Table 5: Spatial Characterization of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region Description Unit Range Measure Value Classification Square Metropolitan Area kilometers 7,762 Percentage of class (PLAND) Percent 0 < PLAND ≦ 100 Area 18.8 Low Shape index distribution (SHAPE) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ Shape Irregularity 2.2 Medium-high Related circumscribing circle (CIRCLE) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 Geometry 0.7 Medium-high Number per Patch density (PD) 100 hectares PD > 0 Fragmentation 0.2 Medium-low Spatial metric Spatial Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN) Meters ENN > 0 Dispersion 637 Medium

Source: Authors. Ho Chi Minh City 23

4.3 Ho Chi Minh City trade volume (UN-Habitat 2010). The state-owned sector retains a major role in the city’s economy, but The hierarchic levels of the political–administrative private enterprises have also been thriving since system in Viet Nam are determined according to the 2000, with more than 50,000 new businesses being principles of democratic centralization, with each established. These businesses contribute 30% of level in principle being subordinated to the higher HCMC’s total industrial output and 78% of retail one. Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is the top level, sales, and have created hundreds of thousands of followed by the urban districts, the subdistricts, and jobs. An additional 1,600 enterprises are backed by finally neighborhood groups and cells (Wust et al. foreign investment, contributing 19% of HCMC’s 2002). production of goods and services.

Public planning and administration in Viet Nam are Factory compounds and industrial zones were built in dominated by hierarchical and formalistic elements the periphery of the city, and have triggered migration of the “end-of-pipe” type—end result centered from rural to urban areas and from the core of the planning rather than process and context oriented. city to its periphery. A total of 15 industrial parks Current master planning methods tend to be rigid were established in suburban areas, which attracted and nonparticipatory, and generally discourage migrants mainly to the suburbs (Tan et al. 2010). This formal nonstate contributions in urban planning has resulted in increasing construction of households (Waibel et al. 2007). in these areas, which is being accompanied by the growth of new residential areas for the middle- and HCMC Metropolitan Area had a population of 13.5 upper-class citizens between the city core and the million in 2000, representing 17% of the population urban periphery. of Viet Nam, and a density of 440 inhabitants per km2 (Appendix)—the lowest of the six Asian In 2000, the direct material input (DMI) of HCMC metropolitan areas being studied. The metropolis Metropolitan Area was 52.1 million tons. Domestic had 6.1 million workers and a gross domestic product material consumption (DMC) was estimated at (GDP) per capita of $3,400 measured at purchasing about 48.4 million tons, or 17.2% of Viet Nam’s DMC. power parity. HCMC’s GDP represented almost This corresponds to a per capita figure of 3.6 tons for 40% of national GDP. The sectors that contributed HCMC, which is the same as the national figure in most to regional GDP in the assessment year were the same year (Figure 18). services (34%), agriculture and mining (34%), and manufacturing (24%). Most of the population of Figure 18: Domestic Material Consumption per Capita HCMC was employed in services (45%), agriculture of Viet Nam and Ho Chi Minh City, 2000 and mining (26%), and the biomass products industries (16%).

HCMC is one of Viet Nam’s largest hubs for trade, services, science, technology, and culture (UN- Habitat 2010). The city’s economy has grown steadily, with an average annual rate of 5.2% during (t/cap) DMC per capita 1986–1990—the initial phase of doi moi (renewal). Viet Nam Ho Chi Minh City The metropolitan area contributes to 30% of national manufacturing output, 40% of its export value, 30% DMC = domestic material consumption, t/cap = tons per capita. of national tax revenues, and 25% of retail and service Source: Authors. 24 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The DMI of the HCMC metropolitan area was Figure 20: Waste Production in Ho Chi Minh City composed mainly of biomass, totaling 22.6 million (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 Years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 tons (43% of the DMI); nonmetallic minerals, totaling 22.1 million tons (42%); and fossil fuels, (a) (b) totaling 5.2 million tons (10%) (Figure 19). The main subcategories of biomass entering HCMC were agricultural biomass (BM1) (55%), wood (BM6) (23%), and unspecified biomass (BM8) (18%). The most significant nonmetallic minerals were stone

(NM4), representing 77% of the total nonmetallic (kt) production Waste (kt) production Waste minerals; and sand (NM1), representing 22%. Fossil fuels were mainly of the low-ash type (FF1),

accounting for 55% of all fossil fuels. Together, these kt = thousand tons. six subcategories of materials accounted for 89% of Source: Authors. the DMI of HCMC. The consumption of materials within the HCMC Most of the materials were imported either from economy is similar to that of Viet Nam as a whole outside the country or from other areas of the (Figure 21). Of the materials that pass through country. About 23% of the DMI was extracted from HCMC, 7% (11.8 million tons) are exported to the the HCMC Metropolitan Area, and this consisted rest of the country or to other countries, compared exclusively of biomass. to 9% of DMI for Viet Nam. The main end uses of the materials consumed in the urban area are the Figure 19: Direct Material Input of Ho Chi Minh City, final consumption of households and government Disaggregated, 2000 (25%), gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) (20%), and agriculture and mining (16%). The large

Stone consumption for GFCF suggests that HCMC was Nonspecified experiencing substantial infrastructure growth at the Biomass time, possibly due to significant population increase Wood and economic growth. Low-ash Fuels Agricultural DMI (kt) Biomass Figure 21: Direct Material Input per Capita of Viet Nam Sand and Ho Chi Minh City, by End Use, 2000

FF MM NM BM CF O

FF = fossil fuels, MM = metallic minerals, NM = nonmetallic minerals, BM = biomass, CF = chemicals and fertilizers, O=others, DMI = direct material input, kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors.

Excluding fossil fuels, 62% of the materials consumed

within the urban area in 2000 are estimated to have (t/cap) DMC per capita been disposed of as wastes in the same year, while 36% are expected to be converted to residues after Viet Nam Ho Chi Minh City 35 years. Figure 20 shows the waste production by waste type in 2000 (Figure 20a) and in the following DMI = direct material input, GFCF = gross fixed capital formation, t/cap = tons per capita. 50 years (Figure 20b) stemming from the materials Source: Authors. consumed since 2000 (footnote 6). Ho Chi Minh City 25

The urban metabolism of HCMC, illustrated in Figure minerals account for 91% of all materials used for 22, shows that biomass accounts for 91% of material used for GFCF, and 43% of all nonmetallic minerals used for the final consumption of households and are used for this purpose. Figure 23 provides a more government. For services, however, biomass only detailed picture of the urban metabolism of HCMC, accounts for 14% of final consumption, nonmetallic matching the 28 subcategories of materials with the minerals account for 66%, and fossil fuels account for 36 economic sectors, final consumption, GFCF, and 14% of the materials used in this sector. Nonmetallic exports.

Figure 22: Urban Metabolism of Ho Chi Minh City, Aggregated, 2000

Ho Chi Minh City Direct Material Input 52.1 million tons

S01 – Agriculture and mining BM – Biomass S02 – Biomass-related products CF – Chemicals and fertilizers S03 – Chemicals and fuel products FF – Fossil fuels S04 – Contruction products MM – Metallic minerals S05 – Metallic products NM – Nonmetallic minerals S06 – Machinery and equipment O - Others S07 – Utilities S08 – Construction S09 – Services SEXP – Exports SFC – Final consumption SGFCF – Gross fixed capital formation

Source: Authors. 26 t n.e.c ater supply ater etail trade; repairs trade; etail allic mineral products allic mineral s Activities e, hunting, forestry and fishing forestry e, hunting, als er and related activities er and related ansport equipment ansport sonal services als and chemical products als and chemical ommunity, social al machinery and apparatus n.e.c al machinery and apparatus acturing n.e.c; recycling al, precision and optical instruments and optical al, precision ootwear e, accounting and e, accounting and f and publishing and nuclear fuel ex c equipment c and per – Agricultur – Mining and quarrying – F – T – W – P – Cok – Chemic – R – Other nonmet – Basic met – F – Machinery and equipmen – Offic – Electric – R – Medic – Mot – Other tr – Manuf – Electricity, gas and w – Construction – Wholesale and r – H – T – P – F – R – R – Comput – R – Other Busines – P – E – H – Other c – F

S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 and tobacco beverages ood products, S06 leather products, extiles, textile S07 and cork wood of ood and products printing ulp, paper, paper products, S08 S09 S10 products petroleum e, refined S11 S12 ubber and plastics products S13 S14 products metal abricated machinery and equipment cept S15 S16 omputing machinery S17 S18 and communication adio, television S19 S20 S21 S22 and semitrailers trailers or vehicles, S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 and restaurants otels S28 and storage ransport S29 ost and telecommunications S30 and insurance inance S31 activities eal estate S32 machinery and equipment of enting S33 and development esearch S34 S35 ublic admin. and defence; S36 ompulsory social security ducation SEXP – Exports ealth and social work SFC formation capital fixed – Gross SGFCF inal consumption Figure 23: Complete Urban Metabolism of Ho Chi Minh City, 2000 Chi Minh Ho of Metabolism 23: Complete Urban Figure s s als al biomass euticals ents als and t s errous metals errous t metals ohols pharmac and solv and f – Agricultur – Animal biomas – T – O – S – W – P – U – Alc – Chemic – F – L – H – L – Plastics and rubber – I – Ligh – N – Special met – N – P – Sand – Cemen – Cla – S - Other – N – Liquids

Source: Authors. Source: Ho Chi Minh City Ho Material Input Direct 52.1 million tons BM1 BM2 BM3 BM4 BM5 BM6 extile biomass BM7 ils and fats BM8 ugars CF1 CF2 oods aper and board nspecified biomass CF3 FF1 FF2 FF3 and pesticides ertilizers ash fuels ow FF4 igh ash fuels MM1 oils ubrificants, MM2 MM3 alloying steel ron, MM4 MM5 MM6 metals heavy onferrous NM1 NM2 uclear fuels NM3 y metals recious NM4 NM5 O1 O2 tone onspecified Ho Chi Minh City 27

The high level of material consumption for GFCF Figure 25 illustrates the main transport networks in can be attributed to the economic growth and HCMC Metropolitan Area. spatial expansion that have accompanied HCMC’s development as an economic and cultural hub in Figure 25: Main Transport Networks in Ho Chi Minh City Viet Nam. The large metropolitan area includes Metropolitan Area significant agricultural development, which supports the important biomass-related production activities that take place in the city. The increasing spatial distribution, coupled with the economic growth due to the increase in IT services and exports, suggests that the metropolitan area will continue to require significant amounts of nonmetallic minerals to build the transport networks and waste collection systems that will support this development.

