A Guide to the Scranton Preparatory School English Entrance Exam

Kathleen M. Mihailoff

Parts of Speech ...... 4 ...... 4 Proper Noun ...... 4 Common Noun ...... 4 Abstract Noun ...... 4 Concrete Noun ...... 4 ...... 4 ...... 4 ...... 5 ...... 5 Intensive Pronoun ...... 5 ...... 5 Interrogative Pronoun ...... 6 Pronoun ...... 6 ...... 6 ...... 6 ...... 7 Action Verb ...... 7 ...... 7 ...... 7 Linking Verb ...... 7 Helping Verb () ...... 7 ...... 7 Preposition ...... 8 ...... 8 Coordinating Conjunction ...... 8 Correlative Conjunction ...... 8 Subordinate Conjunction ...... 9 ...... 9 Verbal ...... 9 ...... 9 ...... 9 ...... 10 Parts of the Sentence ...... 10 Subject ...... 10 Predicate ...... 10 Complement ...... 10 Direct ...... 11 Indirect Object ...... 11 Predicate Nominative ...... 11 Predicate Adjective ...... 11 Phrases ...... 11 Prepositional Phrase...... 11 Adjectival Phrase ...... 11 Adverbial Phrase ...... 11 Participial Phrase ...... 12 Gerund Phrase ...... 12 Infinitive Phrase ...... 12 Infinitive Clause ...... 12 Appositive Phrase ...... 12 Noun Phrase ...... 12 Clauses ...... 12 Independent Clause...... 12 Subordinate Clause (Dependent Clause) ...... 13 Adjectival Clause ...... 13 Adverbial Clause ...... 13 Noun Clause ...... 13 Essential Clause (Restrictive Clause) ...... 13 Nonessential Clause (Nonrestrictive Clause) ...... 13 Sentence Structure ...... 14 Simple Sentence ...... 14 Compound Sentence ...... 14 Complex Sentence ...... 14 Compound-Complex Sentence ...... 14 Sentence Purpose ...... 14 Declarative Sentence ...... 14 Imperative Sentence ...... 14 Interrogative Sentence ...... 15 Exclamatory Sentence ...... 15 Attributes of ...... 15 The Principal Parts of a Verb ...... 15 Tense ...... 15 Present ...... 16 Past ...... 16 Future...... 16 Present Perfect ...... 16 Past Perfect ...... 16 Future Perfect ...... 17 Voice ...... 17 Active Voice ...... 17 Passive Voice ...... 17 Mood ...... 17 Indicative Mood ...... 17 Imperative Mood ...... 17 Subjunctive Mood ...... 18 Correct Usage ...... 18 Agreement ...... 18 Subject and Verb ...... 18

2 Pronoun and Antecedent ...... 19 Troublesome Words ...... 19 Accept/except ...... 19 Affect/effect ...... 19 Amount/number ...... 20 Anxious/eager ...... 20 Between/among ...... 20 Could of/would of ...... 20 Famous/infamous ...... 20 Fewer/less ...... 20 Lie/lay ...... 20 Its/it’s ...... 21 To/too/two ...... 21 Your/you’re ...... 21 Common Errors ...... 21 Sentence Fragment ...... 21 Run-on Sentence...... 21 Misplaced Modifier/Dangling Modifier ...... 22 Parallel Structure ...... 22 Literary Terms ...... 22 Alliteration ...... 22 Allusion ...... 22 Apostrophe ...... 23 Foreshadowing ...... 23 Hyperbole ...... 23 Imagery...... 23 Irony ...... 23 Metaphor...... 23 Oxymoron ...... 23 Paradox ...... 24 Personification ...... 24 Simile ...... 24 Symbol ...... 24 Theme ...... 24 Bibliography ...... 24

3 Parts of Speech

Noun are used to name persons, places, or things. Nouns may be proper or common and abstract or concrete. Some nouns are collective.