HCMC has a fragmented urban form, as can be seen in Figure 24. The mega-urban region has an Source: OpenStreetMap. http://www.openstreetmap.org extensive land footprint and contains more than 10 million inhabitants, many of whom live in precarious The spatial distribution of the HCMC Metropolitan conditions on illegally occupied land. Nonetheless, Area suggests a need to promote urban concentration the core city has been experiencing de-densification, and modify the planning approach for the hinterland not only because of population migration from the and city periphery. A revised approach would involve inner city areas to the periphery, but also due to the developing residential areas and services near the functional reconfiguration of the urban core into a industrial parks and promoting a public transport business district with the construction of businesses, network to complement the existing one, preferably services, and leisure activities. This restructuring has with an ecological corridor to prevent further sprawl. been led by both the state and local companies, but also multinational corporations, to foster economic The spatial metrics of the HCMC Metropolitan Area development. are in Table 6. A value of 8.2% was obtained for the proportion of the urban area (impervious surface) Figure 24: Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area Land Use within the total area of the metropolitan region (PLAND). This corresponds to a classification of low, implying that most of the territory is composed of pervious surface, such as vacant space, and natural and agricultural areas.

The metropolitan area is classified as high for irregularity of the shape (SHAPE). This means that the urban areas have complex forms, indicating a continuous dispersion of the urban form through the creation of new branches of urban areas at some distance from the main urban areas. The geometry of the urban areas (CIRCLE) is classified as medium- Source: Authors. 28 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

high, showing that the urban form is elongated and continuous surface area, and numerous small urban tends toward sprawl. The low classification for centers. Finally, the nearest neighbor distance (ENN) fragmentation of the urban form (PD) indicates metric was classified as high, demonstrating that the that there are a few urban areas with high average urban form of HCMC Metropolitan Area is highly surface areas. In the case of HCMC, this may be dispersed and tends toward sprawl. because there is one main urban center with a large

Table 6: Spatial Characterization of the Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area Description Unit Range Measure Value Classification Square Metropolitan Area kilometers 8.2 Low Percentage of class (PLAND) Percent 0 < PLAND ≦ 100 Area 2.8 High Shape index distribution (SHAPE) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ Shape Irregularity 0.7 Medium-high Related circumscribing circle (CIRCLE) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 Geometry 0.1 Low Patch density (PD) Number per PD > 0 Fragmentation 1,849 High

Spatial metric Spatial 100 hectares Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN) Meters ENN > 0 Dispersion 1,849 High

Source: Authors. Metro Manila 29

4.4 Metro Manila be made up of 100–1,000 households residing within a specified territory. There are five levels of governance in Metro Manila (Ruble et al. 2001). At the highest level is the central Metro Manila had a population of about 10 million government, which exercises considerable authority in 2000, representing 13% of the national population, and power because Metro Manila is the national and a density of 16,000 inhabitants per km2 capital. All local officials are under the supervision (Appendix)—the highest of the six metropolitan of the President of the Philippines through the areas in the country. The metropolis had 3.6 million Department of the Interior and Local Government. workers in 2000 and a gross domestic product Statutes, including the issuance of city charters, are (GDP) per capita of $6,300 measured at purchasing the prerogatives of the House of Representatives power parity. Metro Manila’s GDP represented and the Senate. Most development activities in the 35% of national GDP. The sectors that contributed National Capital Region are carried out by central most to regional GDP in the assessment year were government departments. National roads and services (67%) and manufacturing (27%). The bridges, for example, are built and maintained by service sector employed 74% of the population of the Department of Public Works and Highways. The Metro Manila, while the machinery and equipment financing of major infrastructure projects is under sector accounted for 8% and the construction sector the authority of the Presidential Adviser on Flagship absorbed 7%. Programs and Projects. The Philippine National Police is in charge of all police forces. The central Metro Manila is the major manufacturing location government controls the financial purse strings as in the Philippines, which is the second-largest budgets of all local government units are reviewed employer after the wholesale and retail rectors by the Department of Budget and Management. (Lambino 2010). Food and tobacco processing also employ a substantial portion of the work force. With At the metropolitan level, governance is exercised its excellent protected harbor, Metro Manila also by the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority serves as the nation’s principal port. It is also the (MMDA). The MMDA in its present form was financial and business center of the Philippines. The established in 1995 and is charged with comprehensive widespread use of English gives the city an advantage planning, land use control, urban renewal, traffic and in international trade not shared by many Asian cities. transport management, solid waste disposal, flood Metro Manila exhibits the problems of many large control and drainage, engineering, and public safety. cities, however. It is overpopulated, and municipal Policy making in the MMDA is vested in a council made agencies struggle to keep up with the demand for up of all the 17 mayors of the local government units. services. The executive functions of planning and management are under specific departments reporting to the The central areas of the metropolis have high levels MMDA chair. The MMDA is a “special development of poverty. The Philippine Institute for Development and administrative” unit under the direct supervision Studies estimates that 4.0 million of the 11.5 million of the President of the Philippines and engages in residents in the National Capital Region live in slums “planning, monitoring, and coordinating activities (Cox 2011). subject to the proviso that it does not infringe on the autonomy of local government units on issues that are In 2000, the direct material input (DMI) of Metro purely local in nature” (Ruble et al. 2001, p. 78). Manila was 73.6 million tons. Domestic material consumption (DMC) was estimated at about The lowest level of governance in Metro Manila is 68.2 million tons, or 19.4% of national DMC. This the barangay (neighborhood unit). A barangay may corresponds to a per capita figure of 6.9 tons in Metro 30 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Manila and 4.6 tons per capita for the Philippines country. Only 0.2% of DMI was extracted from Metro overall (Figure 26). Manila, and this consisted exclusively of biomass.

Figure 26: Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of Excluding fossil fuels, 80% of the materials consumed the Philippines and Metro Manila, 2000 within the urban area in 2000 are estimated to have been disposed of as wastes within the same year, while 18% are expected to be converted to wastes after 35 years. Figure 28 shows the waste production by waste type in 2000 (Figure 28a) and in the following 50 years (Figure 28b) stemming from the

DMC per capita (t/cap) DMC per capita materials consumed in 2000 (footnote 6).

Philippines Metro Manila Figure 28: Waste Production in Metro Manila (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 Years, DMC = domestic material consumption, t/cap = tons per capita. Source: Authors. Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 (a) (b) The DMI of Metro Manila was composed mainly of nonmetallic minerals, totaling 34.4 million tons (47%), and biomass amounting to 28.4 million tons (39%) (Figure 27). The main subcategories of nonmetallic minerals entering the metropolis were sand (NM1), Waste production (kt) production Waste representing 55% of nonmetallic minerals; and stone (kt) production Waste (NM4), accounting for 42%. The principal categories of biomass were agricultural biomass (BM1), representing 48%; wood (BM6), accounting for kt = thousand tons. 24%; and unspecified biomass (BM8), representing Source: Authors. 16%. Together, these five subcategories of materials accounted for 79% of the DMI of Metro Manila. The consumption of materials within Metro Manila is slightly different from that of the Philippines as a Almost all of the materials were imported from whole (Figure 29). About 7% (5.4 million tons) of the either outside the country or from other areas of the materials that pass through the urban area are not

Figure 27: Direct Material Input of Metro Manila, Figure 29: Direct Material Input per Capita of Disaggregated, 2000 the Philippines and Metro Manila, by End Use, 2000

Stone

Nonspecified Biomass

DMI (kt) Wood Low-ash Fuels Sand Agricultural Biomass (t/cap) DMC per capita

FF MM NM BM CF O Philippines Metro Manila

FF = fossil fuels, MM = metallic minerals, NM = nonmetallic minerals, DMI = direct material input, GFCF = gross fixed capital formation, BM = biomass, CF = chemicals and fertilizers, O=others, DMI = direct t/cap = tons per capita. material input, kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors. Source: Authors. Metro Manila 31

consumed there, but are exported to the rest of the The urban metabolism of Metro Manila, illustrated in country or to other countries. The Philippines as a Figure 30, shows that the use of nonmetallic minerals whole exports only about 5% of its DMI. The main is mainly concentrated in the chemicals and fuel end uses of the materials consumed in the urban products industry (41% of nonmetallic minerals), area are in the biomass products industry (28%), the gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) (14%), and chemicals and fuel products industry (23%), and the services, (10%). Nonmetallic minerals account final consumption of households and government for 84% of all materials used in the chemicals and (11%). Consumption in the biomass products industry fuel products industry. Biomass is the main type of was mainly for food processing. material used for the production of biomass-related

Figure 30: Urban Metabolism of Metro Manila, Aggregated, 2000

Metro Manila Direct Material Input 73.6 Million tons

S01 – Agriculture and mining BM – Biomass S02 – Biomass-related products CF – Chemicals and fertilizers S03 – Chemicals and fuel products FF – Fossil fuels S04 – Contruction products MM – Metallic minerals S05 – Metallic products NM – Nonmetallic minerals S06 – Machinery and equipment O - Others S07 – Utilities S08 – Construction S09 – Services SEXP – Exports SFC – Final consumption SGFCF – Gross fixed capital formation Source: Authors. 32 t n.e.c ater supply ater etail trade; repairs trade; etail allic mineral products allic mineral s Activities e, hunting, forestry and fishing forestry e, hunting, als er and related activities er and related ansport equipment ansport sonal services als and chemical products als and chemical ommunity, social al machinery and apparatus n.e.c al machinery and apparatus acturing n.e.c; recycling al, precision and optical instruments and optical al, precision ootwear e, accounting and e, accounting and f and publishing and nuclear fuel ex c equipment c and per – Agricultur – Mining and quarrying – F – T – W – P – Cok – Chemic – R – Other nonmet – Basic met – F – Machinery and equipmen – Offic – Electric – R – Medic – Mot – Other tr – Manuf – Electricity, gas and w – Construction – Wholesale and r – H – T – P – F – R – R – Comput – R – Other Busines – P – E – H – Other c – F