Proper Noun Proper nouns are the names of particular persons, places, or things and should be capitalized. Example: Scranton Preparatory School, New York, Cuthbert, Bertha

Common Noun Common nouns do not name particular persons, places, or things and should not be capitalized. Example: school, city, boy, girl

Abstract Noun Abstract nouns name qualities, characteristics, or ideas. Example: virtue, love, pride, courage

Concrete Noun Concrete nouns name physical objects which can be perceived by the senses. Example: school, city, boy, girl

Collective Noun Collective nouns are names for specific groups or collections. Example: class, team, batch, fleet, herd Pronoun are words which take the place of nouns. The word which is being replaced is called the antecedent. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender and number. Example: Cuthbert is an excellent student; he studies every night. (The pronoun he takes the place of Cuthbert, the antecedent. Both he and Cuthbert are masculine and singular.)

Pronouns may be personal, reflexive, intensive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, or indefinite.

4 Personal Pronoun Personal pronouns represent specific persons, places, or things. The personal pronouns are:

Subjective Case Objective Case Singular Plural Singular Plural I we me us you you you you he, she, it they him, her, it them

Pronouns in the subjective case may act as the subject of the verb or predicate nominative. Pronouns in the objective case may act as the direct object, indirect object, or object of the preposition.

Reflexive Pronoun Reflexive pronouns are personal pronouns combined with the suffix –self or –selves. They refer back to a noun or pronoun earlier in the clause. Example: Cuthbert talks to himself. (The reflexive pronoun himself refers back to its antecedent Cuthbert.)

Intensive Pronoun Intensive pronouns are personal pronouns combined with the suffix –self or –selves. They are used to intensify their antecedent. Example: Cuthbert himself was not hurt.

Relative Pronoun Relative pronouns introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses. The relative pronouns are:

who whom which whose that

Example: The students who study hard will do well on the exam. The book which Cuthbert borrowed from the library was past due. The song that the choir sang is our Alma Mater. Do you know to whom these shoes belong? Cuthbert is the boy whose favorite team lost the championship.

5 Interrogative Pronoun Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns are:

who whom which whose what

Example: Who is Cuthbert’s favorite teacher? What is Cuthbert’s best subject? Which team won the championship? For whom is that birthday cake? Whose shoes are these?

Demonstrative Pronoun Demonstrative pronouns are used to indicate particular persons or things. The demonstrative pronouns are:

this that these those

Example: Those are Cuthbert’s shoes. This is my favorite shirt.

Indefinite Pronoun Indefinite pronouns include those which do not fit into the above categories. They express quantity: how many?

The most common indefinite pronouns are:

all each most other another either neither several any everybody nobody some anybody everyone none somebody anyone few no one someone both many one such

Example: No one is smarter than Cuthbert. For many are called, but few are chosen. Adjective modify, or describe, nouns or pronouns. Adjectives answer the questions: what kind? which one? or how many? Example: Cuthbert is a smart boy. I applied to that school. There are twelve players on the tennis team.

6 Verb Verbs may be either action verbs or linking verbs.

Action Verb Action verbs express action. Example: run, jump, think, believe

Action verbs may be transitive or intransitive.

Transitive Verb Transitive verbs take an object, a noun or pronoun that completes the action. Example: Cuthbert studied Latin. (Latin is the object of studied.) Bertha ignored her mother’s advice. (advice is the object of ignored.)

Intransitive Verb Intransitive verbs express action without an object. Example: I understand. Cuthbert often dances.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive depending on their use. Example: I understand. (intransitive) I understand the rules. (transitive—rules is the object) Cuthbert often dances. (intransitive) Cuthbert often dances the polka. (transitive—polka is the object)

Linking Verb Linking verbs express a state or condition, not an action. The most common linking verb is to be; however, appear, become, seem are also linking verbs. Linking verbs take subject complements rather than direct objects.

Helping Verb (Auxiliary Verb) Helping verbs, or auxiliary verbs, help the main verb to express its action. The most common helping verbs are:

am are is was were do did have has had can may could would should

Adverb modify or describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions: how? when? where? or to what extent? Example: Cuthbert plays well. (describes how he plays) Cuthbert plays now. (describes when he plays) Cuthbert plays there. (describes where he plays) Cuthbert plays really well. (describes the adverb well) Cuthbert is a very good player. (describes the adjective good)

7 Preposition Prepositions show the relationship between nouns or pronouns to some other word in the sentence.

about after against among around as at before between by during for from in into like of on out over through to under with without

Prepositional phrase refers to the preposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers. The object of the preposition is the noun or pronoun which is being related to some other word in the sentence. A pronoun as the object of the preposition will always be in the objective case. Example: Cuthbert has science class before lunch. Cuthbert allows Bertha to cut in front of him in line. Conjunction Conjunctions combine words or groups of words. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinate conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunction Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. The coordinating conjunctions are:

and nor but for or

Example: Cuthbert is smart, but Bertha is smarter.

Correlative Conjunction Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are:

either…or neither…nor both…and whether…or not only…but also

8 Subordinate Conjunction Subordinate conjunctions are used to begin subordinate clauses. The most common subordinate conjunctions are:

after how though although if unless as in order that until as much as provided when because since where before that while

Example: Cuthbert was late for school, although he got up on time. Before Cuthbert left for school, he packed his lunch. Interjection are words that express emotion and have no grammatical relationship with other words in the sentence. Interjections are typically followed by commas or exclamation points. Example: Oh! Ouch! Hey!

Verbal Verbals are verb forms which are not used as verbs in the sentence. There are three types of verbals: , , and .

Infinitive Infinitives are verb forms used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. They are formed by adding to before the verb. Example: To win the championship is the goal of the team. (infinitive as noun— subject of the sentence) Cuthbert possesses the drive to succeed. (infinitive as adjective—what kind of drive?) Cuthbert plays to win. (infinitive as adverb—why does Cuthbert play?)

Sometimes, infinitives are confused with prepositional phrases because they both start with the word to. Infinitives are to plus a verb; prepositional phrases are to plus a noun.

Participle Participles are verb forms used as adjectives. They are either in the present tense (using the –ing form of the verb) or the past tense (using the –ed or past form of the verb). Example: Running down the street, Cuthbert tripped over his own shoelaces. (running describes Cuthbert) Don’t wake the crying baby. (crying describes baby)

9 Gerund Gerunds are verb forms used as nouns. They are typically formed using the –ing form of the verb. Example: Reading is fun. Cuthbert passed the test after studying.

Gerunds and participles often look alike because they are both –ing forms of the verb. They can be identified by their use in the sentence.

Parts of the Sentence Sentences must include a subject and a predicate; they may also have an object (direct or indirect), or predicate compliment. Subject The subject is the doer of the action of the verb or the part about which something is being said. The complete subject includes all modifiers of the simple subject. Example: Cuthbert’s talented mother makes his lunch every day. (mother is the simple subject; Cuthbert’s talented modifies mother and is part of the complete subject.)

Compound subjects consist of two or more subjects which are combined by a conjunction and have the same verb. Example: Cuthbert and his brother ride to school together.

Subjects answer the question “who or what?” before the verb. Example: Cuthbert loves to study. (Ask “who or what loves to study?” The answer, Cuthbert, is the subject of the sentence.) Predicate The predicate is the part of the sentence which says something about the subject. The complete predicate includes the verb and its modifiers. The simple predicate is sometimes simply called the verb. Example: Cuthbert and his brother ride to school together. (ride is the simple predicate; the italicized portion is the complete predicate.)

Compound predicates consist of two or more verbs which are combined by a conjunction and have the same subject. Example: Cuthbert woke early and brushed his teeth.

Complement Complements complete the meaning of the verb. They include: direct objects, indirect object objects, predicate nominatives, and predicate adjectives.