S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 and tobacco beverages ood products, S06 leather products, extiles, textile S07 and cork wood of ood and products printing ulp, paper, paper products, S08 S09 S10 products petroleum e, refined S11 S12 ubber and plastics products S13 S14 products metal abricated machinery and equipment cept S15 S16 omputing machinery S17 S18 and communication adio, television S19 S20 S21 S22 and semitrailers trailers or vehicles, S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 and restaurants otels S28 and storage ransport S29 ost and telecommunications S30 and insurance inance S31 activities eal estate S32 machinery and equipment of enting S33 and development esearch S34 S35 ublic admin. and defence; S36 ompulsory social security ducation SEXP – Exports ealth and social work SFC formation capital fixed – Gross SGFCF inal consumption Figure 31: Complete Urban Metabolism of Metro Manila, 2000 Metro of Metabolism 31: Complete Urban Figure s s als al biomass euticals ents als and t s errous metals errous t metals ohols pharmac and solv and f – Agricultur – Animal biomas – T – O – S – W – P – U – Alc – Chemic – F – L – H – L – Plastics and rubber – I – Ligh – N – Special met – N – P – Sand – Cemen – Cla – S - Other – N – Liquids

Source: Authors. Source: Metro Manila Metro Material Input Direct 73.6 million tons BM1 BM2 BM3 BM4 BM5 BM6 extile biomass BM7 ils and fats BM8 ugars CF1 CF2 oods aper and board nspecified biomass CF3 FF1 FF2 FF3 and pesticides ertilizers ash fuels ow FF4 igh ash fuels MM1 oils ubrificants, MM2 MM3 alloying steel ron, MM4 MM5 MM6 metals heavy onferrous NM1 NM2 uclear fuels NM3 y metals recious NM4 NM5 O1 O2 tone onspecified Metro Manila 33

products (86%), and in the final consumption of is struggling to address these rapid changes in the households and government (83%). For services, urban landscape, and traffic congestion tends to however, biomass only accounts for 22%, while worsen as the population in Metro Manila continues nonmetallic minerals account for 53% and fossil fuels to increase. constitute 17%. Figure 31 provides a more detailed picture of the urban metabolism of Metro Manila, Figure 32: Manila Metropolitan Area Land Use matching the 28 subcategories of materials with the 36 economic sectors, final consumption, GFCF, and exports.

The moderate level of consumption for GFCF can be attributed to the fact that the metropolitan area is already saturated and continued growth is being directed to the areas surrounding Metro Manila. The urban metabolism analysis shows the importance of commerce and services, which account for a significant share of final material consumption. Furthermore, the high share of exports and Source: Authors. consumption in the production of biomass-related products are in line with the manufacturing that Figure 33: Main Transport Networks in occurs in Metro Manila and its role as a major port. Manila Metropolitan Area

Metro Manila is one of the largest urban areas in the world. Due to an intense suburbanization process, the suburban population quickly exceeded the population of the core city. However, despite this tendency, the core of Metro Manila has one of the highest population densities in the world, with an average of 45,000 inhabitants per km2, and densities of up to 70,000 inhabitants per km2. In the inner suburbs, the density is 18,000 inhabitants per km2, while the outer suburbs average 11,000 inhabitants per km2 (Cox 2011). Source: OpenStreetMap. http://www.openstreetmap.org Figure 32 identifies three land use classes in Metro Manila: industrial area, built-up area, and water. The spatial metrics of Metro Manila are in Table 7. The development of Metro Manila shows that A value of 81.6% was obtained for the proportion the metropolitan area is undergoing polycentric of the urban area (impervious surface) within the development, due to investment in centers of total area of the metropolitan region (PLAND). This agglomeration of employment (particularly in the corresponds to a classification of high, implying that service sector) in the outer areas, together with the most of the territory is composed of impervious dispersion of residential neighborhoods through a surface, including continuous or discontinuous complex transport network of roads and railways, urban fabric, industrial or commercial units, roads, as shown in Figure 33. The transport infrastructure port areas, and airports. 34 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The metropolitan area is classified as medium for suggesting that there is a small number of urban areas shape irregularity (SHAPE). This means that the with a high average surface area. In the case of Metro urban areas in Figure 32 have forms of medium Manila, this may reflect the dominance of urban or complexity, indicating that some branches are far impervious surfaces in the metropolitan area. Finally, from the main urban areas. The geometry of the the nearest neighbor distance (ENN) metric is also urban areas (CIRCLE) is classified as medium-high, classified as low, which demonstrates that the urban showing that the urban form is elongated and tends form of Metro Manila inside its boundaries is highly to expand beyond the limits of the metropolitan area. concentrated. The fragmentation of the urban form (PD) is low,

Table 7: Spatial Characterization of the Manila Metropolitan Area Description Unit Range Measure Value Classification Square Metropolitan Area kilometers 620 Percentage of class (PLAND) Percent 0 < PLAND ≦ 100 Area 81.6 High Shape index distribution (SHAPE) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ Shape Irregularity 2.0 Medium Related circumscribing circle (CIRCLE) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 Geometry 0.7 Medium-high Number per Patch density (PD) 100 hectares PD > 0 Fragmentation 0.1 Low Spatial metric Spatial Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN) Meters ENN > 0 Dispersion 298 Low

Source: Authors. Seoul Metropolitan Area 35

4.5 Seoul Metropolitan Area about 365.9 million tons, or 46.1% of the national figure. This corresponds to a per capita figure of 17.2 The Republic of Korea has a two-tier system tons for Seoul, which was the same as the average for of local government. There are nine provinces the country as a whole (Figure 34). (do); six metropolitan cities; and Seoul, which is considered a special city, managed by the Seoul Figure 34: Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of Metropolitan Government. Seoul’s administrative the Republic of Korea and Seoul, 2000 tiers are subdivided into units (gu), which are further subdivided into neighborhoods (dong). The next level is subdivided into villages (tong). There are 522 dong and 13,787 tong (Seoul Metropolitan Government 2011). Seoul is the county’s political, economic, intellectual, and cultural center (Siemens 2011). The city is home to most of the country’s DMC per capita (t/cap) DMC per capita big corporations, major financial institutions, top universities, and the national media. The overall Republic of Korea Seoul makeup of the metropolitan government is DMC = domestic material consumption, t/cap = tons per capita. hierarchal, with the mayor overseeing many lower Source: Authors. organizations under its control.

The Seoul Metropolitan Area had a population of 21 The DMI of the Seoul Metropolitan Area was million in 2000, representing 46% of the country’s composed mainly of nonmetallic minerals, totaling population, and a density of about 1,800 inhabitants 210.9 million tons (51% of DMI); fossil fuels, totaling per km2 (Appendix). The metropolis had almost 123.3 million tons (30%); and metallic minerals, 10 million workers and a gross domestic product amounting to 36.8 million tons (10%) (Figure 35). The (GDP) per capita of $17,700 measured at purchasing main subcategory of nonmetallic minerals entering power parity. Seoul’s GDP represented almost 50% Seoul was stone (NM4), representing 96% of the total of national GDP. The sectors that contribute most to nonmetallic minerals. The most significant fossil fuels regional GDP are services (67%) and manufacturing were low-ash fuels (FF1) (48%), lubricants and oils (24%). The majority of the employment in Seoul is in and solvents (FF3) (19%), and plastics and rubbers services (67%), the machinery and equipment sector (FF4) (19%). Most of the metallic minerals used (11%), and construction (8%). were iron, steel alloying metals, and ferrous metals (MM1) (81%). Together, these five subcategories of While service industries account for a significant materials accounted for 83% of the DMI of the Seoul share of Seoul’s economic output, Gyeonggi- Metropolitan Area. do—the province surrounding Seoul—has a high concentration of manufacturing industries, including Almost all of the materials were imported either electronics and textiles. from outside of the country or from other areas of the country. Only 1.3% of DMI was extracted from In 2000, the direct material input (DMI) of the Seoul the Seoul Metropolitan Area, and this consisted Metropolitan Area was 413.1 million tons. Domestic mainly of biomass (84%), nonmetallic minerals (7%), material consumption (DMC) was estimated at and chemicals and fertilizers (6%). 36 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Figure 35: Direct Material Input of Seoul, through the urban area, 11% (47.2 million tons) are Disaggregated, 2000 not consumed there, but are exported to the rest of the country or to other countries, while the Republic of Korea in general exports about 12% of its DMI. Plastics and Stone Rubbers The main end uses of the materials consumed in the Lubricants,Oils and Solvents urban area are gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) Low-ash Fuels (21%), services (16%), and final consumption of DMI (kt) households and government (16%). Ferrous metals

Figure 37: Direct Material Input per Capita of the Republic FF MM NM BM CF O of Korea and Seoul, by End Use, 2000

FF = fossil fuels, MM = metallic minerals, NM = nonmetallic minerals, BM = biomass, CF = chemicals and fertilizers, O=others, DMI = direct material input, kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors.

Excluding fossil fuels, 29% of the materials consumed within the urban area in 2000 are estimated to have

been disposed of as wastes in the same year, while (t/cap) DMC per capita 67% are expected to be converted to residues after 35 years. Figure 36 shows the waste production by Republic of Korea Seoul

waste type in 2000 (Figure 36a) and in the following DMI = direct material input, GFCF = gross fixed capital formation, 50 years (Figure 36b) stemming from the materials t/cap = tons per capita. Source: Authors. consumed in 2000 (footnote 6).

Figure 36: Waste Production in Seoul The urban metabolism of Seoul, illustrated in Figure (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 Years, 38, shows that nonmetallic minerals are the main Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 type of material used for construction (97%), GFCF (a) (b) (92%), and machinery and equipment (79%). The main types of materials exported are fossil fuels (60%) and metallic minerals (20%).