10 Direct Object Direct objects receive the action of the verb. They answer the question “whom or what?” after an action verb. Example: Cuthbert threw the ball. (Ask “Cuthbert threw whom or what?” Ball is the direct object because it answers that question.)

Indirect Object Indirect objects precede the direct object and tell to whom or for whom the action is completed. Example: Cuthbert threw Bertha the ball. (Ask “Cuthbert threw the ball to whom or for whom?” Bertha is the indirect object because it answers the question.)

If the preposition to or for appears in the sentence, its object is not an indirect object. It is the object of the preposition. Example: Cuthbert threw the ball to Bertha. (Bertha is not the indirect object; it is the object of the preposition to.)

Predicate Nominative Predicate nominatives are nouns (or pronouns or gerunds) which follow linking verbs. They refer back to the subject and describe, explain, or identify it. Example: Cuthbert is a student at Scranton Preparatory School.

Predicate Adjective Predicate adjectives are adjectives which follow linking verbs and modify the subject. Example: Cuthbert is intelligent. Phrases Phrases are groups of words which do not contain a subject and a verb. They are used as single parts of speech.

Prepositional Phrase Prepositional phrases are groups of words beginning with prepositions and usually ending with nouns or pronouns.

Adjectival Phrase Adjectival phrases are prepositional phrases which act as adjectives—they modify nouns or pronouns. Example: The game of football is Cuthbert’s favorite. (modifies the subject football)

Adverbial Phrase Adverbial phrases are prepositional phrases which act as adverbs—they modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Example: Cuthbert sings in the choir. (modifies the verb sings—where does he sing?)

11 Participial Phrase Participial phrases contain participles and any complements or modifiers. They may be in the present tense or the past tense. Example: Sleeping through his alarm, Cuthbert snuggles under the quilt. (present participial phrase) Having slept through his alarm, Cuthbert is late for school. (past participial phrase)

Gerund Phrase Gerund phrases contain gerunds and any complements or modifiers. Example: Cuthbert loves reading his favorite book.

Infinitive Phrase Infinitive phrases contain infinitives and any complements or modifiers. Example: To express her opinions through voting is the right of every American citizen.

Infinitive Clause Infinitive clauses include the infinitive phrase and its subject. The subject of the infinitive answers the question “who or what?” before the infinitive. If the subject of the infinitive is a pronoun, it will be in the objective case. Example: Cuthbert asked Bertha to help him study. (Bertha is the subject of the infinitive to help. Study is the object of the infinitive.)

Appositive Phrase Appositives are nouns or pronouns which restate or explain other nouns. The appositive phrase includes the appositive and its modifiers. Example: Cuthbert, captain of the football team, made the game-winning touchdown. Captain of the football team, Cuthbert made the game-winning touchdown.

Noun Phrase Noun phrases refer to the noun or pronoun and its modifiers. Example: The last class of the week always seems to be longer than any other class. (This sentence has two separate noun phrases.) Clauses Clauses are groups of words containing a subject and predicate and used as parts of a sentence. Clauses are independent or subordinate, sometimes called dependent.

Independent Clause Independent clauses contain a subject and predicate and form complete sentences on their own. Example: Cuthbert was late for school, because he slept through his alarm.

12 Subordinate Clause (Dependent Clause) Subordinate clauses, sometimes called dependent clauses, contain a subject and predicate but do not form complete sentences on their own. They may be adjectival clauses, adverbial clauses, or noun clauses. Example: Cuthbert was late for school, because he slept through his alarm.

Adjectival Clause Adjectival clauses are subordinate clauses which function like adjectives. They modify nouns or pronouns and often begin with relative pronouns. Example: Cuthbert is the boy who was late for school. This novel is one that Cuthbert has read before.

Adverbial Clause Adverbial clauses are subordinate clauses which function like adverbs. They modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbial clauses typically begin with subordinating conjunctions. Example: Cuthbert plays tennis whenever he can. Cuthbert plays tennis because his grandfather taught him to play. Cuthbert is confident that his tennis team will win the championship.

Noun Clause Noun clauses are subordinate clauses which function like nouns. They may be subjects, objects, or objects of the preposition. Noun clauses typically begin with relative pronouns which do not have antecedents in the same sentence. Example: Cuthbert knows what the score of the game is. Whoever scores the most points wins the game. The trophy belongs to whoever wins the most games.

Essential Clause (Restrictive Clause) Essential clauses, sometimes called restrictive clauses, are necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Typically, they follow common nouns and are not set off by commas. Example: The boy who is wearing a purple sweatshirt is the star player of the team. (This clause is necessary to tell which boy is the star player.)

Nonessential Clause (Nonrestrictive Clause) Nonessential clauses, sometimes called nonrestrictive clauses, are not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Typically, they follow proper nouns and require commas. Example: Cuthbert, who is wearing a purple sweatshirt, is the star player of the team. (This clause is not necessary, because it is clear who is the star player. The color of his sweatshirt is extra information.)

13 Sentence Structure Sentences may be classified according to their structure—the components which make up the sentence. They may be: simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. Simple Sentence Simple sentences contain only one independent clause. However, they may have any number of modifying phrases and compound subjects and compound verbs. They do not have subordinate clauses. Example: Cuthbert is the best player on the team. Cuthbert and Bertha play together on the Scranton Prep tennis team. Compound Sentence Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses combined by coordinating conjunctions or a semi-colon. They do not have subordinate clauses. Example: Cuthbert plays tennis in the spring, and he plays golf in the fall. Bertha loves tennis; she hates playing golf. Complex Sentence Complex sentences contain one independent clause, and one or more subordinate clause. Example: Cuthbert plays tennis, because his grandfather taught him the rules. Although tennis is her favorite sport, Bertha likes to watch Cuthbert play golf, because he has great presence on the green. Compound-Complex Sentence Compound-complex sentences contain two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. Example: Although Bertha and Cuthbert love to play sports, they make sure to leave enough time to study, and they work hard to keep their grades up. Cuthbert loves to play tennis, even though it takes up much of his time, and he works hard to continue to do well in school.

Sentence Purpose Sentences may be classified by their purpose. They may be declarative, imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory. Declarative Sentence Declarative sentences make statements. Example: Cuthbert likes tennis. Although she does not play, Bertha loves to watch Cuthbert play golf. Imperative Sentence Imperative sentences issue command or make requests. Example: Don’t forget to go to the game on Saturday. Please give me your tickets.

14 Interrogative Sentence Interrogative sentences ask questions and end with a question mark. Example: Who is your favorite tennis player? Where is the game tomorrow? Have you met Cuthbert? Exclamatory Sentence Exclamatory sentences express a strong feeling and typically end with an exclamation point. Example: What a beautiful day! How talented Cuthbert is!

Attributes of Verbs Verbs are some of the most complex words in the English language. There are several attributes of verbs and rules governing their use. The Principal Parts of a Verb The principal parts of a verb are the four basic forms of the verbs. All forms are derived from these principal parts: infinitive, present participle, past, and past participle.

Regular verbs form their past and past participles by adding –d or –ed to the infinitive form.

Infinitive Present Past Past Participle Participle work working worked worked study studying studied studied play playing played played

Irregular verbs form their past and past participles in some other way.

Infinitive Present Past Past Participle Participle begin beginning began begun swim swimming swam swum see seeing saw seen

Tense

Verbs change tense to indicate the relative time in which the action occurs. There are six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. The conjugations of two verbs (go and be) are provided as examples.

15 Present Present tense indicates action happening now.

Singular Plural Singular Plural I go we go I am we are you go you go you are you are he, she, it goes they go he, she, it is they are

Past Past tense indicates action which happened in the immediate past.

Singular Plural Singular Plural I went we went I was we were you went you went you were you were he, she, it went they went he, she, it was they were

Future Future tense indicates action which will happen in the near future. It is formed by adding shall or will to the infinitive form.