In the service sector, nonmetallic minerals account for 48% of the materials used in this sector, while fossil

Waste production (kt) production Waste (kt) production Waste fuels account for 36%, and metallic minerals 10%. The use of fossil fuels is relatively evenly spread across the economy, with 26% for the final consumption of households and government, 23% going for exports, kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors. and 20% for services. Figure 39 provides a more detailed picture of the urban metabolism of Seoul, The consumption of materials within Seoul’s matching the 28 subcategories of materials with the economy is almost the same as that of the country 36 economic sectors, final consumption, GFCF, and as a whole (Figure 37). Of the materials that pass exports. Seoul Metropolitan Area 37

Figure 38: Urban Metabolism of Seoul, Aggregated, 2000

Seoul Direct Material Input 413.1 million tons

S01 – Agriculture and mining BM – Biomass S02 – Biomass-related products CF – Chemicals and fertilizers S03 – Chemicals and fuel products FF – Fossil fuels S04 – Contruction products MM – Metallic minerals S05 – Metallic products NM – Nonmetallic minerals S06 – Machinery and equipment O - Others S07 – Utilities S08 – Construction S09 – Services SEXP – Exports SFC – Final consumption SGFCF – Gross fixed capital formation

Source: Authors. 38 t n.e.c ater supply ater etail trade; repairs trade; etail allic mineral products allic mineral s Activities e, hunting, forestry and fishing forestry e, hunting, als er and related activities er and related ansport equipment ansport sonal services als and chemical products als and chemical ommunity, social al machinery and apparatus n.e.c al machinery and apparatus acturing n.e.c; recycling al, precision and optical instruments and optical al, precision ootwear e, accounting and e, accounting and f and publishing and nuclear fuel ex c equipment c and per – Agricultur – Mining and quarrying – F – T – W – P – Cok – Chemic – R – Other nonmet – Basic met – F – Machinery and equipmen – Offic – Electric – R – Medic – Mot – Other tr – Manuf – Electricity, gas and w – Construction – Wholesale and r – H – T – P – F – R – R – Comput – R – Other Busines – P – E – H – Other c – F

S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 and tobacco beverages ood products, S06 leather products, extiles, textile S07 and cork wood of ood and products printing ulp, paper, paper products, S08 S09 S10 products petroleum e, refined S11 S12 ubber and plastics products S13 S14 products metal abricated machinery and equipment cept S15 S16 omputing machinery S17 S18 and communication adio, television S19 S20 S21 S22 and semitrailers trailers or vehicles, S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 and restaurants otels S28 and storage ransport S29 ost and telecommunications S30 and insurance inance S31 activities eal estate S32 machinery and equipment of enting S33 and development esearch S34 S35 ublic admin. and defence; S36 ompulsory social security ducation SEXP – Exports ealth and social work SFC formation capital fixed – Gross SGFCF inal consumption Figure 39: Complete Urban Metabolism of Seoul, 2000 of Metabolism 39: Complete Urban Figure s s als al biomass euticals ents als and t s errous metals errous t metals ohols pharmac and solv and f – Agricultur – Animal biomas – T – O – S – W – P – U – Alc – Chemic – F – L – H – L – Plastics and rubber – I – Ligh – N – Special met – N – P – Sand – Cemen – Cla – S - Other – N – Liquids

Source: Authors. Source: Seoul Material Input Direct 413.1 million tons BM1 BM2 BM3 BM4 BM5 BM6 extile biomass BM7 ils and fats BM8 ugars CF1 CF2 oods aper and board nspecified biomass CF3 FF1 FF2 FF3 and pesticides ertilizers ash fuels ow FF4 igh ash fuels MM1 oils ubrificants, MM2 MM3 alloying steel ron, MM4 MM5 MM6 metals heavy onferrous NM1 NM2 uclear fuels NM3 y metals recious NM4 NM5 O1 O2 tone onspecified Seoul Metropolitan Area 39

The high level of consumption associated with GFCF The creation of new satellite towns has resulted in a can be attributed to the creation of new satellite polycentric urban form, supported by the growth of towns and the growth of transport networks, such transport networks (Figure 41). These developments as works on the Seoul Metropolitan Subway and the enable the population to commute from the outer construction of Incheon International Airport, which areas to the industrial areas close to the water. were ongoing in 2000. Figure 41: Main Road Networks in Seoul Metropolitan Area The importance of commerce and services can be seen in the urban metabolism analysis, with this sector accounting for a significant share of final material consumption. The considerable size of the biomass products and machinery and equipment sectors is also in line with the importance of manufacturing in the Seoul Metropolitan Area.

The extreme density of the city center and local government initiatives to promote the development of new areas for expansion have progressively stopped population increase in the core city and Source: OpenStreetMap. http://www.openstreetmap.org begun a process of dispersion of the urban form toward suburban centers in the periphery. Most heavy manufacturing has located along the southeast The spatial metrics of the Seoul Metropolitan Area coast of the Korean Peninsula because of the easy are in Table 8. A value of 16.5% was obtained for the access to deep-water ports. Other factories and proportion of urban area (impervious surface) within plants in Seoul have expanded into the surrounding the total area of the metropolitan region (PLAND). area because of land scarcity and the high price of This corresponds to a classification of low, implying industrial property in the city (Kim and Han et al. most of the territory is composed of pervious 2012). Figure 40 identifies three land use classes in surfaces, such as arable land, permanent crops, Seoul Metropolitan Area: industrial area, built-up forest, and open spaces with little or no vegetation. area, and water. The metropolitan area is classified as medium for Figure 40: Seoul Metropolitan Area Land Use shape irregularity (SHAPE). This means that the urban areas in Figure 40 have forms of medium complexity, indicating that some of the branches are far from the main urban areas. The geometry of the urban areas (CIRCLE) is classified as medium- high, showing that the urban form is elongated and tending toward dispersion, particularly in the province of Gyeonggi-do. The fragmentation of the urban form (PD) is classified as high, reflecting the large number of urban areas distributed across the territory. Finally, the nearest neighbor distance (ENN) metric is classified as medium-low, demonstrating

Source: Authors. 40 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

that the urban form of the metropolitan area is Seoul relative to the dispersion of the urban form in not very dispersed in the provinces of Incheon and Gyeonggi-do.

Table 8: Spatial Characterization of the Seoul Metropolitan Area Description Unit Range Measure Value Classification Square Metropolitan Area kilometers 11,768 Percentage of class (PLAND) Percent 0 < PLAND ≦ 100 Area 16.5 Low Shape index distribution (SHAPE) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ Shape Irregularity 2.0 Medium Related circumscribing circle (CIRCLE) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 Geometry 0.7 Medium-high Number per Spatial metric Spatial Patch density (PD) 100 hectares PD > 0 Fragmentation 0.8 High Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN) Meters ENN > 0 Dispersion 495 Medium-low

Source: Authors. Shanghai Metropolitan Area 41

4.6 Shanghai Metropolitan Area (15%), the biomass products industries (9%), and agriculture and mining (8%). Shanghai is one of the four municipalities in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) that have an In 2005, Shanghai became the world’s largest cargo administrative status similar to that of a province port (UN-Habitat 2010). By 2010, the city accounted (Kam Ng and Hills 2003). Unlike other big cities in for 17% of the country’s port cargo handling volume, the world, Shanghai, under the leadership of the 25% of its total exports, and 13% of financial revenues. Communist Party of the PRC, has parallel national On top of port facilities, Shanghai has expanded its party and government administrative apparatuses. role in finance and banking, and as a location for The central government created single unitary corporate headquarters. These developments are governments headed by appointed mayors (Laquian fuelling demand for a highly educated, forward- 2005). Shanghai has a party secretary and a mayor, looking workforce. Manufacturing, Shanghai’s largest both of which are appointed by the standing economic sector, accounts for 36% of the output committee of the Community Party. Economic of the metropolitan area. Business and financial planning is often influenced by political (state) services are Shanghai’s second-largest sector (17%), considerations. The Shanghai Municipal People’s and account for 13% of the PRC’s total output in the Congress with its standing committee is the policy sector. Local nonmarket services (education, health making authority, and the Shanghai Municipal care, administrative services, and government) People’s Government is its executive arm. contributed 40% to employment growth in Shanghai (BI 2011). Shanghai has unified governance structures with jurisdictions over city regions. The physical In 2000, the direct material input (DMI) of the boundaries of these urban agglomerations have Shanghai Metropolitan Area was 228.6 million tons. been expanded to absorb towns, cities, and villages Direct material consumption (DMC) was estimated on the urban periphery (Laquian 2005). Area-wide at about 221.5 million tons, or 2.5% of that of the PRC. services, such as water and sewerage, transport, This corresponds to a per capita figure of 13.5 tons and solid waste disposal, were placed under a single for Shanghai, compared to an average of 7.2 tons metropolitan government. per capita for the PRC as a whole in the same year (Figure 42). Districts in the metropolitan area have limited powers, but the metropolitan governments have Figure 42: Domestic Material Consumption per Capita of greater authority and larger financial resources. the People’s Republic of China and Shanghai, 2000

The Shanghai Metropolitan Area had a population of 16.4 million in 2000, representing 1% of the PRC population, and a density of about 2,600 inhabitants per km2 (Appendix). The metropolis had 6.7 million workers in 2000 and a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of $8,830 measured at purchasing power parity. Shanghai’s GDP represented 5% of national (t/cap) DMC per capita GDP. The sectors that contribute most to regional PRC Shanghai GDP are services (52%) and manufacturing (37%). Most of the population of Shanghai was employed in DMC = domestic material consumption, t/cap = tons per capita. services (54%), the machinery and equipment sector Source: Authors. 42 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The DMI of the Shanghai Metropolitan Area was Figure 44: Waste Production in Shanghai composed mainly of nonmetallic minerals, totaling (a) by Waste Type in 2000; and (b) in the Following 50 Years, Stemming from the Materials Consumed in 2000 128.7 million tons (56%); biomass, totaling 65.0 million tons (28%), fossil fuels, totaling 20.7 million (a) (b) tons (9%); and metallic minerals, totaling 13.6 million tons (6%) (Figure 43). Stone (NM4) accounted for 99% of nonmetallic minerals entering Shanghai. The most significant biomass categories were unspecified biomass (BM8) (60%) and agricultural biomass

(BM1), (30%). Low-ash fuels (FF1) comprised 79% of (kt) production Waste (kt) production Waste fossil fuels used; while 75% of metallic minerals used consisted of Iron, steel alloying metals, and ferrous

metals (MM1). Together, these five subcategories kt = thousand tons. of materials accounted for 93% of the DMI of the Source: Authors. Shanghai Metropolitan Area. The consumption of materials within the economic Almost all of the materials were imported either from sector of Shanghai is significantly different from that outside of the country or from other areas of the of the PRC as a whole (Figure 45). Only 3% (7.1 million country. Only 3.7% of the DMI was extracted from tons) the materials that pass through the urban area the Shanghai Metropolitan Area, and this consisted are not consumed there, and are exported to the exclusively of biomass. rest of the country or to other countries. The PRC also exports about 3% of its DMI. The main end Figure 43: Direct Material Input of Shanghai, uses of the materials consumed in the urban area Disaggregated, 2000 are gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) (51%), final consumption of households and government Stone (15%), and consumption for services (9%). The large consumption for GFCF suggests that Shanghai was experiencing infrastructure growth at that time, possibly due to its high rate of population increase, DMI (kt)

Low-ash Nonspecified which averaged 3% per year. Ferrous Biomass Fuels metals Agricultural Biomass Figure 45: Direct Material Input per Capita of the People’s Republic of China and Shanghai, FF MM NM BM CF O by End Use, 2000

FF = fossil fuels, MM = metallic minerals, NM = nonmetallic minerals, BM = biomass, CF = chemicals and fertilizers, O=others, DMI = direct material input, kt = thousand tons. Source: Authors.