Singular Plural Singular Plural I shall go we shall go I shall be we shall be you will go you will go you will be you will be he, she, it will go they will go he, she, it will be they will be

Present Perfect Present perfect tense expresses action occurring at no definite time in the past. It is formed by using the helping verbs have or has with the past participle.

Singular Plural Singular Plural I have gone we have gone I have been we have been you have gone you have gone you have been you have been he, she, it has gone they have gone he, she, it has been they have been

Past Perfect Past perfect tense expresses action which was completed in the past and before some other action. It is formed by using the helping verb had with the past participle.

Singular Plural Singular Plural I had gone we had gone I had been we had been you had gone you had gone you had been you had been he, she, it had gone they had gone he, she, it had they had been been

16 Future Perfect Future perfect tense expresses action which will be completed in the future and before some other action. It is formed by using the helping verbs will have or shall have with the past participle.

Singular Plural Singular Plural I shall have gone we shall have gone I shall have been we shall have been you will have gone you will have gone you will have been you will have been he, she, it will have they will have he, she, it will have they will have gone gone been been

Voice Verbs are either in the active voice or the passive voice.

Active Voice If the subject of the verb is doing or expressing the action, then the verb is in the active voice. Example: Cuthbert threw the ball.

Passive Voice If the subject of the verb is receiving the action, then the verb is in the passive voice. The passive verb is formed by adding the appropriate form of be to the past participle. Example: The ball was thrown by Cuthbert. Mood Mood is the form of the verb which shows the manner in which the action is expressed. There are three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

Indicative Mood Most verbs are in the indicative mood. These verbs make a statement or ask a question. Example: Cuthbert loves tennis. Do you like tennis?

Imperative Mood Verbs in the imperative mood express a request or command. Example: Open the door. Please pass the salt.

17 Subjunctive Mood The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish or a statement contradictory to fact. Generally, only the forms of be are affected by the subjunctive. Compare the forms below.

Present Indicative Present Subjunctive Singular Plural Singular Plural I am we are (if) I be (if) we be you are you are (if) you be (if) you be he, she, it is they are (if) he, she, it be (if) they be

Clauses which begin with if typically take subjunctive verbs. Example: If he were faster, he could be a great running back. If she had studied, she would have passed the test.

Sentences that express a wish take subjunctive verbs. Example: I wish it were true.

Correct Usage Agreement Some words have different forms to show relationships between words. These forms are said to agree.

Subject and Verb Verbs must agree with their subjects in number. Singular subjects take singular verbs; plural subjects take plural verbs. Example: Cuthbert loves tennis. They love tennis.

A compound subject using the conjunction and is considered plural. Example: Bertha and Cuthbert play tennis.

When a compound subject uses the conjunctions or or nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject. Example: Neither Bertha nor Cuthbert plays soccer. (Cuthbert is singular; therefore, the verb is singular.) Either Cuthbert or his parents cook dinner.

The following words are always considered singular and take singular verbs:

each either neither one no one every one anyone someone everyone anybody somebody everybody

18 The following words are always considered plural and take plural verbs:

several few both many

The following pronouns are considered singular or plural depending on their antecedent.

some any none all most here there where

Example: Some of the money is missing. (Some refers to the singular noun money.) Some students were late for school. (Some refers to the plural noun students.)

Pronoun and Antecedent A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. Example: Cuthbert forgot his tennis racket. Bertha forgot her tennis racket. Both Cuthbert and Bertha forgot their tennis rackets.

The pronoun they, including all of its forms (their, them), is always a plural pronoun and should not be used with a singular antecedent. If the gender is unclear, choose either a masculine or feminine pronoun or amend the sentence to use a plural antecedent. Example: A team player should always do his best. A team player should always do her best. Team players should always do their best.

Troublesome Words The following is a list of commonly misused or confused words.

Accept/except Accept is a verb which means “to receive.” As a verb, except means “to leave out;” as a preposition it means “excluding.” Example: Cuthbert accepted the invitation to dinner. Cuthbert won player of the year every season except his freshman year.