Excluding fossil fuels, 39% of the materials that were consumed within the urban area in 2000 are estimated to have been disposed of as residues DMC per capita (t/cap) DMC per capita within the same year, while 57% are expected to be converted to residues after 35 years. Figure 44 shows PRC Shanghai the waste production by waste type in 2000 (Figure 44a) and in the following 50 years (Figure 44b) stemming DMI = direct material input, GFCF = gross fixed capital formation, t/cap = tons per capita. from the materials consumed in 2000 (footnote 6). Source: Authors. Shanghai Metropolitan Area 43

The urban metabolism of Shanghai, illustrated in for 27%, fossil fuels 15%, and metallic minerals 5%. Figure 46, shows that nonmetallic minerals are mainly The use of biomass is spread across the economy, used for GFCF, and make up 89% of the materials with 38% for the final consumption of households used for this purpose. Biomass (71%) and fossil fuels and government, 22% for the production of biomass (16%) are the main types of materials used for the products, and 17% for services. Figure 47 provides a final consumption of households and government. more detailed picture of the urban metabolism of Shanghai, matching the 28 subcategories of materials In the service sector, biomass accounts for 53% of with the 36 economic sectors, final consumption, materials consumed, nonmetallic minerals account GFCF, and exports.

Figure 46: Urban Metabolism of Shanghai, Aggregated, 2000

Shanghai Direct Material Input 228.6 million tons

S01 – Agriculture and mining BM – Biomass S02 – Biomass-related products CF – Chemicals and fertilizers S03 – Chemicals and fuel products FF – Fossil fuels S04 – Contruction products MM – Metallic minerals S05 – Metallic products NM – Nonmetallic minerals S06 – Machinery and equipment O - Others S07 – Utilities S08 – Construction S09 – Services SEXP – Exports SFC – Final consumption SGFCF – Gross fixed capital formation Source: Authors. 44 t n.e.c ater supply ater etail trade; repairs trade; etail allic mineral products allic mineral s Activities e, hunting, forestry and fishing forestry e, hunting, als er and related activities er and related ansport equipment ansport sonal services als and chemical products als and chemical ommunity, social al machinery and apparatus n.e.c al machinery and apparatus acturing n.e.c; recycling al, precision and optical instruments and optical al, precision ootwear e, accounting and e, accounting and f and publishing and nuclear fuel ex c equipment c and per – Agricultur – Mining and quarrying – F – T – W – P – Cok – Chemic – R – Other nonmet – Basic met – F – Machinery and equipmen – Offic – Electric – R – Medic – Mot – Other tr – Manuf – Electricity, gas and w – Construction – Wholesale and r – H – T – P – F – R – R – Comput – R – Other Busines – P – E – H – Other c – F

S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 and tobacco beverages ood products, S06 leather products, extiles, textile S07 and cork wood of ood and products printing ulp, paper, paper products, S08 S09 S10 products petroleum e, refined S11 S12 ubber and plastics products S13 S14 products metal abricated machinery and equipment cept S15 S16 omputing machinery S17 S18 and communication adio, television S19 S20 S21 S22 and semitrailers trailers or vehicles, S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 and restaurants otels S28 and storage ransport S29 ost and telecommunications S30 and insurance inance S31 activities eal estate S32 machinery and equipment of enting S33 and development esearch S34 S35 ublic admin. and defence; S36 ompulsory social security ducation SEXP – Exports ealth and social work SFC formation capital fixed – Gross SGFCF inal consumption Figure 47: Complete Urban Metabolism of Shanghai, 2000 of Metabolism 47: Complete Urban Figure s s als al biomass euticals ents als and t s errous metals errous t metals ohols pharmac and solv and f – Agricultur – Animal biomas – T – O – S – W – P – U – Alc – Chemic – F – L – H – L – Plastics and rubber – I – Ligh – N – Special met – N – P – Sand – Cemen – Cla – S - Other – N – Liquids

Source: Authors. Source: Shanghai Material Input Direct 228.6 million tons BM1 BM2 BM3 BM4 BM5 BM6 extile biomass BM7 ils and fats BM8 ugars CF1 CF2 oods aper and board nspecified biomass CF3 FF1 FF2 FF3 and pesticides ertilizers ash fuels ow FF4 igh ash fuels MM1 oils ubrificants, MM2 MM3 alloying steel ron, MM4 MM5 MM6 metals heavy onferrous NM1 NM2 uclear fuels NM3 y metals recious NM4 NM5 O1 O2 tone onspecified Shanghai Metropolitan Area 45

The high level of consumption for GFCF can be The urban area has grown at the expense of attributed to Shanghai’s urban policy of renovating farmland, green land, water bodies, and bare land; the core city while relocating employment to the and farmland has, in turn, expanded at the expense suburbs, mainly through the creation of new satellite of green land in order to meet the huge food needs towns and industrial parks, and the huge parallel of the growing population (Yin et al. 2011). Future investment in infrastructure. urban expansion is expected to take place along the main traffic routes between the center and the The importance of services can be seen in the urban surrounding towns. This extension of the urban area metabolism analysis, with this sector accounting for in the center and subcenters of the metropolitan area a significant share of final material consumption. is creating a progressively greater distance between Despite being one of the world’s most important the city center and its surroundings. Figure 49 ports, Shanghai’s share of exports is small, suggesting shows the main transport networks in the Shanghai that the port is mainly used for crossing flows. As Metropolitan Area. such, the port is mainly a gateway for entry and exit of products to and from the PRC in general and not Figure 49: Main Transport Networks in for Shanghai in particular. Shanghai Metropolitan Area

Shanghai has experienced a tremendous transformation in land use from a rural to urban, while the urban fringe has steadily advanced outward into the surrounding agricultural land (Yin et al. 2011). Recently, the urban policy of Shanghai has shifted to urban renewal of the core city and relocation of employment to the suburbs in order to foster a higher quality of life in the center. The development of satellite towns, industrial parks, and infrastructure has been accompanied by a large influx of migrants from the rural areas. Figure 48 identifies three land Source: OpenStreetMap. http://www.openstreetmap.org use classes in the Shanghai Metropolitan Area: industrial area, built-up area, and water. The spatial metrics of the Shanghai Metropolitan Area are in Table 9. A value of 33.0% was obtained Figure 48: Shanghai Metropolitan Area Land Use for the proportion of the urban area (impervious surface) within the total area of the metropolitan region (PLAND). This corresponds to a classification of medium-low, implying that most of the territory is composed of pervious surfaces, such as arable land, permanent crops, forest, and open spaces with little or no vegetation.

The metropolitan area is classified as medium for shape irregularity (SHAPE). This means that the urban areas in Figure 48 have forms of medium complexity, indicating that some of the branches are Source: Authors. 46 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

far from the main urban areas. The geometry of the surface area, reflecting the duality between the less urban areas (CIRCLE) is classified as high, implying fragmented urban core and the developing urban an elongated urban form and a tendency toward areas in the periphery of the urban area. Finally, the dispersion, mainly in provinces with low proportions nearest neighbor distance (ENN) metric is classified of pervious surface. as medium-low, demonstrating that while the urban form of the Shanghai Metropolitan Area is not very The fragmentation of the urban form (PD) is dispersed in the provinces of Baoshan, Jiading, classified as medium-low. This means that there are Minhang, Pudong, and Shanghai, the remaining a medium number of urban areas with an average provinces tend to have low levels of compactness.

Table 9: Spatial Characterization of the Shanghai Metropolitan Area Description Unit Range Measure Value Classification Square Metropolitan Area kilometers 33.0 Medium-low Percentage of class (PLAND) Percent 0 < PLAND ≦ 100 Area 2.1 Medium Shape index distribution (SHAPE) 1 ≤ SHAPE ≤ ∞ Shape Irregularity 0.7 Medium-high Related circumscribing circle (CIRCLE) 0 < CIRCLE < 1 Geometry 0.2 Medium-low Patch density (PD) Number per PD > 0 Fragmentation 434 Medium-low Spatial metric Spatial 100 hectares Euclidean nearest neighbor distance (ENN) Meters ENN > 0 Dispersion 434 Medium-low

Source: Authors. 47

5. Comparative Assessment of the Metropolitan Metabolisms

5.1 Urban Spatial Metrics tendencies in urban form. Historical trends suggest they all start to spread with a greater or lesser The six metropolitan regions differ significantly in intensity toward their administrative boundaries, area and form (Figure 50 and Table 10). The spatial and, in the case of Metro Manila, even exceed such metrics of the urban areas indicate similar overall limits.

Figure 50: Water and Built-Up Area of the Six Metropolitan Areas

Scale: 1:1700000. Source: Authors.

Table 10: Spatial Metrics of the Six Metropolitan Regions Metropolitan Region Area Shape Irregularity Geometry Fragmentation Dispersion Bangalore Low Low Medium High Medium-high Bangkok Low Medium-high Medium-high Medium-low Medium HCMC Low High Medium-high Low High Metro Manila High Medium Medium-high Low Low Seoul Low Medium Medium-high High Medium-low Shanghai Medium-low Medium Medium-high Medium-low Medium-low

HCMC = Ho Chi Minh City. Source: Authors. 48 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Four of the six metropolitan areas are characterized Goyang, Incheon, Puchon, Seongnam, Shihung, and by the presence of a significant central urban core Suwon). that continues to attract the majority of activities and population. This means that most of the Four of the six cities are classified as medium for metropolitan area consists of pervious surface, dispersion, which can be explained by the small or such as vacant space, and natural and agricultural medium-sized urban areas dispersed across their areas. Two exceptions are Metro Manila, which is territory. Only Metro Manila is classified as low, already exceeding the limits of its administrative because of the large concentration of impervious area, resulting in a high proportion of built-up area; surfaces throughout its administrative territory. The and Shanghai, where the rate of expansion of the urban form of HCMC is highly dispersed, containing urban area is very high (indicating a tendency for many small urban areas spread over a great distance dispersion). via the rail and road networks. This pattern accords with the linear development urban typology, with The metropolitan area of Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) average densities adjacent to the networks, low stands out because of its more irregular pattern of densities between the networks, and high densities urban areas that comprise each metropolitan area at network intersections. (shape irregularity). This is the result of an urban core that spreads out through the road and rail networks The following sections compare the six Asian in a great distance from the urban core. Bangkok also metropolitan areas with two European ones: Lisbon presents considerable shape irregularity, indicating and Paris. The material flow accounting of these two a tendency toward a less formal planning policy. additional metropolitan areas used the methodology By contrast, Bangalore has a low level of shape described in this document. irregularity, which signifies great coherence in urban design. 5.2 Assessing Urban Material Dependency All six metropolitan areas tend to be elongated rather than concentrated, which means that that they all The analysis confirms that metropolitan areas tend to present a significant tendency toward dispersion. be highly dependent on imported materials to support their economic activities and final consumption. In The metropolitan areas are varied in terms of five of the metropolitan areas more than 90% of the fragmentation of their urban form. HCMC and materials used are imported (Bangkok and Metro Metro Manila present low levels of fragmentation. In Manila depend almost exclusively on imports). Only the case of HCMC, this is because the urban centers in the case of HCMC is a significant amount of the remain well demarcated; while for Metro Manila, the materials used (23%) extracted locally. very dense concentration of population has led to the merging of various urban areas. Bangalore and Seoul This means these areas are heavily dependent on are highly fragmented. In Bangalore, this is because of sources they cannot control or manage directly—a the large number of small urban areas that are spread situation that may threaten their resilience. The across the rural areas of the metropolitan area. In dependency affects the various economic sectors of Seoul it is the result of natural constraints7 and the the urban economy differently and varies according growth of other central business districts to the to the type of material. south and west of the city (such as Ansan, Anyang, Figure 51 provides a breakdown of the direct 7 Of the total built-up area of 605 km2, 237 km2 cannot be material input (DMI) per capita for production and used for development due to geographical features (Kim et consumption in the eight metropolitan areas. The al. 2012). Comparative Assessment of the Metropolitan Metabolisms 49

DMI per capita ranges from 3.8 tons in HCMC to intensive sector than services, which dominate in 23.8 tons in Paris, with an average of 13.9 tons for the urban areas in this study. the eight cities. In most of the cities, nonmetallic materials are the largest category of material inputs, To better assess the diversity of material dependency followed by biomass. Bangkok’s DMI is noticeably in the eight urban areas, Figure 52 illustrates the higher than other cities of similar income levels. This cumulative share of total material input by number is attributable to the city’s predominance in national of material subcategories. For each urban area, the manufacturing capacity, which results in a very high subcategories are ordered from highest to lowest by share of materials being exported. Manufacturing their share of total material input. has been observed to be a much more material-

Figure 51: Direct Material Input per Capita of the Eight Metropolitan Areas, by Material Category, 2000

25

20 Others Chemicals and fertilizers 15 Biomass

Nonmetallic minerals 10 Metallic minerals

5 Fossil fuels

0 Paris Seoul Lisbon Bangkok Shanghai Bangalore Ho Chi Minh Ho Metro Manila Metro

DMI = direct material input, t/cap = tons per capita. Source: Authors.

Figure 52: Cumulative Share of the 28 Material Subcategories in the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000

100%

90% Bangalore 80% Bangkok 70% Ho Chi Minh City

60% Metro Manila

50% Seoul Shanghai 40% Lisbon 30% Paris 20%

10

0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 DMI = direct material input. Source: Authors. 50 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The results show that a few subcategories account for • HCMC: 7 subcategories—2 fossil fuels, 2 a significant share of total material input in all urban nonmetallic minerals, and 3 biomass areas. Bangkok and Lisbon have the most diverse set of material input subcategories, while Shanghai has • Bangalore: 6 subcategories—1 fossil fuels, 1 the least diverse set. This can be observed from the metallic minerals, 1 nonmetallic minerals, and 3 number of subcategories that make up 90% of the biomass material input: • Shanghai: 5 subcategories—1 fossil fuels, 1 • Lisbon: 11 subcategories—4 fossil fuels, 1 nonmetallic mineral, 1 metallic minerals, and 2 metallic minerals, 3 nonmetallic minerals, and 3 biomass biomass While a larger range of material inputs may indicate • Bangkok: 11 subcategories—4 fossil fuels, 2 a diversified economy, the results may also indicate metallic minerals, 2 nonmetallic minerals, and 3 that some urban areas lack material-intensive biomass industries, which may explain why no type of material is dominant. An assessment of the share of material • Paris: 9 subcategories—3 fossil fuels, 1 metallic input by economic sector supports this analysis minerals, 3 nonmetallic minerals, and 2 biomass (Figure 53).

• Metro Manila: 9 subcategories—1 fossil fuels, Lisbon and Paris present very similar shares of 2 metallic minerals, 2 nonmetallic minerals, and 4 material use by economic sector, with manufacturing biomass sector accounting for 24%–27% and services making up 15%–18%. Final consumption is 19% and gross • Seoul: 7 subcategories—4 fossil fuels, 1 metallic fixed capital formation (GFCF) is 17%–22%. These minerals, 1 nonmetallic minerals, and 1 biomass metropolitan areas also have the second- and fourth-highest shares of materials for export (12% in Lisbon and 10% in Paris).

Figure 53: Share of Metropolitan Direct Material Input by End Use, 2000

Paris

Lisbon Agriculture and mining

Shanghai Construction and utilities

Seoul Exports Final consumption Metro Manila GFCF Ho Chi Minh City Manufacturing Bangkok Services Bangalore

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Source: Authors. Comparative Assessment of the Metropolitan Metabolisms 51

In Shanghai, exports represent only 3% of the total The share of material use by agriculture and mining is material use in the metropolitan area, while GFCF low, accounting for 16% in HCMC, and varying from accounts for 51%—the largest share of all the areas. a low of 0.1% in Metro Manila to a high of 3.7% in GFCF absorbs 25% of materials in Bangkok and 21% Lisbon in the remaining areas. This is not surprising in Seoul. Furthermore, Bangkok, Lisbon, Paris, and as the areas under analysis are much more densely Seoul have the highest share of materials used in the populated than the rest of country, with little space construction and utilities sectors, ranging from 5% in available for sourcing raw materials such as biomass Lisbon to 11% in Bangkok. or minerals.

The high share of material use for GFCF and The results show that two-thirds of the Asian construction in these four metropolitan areas may metropolitan economies assessed—Bangalore, have significant impacts on their future management Bangkok, HCMC, and Metro Manila—were focused of end-of-life materials (particularly in the case on producing tradable products; while Seoul, of Shanghai), because it mainly includes materials Shanghai, and the Western European metropolitan with long life spans that stay with the city for several areas were more centered on services and years (as material stock), being converted into waste nontradable products. progressively. The use of materials by the different industries is The areas with the highest share of material use by a proxy for their importance in the overall material the manufacturing sector are Metro Manila (61%), use of the regions assessed. Figure 54 shows the Bangalore (43%), and Bangkok (30%). With the gross share (inclusive of materials that flow through exception of Bangkok, these are also the economies a sector, but are ultimately consumed in another that have the lowest share of materials consumed by sector or exported) of each industrial sector. GFCF.

Figure 54: Share of the Direct Material Input of the Manufacturing Sector, by Industry Type, 2000

Paris

Lisbon Biomass products

Shanghai Chemicals and fuel products

Seoul Construction products

Metro Manila Machinery and equipment

Ho Chi Minh City Metallic products

Bangkok

Bangalore

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Source: Authors. 52 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Generally, the construction products industry is very 5.3 Material Intensity of the significant in the urban areas under analysis, being Economy responsible for more than 30% of the products used by manufactures in all the metropolitan areas and as The material intensity of an economy is measured by much as 72% in Shanghai and 62% in HCMC. Metro the amount of materials (e.g., tons) that an economy Manila is an exception, with a share of only 23%. uses to produce one unit of monetary output (e.g., $). Figure 55 compares the level of output (gross The next most material-intensive industries are domestic product [GDP] per capita) and material biomass products (e.g., 39% in Bangalore, 33% in use (DMI per capita) of the metropolitan areas, Metro Manila, and 31% in HCMC) and chemicals and classifying the cities into four quadrants. Clockwise, fuels (e.g., 32% in Seoul, 30% in Metro Manila, and the second and third quadrants represent the most 22% in Paris). The metallic products and machinery affluent economies (Bangkok, Seoul, Lisbon, and and equipment industries are less material-intensive, Paris) and the first and the fourth quadrants contain with shares 2%–9%. the less affluent economies (Bangalore, HCMC, Metro Manila, and Shanghai). As can be seen from Figure 54, HCMC and Shanghai had the least diversified manufacturing sectors Figure 55 shows an apparent trend of higher material because of the high concentration of materials use usage being associated with higher outputs. This in one industry (construction products); while Metro observation needs to be confirmed with a larger Manila had the most diversified economy in terms of sample of cities. However, material intensities vary the relative importance of different industries. considerably, as the following examples illustrate:

Figure 55: Material Use per Capita versus Product per Capita in the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000

25 Bangkok Paris 20 Seoul

15 Shanghai avg median Lisbon 10 Bangalore Manila 5

DMI per capita (t/cap) Ho Chi Minh

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

GDP per capita (thousand international US$ / cap)

DMI = direct material input, GDP = gross domestic product, t/cap = tons per capita. Source: Authors. Comparative Assessment of the Metropolitan Metabolisms 53

• to achieve 40% more output per capita than of the evolution of these parameters over 2001– Metro Manila, Shanghai has to use almost 100% 2010 would be very helpful in assessing the degree more materials per capita; of materialization or dematerialization of these economies. • with almost the same material use per capita, Lisbon achieves almost triple the output of Shanghai; The comparison of the material and monetary structures of these metropolitan economies may • for almost the same outputs, Bangalore uses an provide some clues about their material productivity. additional 3 tons of materials per capita than HCMC, The examples of HCMC, Seoul, and Shanghai are and Bangkok uses an additional 3 tons per capita shown in Figure 56. than Seoul; Seoul, the most affluent of the three metropolitan • with almost the same use of materials per areas, has the highest share of material use by the capita, Paris produces $19,000 per capita more than manufacturing (62%) and services (12%) sectors. Bangkok at purchasing power parity; and However, 67% of its GDP is produced by services, compared with 52% in Shanghai and 34% in HCMC. • consuming only 0.2 tons of materials per capita Seoul also has the most productive service sector more than Bangalore, Metro Manila produces almost in material terms. In HCMC, the least affluent, the triple Bangkok’s output. share of the primary sector is higher in material and monetary terms. In the case of Shanghai, the material Lisbon, Paris, and Seoul are more productive, in productivity of the construction sector is very low material terms, than the others. An understanding and is often designated a nonproductive investment.