Affect/effect Affect is a verb which means “to impress or influence.” Effect is a noun which means “the result of an action.” Sometimes, effect acts as a verb meaning “to accomplish or bring about.” Example: Cuthbert’s playing is affected by his hero Andy Murray. Andy Murray’s playing has had an effect on Cuthbert. If we work together, we can effect change in our country.

19 Amount/number Amount is used to refer to a singular word; number is used to refer to a plural word. Example: Cuthbert found a large amount of money in the shoebox under the bed. Cuthbert found a large number of coins in the shoebox under the bed.

Anxious/eager Anxious means “worried or concerned.” Eager means “strongly desiring.” Example: Cuthbert is anxious to meet the head tennis coach at the Pennsylvania State University. (He is excited, but also nervous, to meet him.) Cuthbert is eager for the start of summer vacation. (He is excited and looking forward to the break from school.)

Between/among Between is used for two persons or things; among is used for three or more. Example: Cuthbert divides his time between tennis and golf. Let’s keep this secret among the three of us.

Could of/would of Of is never correct in this construction. It is a misinterpretation of the contractions could’ve or would’ve. The correct phrase is could have or would have. Example: Cuthbert could have passed the test, if he had studied.

Famous/infamous Both words mean “widely known;” however, famous has a positive connotation, and infamous has a negative connotation. Example: Federal Agent Eliot Ness is famous for his attempts to capture the infamous gangster Al Capone.

Fewer/less Fewer is used to describe items which can be counted. Less is used with things which cannot be counted. Example: Cuthbert plays fewer sports than Bertha, but he still has less free time.

Lie/lay The verb lie is intransitive and does not take an object. It means “to recline.” The principal parts are: lie, lying, lay, lain. Example: The cat wants to lie in the sun. The cat lies in the sun. The cat is lying in the sun. Yesterday, the cat lay in the sun. Cats have lain in the sun since the sun was invented!

The verb lay is transitive and does take an object. It means “to set down.” The principal parts are: lay, laying, laid, laid. Example: Cuthbert, lay the book on the table. Yesterday, Cuthbert laid the book on the table. Cuthbert has laid the book on the table everyday for the last year.

20 Its/it’s Its is a pronoun; it’s is the contraction of it is. Example: The tree lost its leaves in the storm. It’s Cuthbert’s birthday today!

To/too/two To is a preposition and the word used to indicate an infinitive. Too means “also.” Two is the number after one. Example: I have to go to my sister’s birthday party. She is turning two.

Your/you’re Your is a possessive pronoun; you’re is the contraction of you are. Example: What is your favorite class? You’re my best friend. Common Errors The following are common grammatical and punctuation errors.

Sentence Fragment A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a predicate which expresses a complete thought. A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. This error usually occurs when an incorrect form of the verb is used or when a subordinate clause is not connected to an independent clause. Example: Cuthbert being the best player (Being is incorrect; is corrects the error.) Although Cuthbert loves tennis (This is a subordinate clause and requires an independent clause to complete the thought.)

Run-on Sentence This error is the result of incorrect punctuation between independent clauses. Semi-colons or commas with conjunctions may be used to combine independent clauses—never the comma alone. Example: Cuthbert loves tennis, he also loves golf. (Incorrect) Cuthbert loves tennis, and he also loves golf. (Correct) Cuthbert loves tennis; he also loves golf. (Correct)

21 Misplaced Modifier/Dangling Modifier All modifiers (adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses) should be placed as close as possible to the words they modify. Introductory clauses and phrases should modify the subject or verb, not words farther in the sentence. Example: Running down the street, the car narrowly missed Cuthbert. (Incorrect— the car is not running down the street.) The car narrowly missed Cuthbert running down the street. (Correct— Cuthbert is running.) After warming up, the game was easy. (Incorrect—the game did not warm up. The prepositional phrase is not modifying any of the words in this sentence.) After warming up, the team found the game easy. (Correct—the prepositional phrase is modifying the subject team.)