Figure 56: Material and Economic Structure of Selected Metropolitan Areas, 2000

700000

600000

500000 Agriculture and mining 400000 Construction

300000 Manufacturing

200000 Utilities

100000 Services

0 GDP DMI GDP DMI GDP DMI Ho Chi Minh CIty Seoul Singapore

Source: Authors. 54 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

5.4 Typifying Urban Typologies • type 2 areas (Lisbon, Paris, and Shanghai) present high shares of nonmetallic minerals, medium shares The metropolitan areas assessed may be categorized of biomass, and low shares of fossil fuel consumption; into different typologies based on their use of materials (Figure 57) and the material consumption • type 3 areas (Bangkok, HCMC, and Metro Manila) of the economic sectors (Figure 58). present medium-to-high shares of biomass and nonmetallic minerals, and low shares of fossil fuels; In terms of the typologies based on the categories of and materials used: • type 4 (Seoul) has a high share of nonmetallic • type 1 (Bangalore) has a very high share of biomass minerals, medium-to-high share of fossil fuels, and consumption, and low shares of nonmetallic and low share of biomass. fossil fuel consumption;

Figure 57: Material Use Typologies of the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000

Source: Authors. Comparative Assessment of the Metropolitan Metabolisms 55

In terms of the typologies based on the consumption • type 4 areas (HCMC and Shanghai) have high of materials by economic sector: shares of materials going for final consumption and GFCF, and low shares for services and manufacturing. • type 1 areas (Bangalore and Metro Manila) have a high share of materials consumed by manufacturing, As can be seen from the analysis of the typologies and low shares of materials for final consumption by material type and consumption by sector, while and GFCF; some urban areas remain in the same typology in both assessments, others do not. Lisbon and Paris • type 2 areas (Lisbon, Paris, and Seoul) present are in the same typologies, while the six Asian moderate shares of materials going to final metropolitan areas are in different groups in both consumption and GFCF, with services and analyses. This suggests that more typologies might manufacturing having nontrivial shares of exist. However, they can only be identified by consumption; analyzing and comparing many more urban areas.

• type 3 (Bangkok) presents significant material shares for both exports and manufacturing, and a low share for services; and

Figure 58: Material Consumption Typologies of the Eight Metropolitan Areas, 2000

Source: Authors. 56

6. Contributions from Urban Metabolism

The streamlined urban metabolism method is a A city’s size, urban form, and demand for resources means of overcoming the lack of city-level data on determine the area required to provide water and material consumption and waste generation by nutrients to its inhabitants, and manage the city’s using national input–output data and other available wastes to ensure the sustainability of the materials information such as national and regional extraction cycle (Cuchí et al. 2010). of raw materials. The characterization of the spatial distribution This report demonstrates the potential of urban of urban metabolism, its main drivers, and how metabolism studies by providing a rigorous it is related to critical urban infrastructures and quantitative analysis of urbanization patterns. The technologies helps identify zones where the main achievement of the preliminary results of supporting infrastructure systems (energy supply, this ongoing work is a better understanding of how water supply, sanitation, and waste management) are the use of natural resources correlates with urban heavily loaded, and possible synergies for improving economic activities. these systems. In addition, it allows areas that should be the target of policy measures to be specified, and The assessment of the metabolism of economies suggests how planning efforts can be coordinated provides important clues about their direct and to be more efficient, particularly to support urban indirect environmental impacts as a result of their strategies. use of natural resources. These include: The information generated can be useful to urban • the direct impacts of extraction (e.g., impacts on planners for drawing general plans and making initial the natural environment of opencast mining); and assessments. It can also assist in planning appropriate waste management facilities, understanding • the disruption of materials cycles associated the use and allocation of scarce resources, and with the introduction of compounds in unsurpassed identifying economic activities that contribute most volumes into the biosphere (e.g., carbon, phosphate, to greenhouse gas emissions and other pollution and heavy metals), or major movements of problems. materials through the biosphere (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus), or the loss of natural areas as a result Moreover, while the models are useful for of deforestation and erosion. determining present material stocks and flows, they can also be used to simulate future changes in urban Other environmental impacts are associated with metabolism as a result of technological interventions the use of natural resources, such as pesticides used or new policies. The models are particularly useful in the production of food, and acidification caused for identifying solutions to environmental issues by the combustion of fossil fuels. beyond end-of-pipe approaches. A good example of this approach is the work performed by the Asian The results of the method developed and described Development Bank in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in this report support sustainable urbanization by under the Preparation of Sector Road Maps for providing information relevant to addressing key Central and West Asia Project, where investment issues such as environmental quality, global warming, needs for technological solutions to urban waste resilience, and environment–economy interactions. management were thoroughly identified and Contributions from Urban Metabolism 57

accounted for in monetary terms with the objective • measuring the intensity and efficiency of material of achieving an urban sustainable management in use of economic activities, and the urban area’s the next 40 years. dependence on externally sourced materials;

The application of the method can be extended • uncovering the infrastructure needs for waste to cover more urban areas. Combined with management and the potential for establishing a computations of material flow with other circular economy; and complementary data, and extending the analysis across time periods, it provides a systematic way of: • benchmarking urban areas and defining urban typologies. • calculating environmental pressure indicators, such as the ecological footprint or greenhouse gas Thus the urban metabolism framework allows emissions; a holistic assessment of critical parameters for sustainable urbanization (Figure 59).

Figure 59: Urban Metabolism Framework for Green Cities Parameters

GAV = gross added value, GDP = gross domestic product, IO = input–output. Source: Authors. 58 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Environmental pressure indicators. The Ecological Benchmarking urban typologies. Replicating footprint of an urban area is calculated by computing this work to cover a larger group of cities would the yield factors of the materials used in the urban allow the characterization of different urbanization economy. Greenhouse gas emissions are calculated patterns and their performance in key sustainability by computing the carbon dioxide emission factors of metrics. When evaluated against economic, climate, the fossil fuels consumed and the incinerated wastes. demographic, urban morphology, and governance data, urban metabolism indicators can characterize Material use intensity and resource efficiency. urban typologies and benchmark each city to the The total materials used by each economic activity relative resource intensity of the economic sectors. represent its material intensity. This is a measure This would be a valuable tool in learning how different of the natural resource productivity of the activity development options can be taken as a reference to when compared for different regions. Another be adopted in the rapidly urbanizing context of Asia. measure of productivity is obtained by computing economic data with the material intensity (e.g., $/ As shown through the analysis performed, ton). The inverse of this ratio represents the resource metropolitan areas with different urban forms efficiency of an urban economy or economic activity may present similar material use structures. (ton/$). However, further research is needed to identify which parameters are to be used for identifying Urban metabolism reveals the comparative resource different urban typologies. In addition, assessing the intensity of urban areas in order to provide the most structure of resource consumption over time allows effective pathways toward resource efficiency and development models to be defined and enables security of access for a diverse range of cities. forcasting of potential resource needs of transitional urban economies. Waste management. Developing an urban circular economy requires investments in waste recovery and More in-depth research on urban metabolism material exchanges between companies (industrial can also ascertain the most effective design and symbiosis). The potential for such strategies can be technology choices for basic infrastructure for cities determined through material flow accounting and in diverse development contexts.8 Some investments modeling with waste input–output tables. are however necessary to complete such a study. First, cities need to begin the task of collecting and The dynamics and type of investment in waste organizing urban resource data for use in short-, and product end-of-life processing infrastructures medium-, and long-term operation and planning. depend on waste production forecasts. An Second, urban metabolism can provide insight into understanding of the dynamics of the material flows in alternative planning strategies that take greatest an urban system is particularly relevant for predicting advantage of industrial symbiosis and colocating the need for waste management infrastructures, as firms, substituting physical products and goods for their capacity over the coming decades will be based urban services, and promoting the enhancement on stock models that represent inflows and outflows of different types of products and substances, 8 Again, a good example of this approach is the work performed considering the evolution and obsolescence of by the Asian Development Bank concerning Kazakhstan and products displaced in the market (e.g., construction Uzbekistan under the Preparation of Sector Road Maps for Central and West Asia Project, which involved members of materials, metals from machinery and appliances, the team that developed the current report. and plastics). Contributions from Urban Metabolism 59

of recycling and “downcycling” 9 networks toward a 4. an accessible and agile tool to quantify the impact comprehensive closing of urban material cycles. of green city initiatives in their early development stages; In summary, urban metabolism as presented in this report may provide: 5. insights into aspects of the fundamental resource consumption behavior of urban areas; 1. overall direction to planners, engineers, designers, and policy makers in the general assessment of the 6. an approach for developing generalizing resource consumption behavior of urban areas; principles upon which a wide variety of cities can be modeled and assessed; and 2. an overall understanding of the interaction between urban socioeconomic and biogeochemical 7. an approach for developing a general typological processes; scheme of cities based on distinct resource consumption profiles. 3. an accessible and agile tool for the assessment of a diverse range of urban resource issues;

9 Downcycling refers to the creation of new products from waste materials. 60

7. Conclusions

Urbanization has been a result and also a potent main achievement of the preliminary results of this force of economic growth and development. By ongoing work is to provide a unique understanding concentrating resources, information, and talent, of how natural resource uses correlate with urban agglomeration effects made cities engines of economic activities. The results demonstrate the productivity. potential of urban metabolism to characterize urban typologies and, for each of them, to benchmark the The process of urbanization is projected to intensify relative resource intensity of the economic sectors. as incomes grow across the developing world (ADB It can also be a valuable tool in assessing different 2012). Urban areas will continue to expand and the development options in the context of rapid number of people residing in urban centers will urbanization. also grow. With this comes increasing awareness and concern about the negative externalities The material intensity of the economy is measured of urbanization that accompany the process— by the amount of materials it uses to produce one pollution, congestion, environmental degradation, unit of monetary output. There is an apparent trend and the sustainability of the process itself. How can of higher material uses being associated with higher societies reap the benefits of urbanization while outputs, but material intensities vary considerably. minimizing the costs to the well-being of people and For example, the economic output of Lisbon is the environment? almost triple that of Shanghai with approximately the same material use per capita; while for almost the Answering this question requires an understanding same outputs, Bangalore uses an additional 3 tons of of the dynamics between the economy, resource materials per capita than HCMC, and Bangkok uses consumption, and waste generation of urban areas. an additional 3 tons of materials per capita than Seoul. Examining these relationships requires a new set Charting these parameters over 2001–2010 would be of tools that correlate the use of natural resources, very helpful to gauge the degree of materialization or economic activities, and consumption patterns. dematerialization of these economies.

This study responds to this challenge by developing This report points to a remarkable opportunity a unique urban metabolism approach and applying to cross the boundaries between economy and it to six urban areas in Asia and two in Europe. The environment, and to establish strong and quantitative streamlined urban metabolism methodology allows links between these dimensions at an urban level. the metabolism of an urban area to be quantified This has the potential to make a major contribution using publicly available national statistical data to the design of sustainable urban systems and and scaling them down to an urban level, thereby infrastructure that have been observed in this report. overcoming previously insurmountable data limitations. The extension of this analysis to a wider set of urban areas across Asia, covering multiple urban typologies, The application of the method to the six Asian has great potential to contribute to the development cities provides a rigorous examination and of sustainable urban areas around the world. quantitative analysis of urbanization patterns. The 61

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9. Appendix 2.3 3.3 6.3 8.8 17.0 17.7 capita GDP per (thousand $, PPP rates, $, PPP rates, per resident) International International 6,432 6,129 3,602 9,847 6,731 3,459* (‘000) Employment Employment 1.4 4.8 50.3 37.5 35.2 48.5 (%) Weight of of Weight Area GDP in Area Metropolitan Metropolitan National GDP National 19,333 62,775 2000 45,351* 160,181 376,748 144,904 at current current at International International $, PPP rates), $, PPP rates), Nominal GDP Nominal prices (million prices ) 2 443 km 1,051 1,211 1,806 2,588 16,032 Density (per Population Population 0.8 1.3 15.2 17.4 13.0 46.2 (%) Area Area Weight of of Weight population population population in National in National Metropolitan Metropolitan Table A1: Characterization of the Six Urban Areas Areas the Six Urban of A1: Characterization Table 9,400 9,933 8,419* 13,545 21,258 16,408 2000 (‘000), Population Population ) 2 620 8,010 7,762 6,341 30,599 11,768 km Area Area ( OFFICIAL Bangkok Bangkok Bangalore Bangalore Metro Manila Metro Ho Chi Minh City Ho Metropolitan Area Metropolitan Seoul Capital Area Seoul Capital Metropolitan Region Metropolitan Metropolitan Region Metropolitan Shanghai Municipality * 2001 parity. power PPP = purchasing domestic product, GDP = gross the Appendix the end of See list at Sources: 64 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Table A2: Regional Gross Domestic Product per Economic Activity, 2000 ($) Sector Bangalore Bangkok HCMC Metro Manila Seoul Shanghai Agriculture and Mining 1,194 2,077 15,285 0 7,168 2,925

Manufacturing 5,125 47,129 11,026 17,028 91,530 53,769

Utilities 1,342 3,743 1,511 1,433 1,632 6,345

Construction 655 3,931 1,919 2,558 24,556 6,337

Commerce and services 11,017 103,301 15,393 41,756 251,862 75,528

Note: GDP data are based on purchasing power parity. HCMC = Ho Chi Minh City. Sources: See list at the end of the Appendix.

Table A3: Employment Structure of the Urban Areas (number) Bangalore* Bangkok HCMC Metro Manila Seoul Shanghai Sector 2011 2011 2005 2001 2005 2005 Agriculture and mining 4,337 2,633,951 2,025,040 41,000 203,000 670,391

Biomass products 203,154 927,680 1,295,401 146,000 486,932 755,231

Chemicals and fuel products 28,948 270,870 153,180 109,500 257,641 380,399

Construction products 7,124 42,400 63,506 36,500 52,246 104,018

Metallic products 21,909 219,271 99,321 73,000 194,556 305,685

Machinery and equipment 92,959 593,670 417,700 292,000 1,232,625 1,323,239

Utilities 7,199 43,887 417,700 16,000 290,750 46,360

Construction 6,780 175,374 454,860 261,000 917,000 404,991

Commerce and services 644,231 2,759,911 3,667,707 2,820,500 7,498,250 4,642,886

HCMC = Ho Chi Minh City. Sources: See list at the end of the Appendix. 65

10. Data Sources

Area

Bangalore Metropolitan Region Ministry of Home Affairs—Directorate of Census Operations, Karnataka, Census 2011 http://censuskarnataka.gov.in/census%20data.htm Bangkok Metropolitan Region Thailand Statistical Yearbook 2012 http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/pubs/e-book/syb55/index.html#/52/ Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Area Vietnam Statistical Yearbook 2012 http://www.gso.gov.vn/default.aspx?tabid=512&idmid=5&ItemID=13699 Metro Manila National Statistics Office—National Capital Region (Special release on 2010 Census of Population and Housing) http://nso-ncr.ph/special%20releases.html Seoul Capital Area Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs—Cadastral Statistical Annual Report http://www.ngii.go.kr/kor/board/view.do?rbsIdx=103&page=1&idx=31 Shanghai Municipality Shanghai Statistical Yearbooks http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/data/release.xhtml

Population

Bangalore Metropolitan Region Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation - India Statistical Yearbook 2013 Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner—Provi- sional Population for the state of Karnataka http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/SYB2013/index1.html http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_karnatka.html Bangkok Metropolitan Region Ministry of Interior, Department of Provincial Administration National Statistics Office—Population statistics http://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/xstat/popyear.html http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/BaseStat/basestat.html Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area General Statistics Office—Statistical Data, Population and Employment http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=467&idmid=3 Metro Manila National Statistics Office—Statistics, Population National Statistics Office—National Capital Region (Special release on 2010 Census of Population and Housing) http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp http://nso-ncr.ph/special%20releases.html 66 Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

Seoul Capital Area Korean Statistical Information Service—Population/Household http://kosis.kr/eng/database/database_001000.jsp?listid=Z Shanghai Municipality Shanghai Statistical Yearbooks [People’s Republic of] China Statistical Yearbooks http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/data/release.xhtml http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/yearlydata/

Gross domestic product

Bangalore Metropolitan Region Planning Commission, Government of India—Strengthening State Plan for Human Development Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Karnataka—State Income + Statis- tical Abstract of Karnataka Reserve Bank of India—Database on Indian Economy Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation—National Accounts http://planningcommission.gov.in/plans/stateplan/index.php?state=ssphdbody.htm http://des.kar.nic.in/node/140/index.html http://des.kar.nic.in/node/188/index.html http://dbie.rbi.org.in/DBIE/dbie.rbi?site=statistics http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/site/inner.aspx?status=3&menu_id=82 Bangkok Metropolitan Region National Statistics Office—National GDP and Provincial GDP http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/BaseStat/basestat.html Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area Vietnam’s Provincial Statistical Yearbooks 2007 General Statistics Office—Statistical Data, National Accounts http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=468&idmid=3 Metro Manila Philippines Statistical Yearbook 2007 Philippine Institute for Development Studies, Economic and Social Database - Economic Statistics, Gross Regional Domestic Product http://econdb.pids.gov.ph/tablecategories/index/38 Seoul Capital Area Korean Statistical Information Service—Regional Accounts http://kosis.kr/eng/database/database_001000.jsp?listid=Z Shanghai Municipality Shanghai Statistical Yearbooks China Statistical Yearbooks http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/data/release.xhtml http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/yearlydata/ Main reference International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/index.aspx

Data Sources 67

Employment

Bangalore Metropolitan Region Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner— Census 2001, District Profile; Primary Census 2011 Abstract http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/Basic_Data_Sheet.aspx http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/hlo/pca_highlights/pe_data.html Bangkok Metropolitan Region National Statistics Office—Social Census, Labour Force Survey National Statistics Office—Employment statistics http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/pubs/ http://service.nso.go.th/nso/search/ http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/BaseStat/basestat.html Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Area General Statistics Office—Statistical Data, Population and Employment http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=467&idmid=3 Metro Manila Department of Labor and Employment, Bureau of Labor Statistics - Yearbook of Labor Statistics http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/2005YLS/CHAP3.html http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/YLS2006/STAT_TABLES.html#chap3 http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/2007YLS/chap3_Employment.html http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/2008_YLS/HTML%20FILES/CHAP3.html http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/2009%20YLS/html/chapter_3.html http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/2010%20YLS/chap3.html http://www.bles.dole.gov.ph/ARCHIVES/YLS/2011%20YLS/chap3.html Seoul Capital Area Seoul Statistical Yearbooks—Labor Incheon Statistical Database—Statistical Yearbook; Labor Gyeonggi-Do Statistical Yearbooks—Labor Korean Statistical Information Service—Employment/Labor/Wage http://stat.seoul.go.kr/jsp2/WWS8/WWSDS8115.jsp?cot=009 http://stat.kosis.kr/nsieu/main.do;jsessionid=A6src13cODROQ2i0ICJc1StdqIGMHDT40asM g0btBK9OXI5WNy8XUu5xKQt72O8f.0000000.STAT_WAS1_servlet_engine3?task=view& mode=1&db=&hOrg=204 http://stat.gg.go.kr/publication/publication01_01.jsp?pub_sosok=006&htxt_code=12536969 080002842417291754407236 http://kosis.kr/eng/database/database_001000.jsp?listid=Z Shanghai Municipality Shanghai Statistical Yearbooks [People’s Republic of] China Statistical Yearbooks http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/data/release.xhtml http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/yearlydata/ Urban Metabolism of Six Asian Cities

The urban metabolism framework maps the activities of cities from their consumption of materials, the different activities associated with those processes, and the wastes produced. Information generated provides a diagnostic tool for identifying high waste generating or inefficient activities and identifying potential points of policy intervention.

A streamlined urban metabolism approach based on material flow analyses was applied to six Asian cities— Bangalore, Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Manila, Seoul and Shanghai. The streamlined approach surmounts the lack of city level data, which is often cited as the most significant limitation preventing material flow analysis at the city level. Extension of the methodology to cover more cities can contribute towards creating benchmarks for city typologies.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to approximately two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.6 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 733 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org