Parallel Structure Parallel structure refers to the grammatical structures within a sentence. Parallel ideas should be expressed in the same grammatical form. Example: To err is human; forgiving is divine. (Incorrect—the italicized portions are not parallel.) To err is human; to forgive is divine. (Correct) Erring is human; forgiving is divine. (Correct)

Cuthbert both plays tennis and golf. (Incorrect—the italicized portions are not parallel.) Cuthbert plays both tennis and golf. (Correct) Cuthbert both plays tennis and plays golf. (Correct)

Literary Terms Students read a wide variety of literature during their four years at Scranton Prep: novels, short stories, poetry, non-fiction works, and plays. Being familiar with key literary terms enhances students’ reading experience by helping them to understand the author’s meaning and to appreciate his or her originality.

All examples below are from William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of a consonant sound at the beginning of words in a series. Example: “Parting is such sweet sorrow.” (This is also an example of oxymoron.) Allusion Allusion is a reference to a person, place, or thing of literary, historical, or cultural significance. Example: “she’ll not be hit / With Cupid’s arrow.” (Romeo refers to the Greek myth of Cupid while describing the woman he loves.)

22 Apostrophe Apostrophe is addressing, or speaking to, someone or something which is not present. Example: “O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo?” (In this famous line, Juliet calls out to the absent Romeo as if he were present.) “then I defy you, stars!” (Romeo speaks to “the stars,” or Fate) Foreshadowing Foreshadowing occurs when an author hints at what is to come later in the story. Example: When Romeo arrives at Friar Lawrence’s cell for the wedding, the Friar warns him, “These violent delights have violent ends / And in their triumph die.” Friar Lawrence cannot know that he is correct: the violent force of Romeo’s love will lead directly to his death. Hyperbole Hyperbole is exaggeration used for effect. Example: “A thousand times goodnight!” (Juliet is exaggerating to show how reluctant she is to say good night to Romeo.) Imagery Imagery refers to visually descriptive or figurative language used to describe people or things. Example: “How silver sweet sound lovers’ tongues by night” (Romeo compares Juliet’s voice to beautiful music. This is also an example of alliteration.) Irony Irony occurs when the opposite happens of what is expected or what is meant is the opposite of what is said. Example: Friar Lawrence agrees to marry Romeo and Juliet, believing that he will unite the two families in peace. It is ironic that the situation does not resolve as expected: rather than lead to peace, the secret marriage complicates matters and the young lovers take their own lives. Metaphor Metaphor is a comparison between two unlike things not using like or as. (Contrast metaphor with simile.) Example: “But soft! what light through yonder window breaks? / It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.” Oxymoron Oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory words. Example: “Parting is such sweet sorrow.” (This is also an example of alliteration.) “Beautiful tyrant! Fiend angelical!”

23 Paradox Paradox is a statement which appears to be contradictory but, in fact, is true. The contradiction helps to illustrate a truth. Example: “More light and light; more dark and dark our woes.” (As the sun rises and the day becomes lighter, Romeo’s woes become darker because he must leave Juliet.) Personification Personification is attributing human-like qualities to non-human things. Example: “The grey-eyed morn smiles on the frowning night.” (Both morn and night are given human qualities of smiling and frowning.) Simile Simile is a comparison between two unlike things using like or as. (Contrast simile with metaphor.) Example: My love is like a red, red rose. He is as strong as an ox. Symbol Symbols are objects with a meaning beyond their literal meaning. Symbols typically represent something abstract. Example: After climbing over the high walls of Juliet’s garden, Romeo says: With love's light wings did I o'er-perch these walls; For stony limits cannot hold love out, And what love can do that dares love attempt; Therefore thy kinsmen are no let to me. (The “stony limits” of the walls symbolize the obstacles which Romeo is determined to overcome to be with Juliet.) Theme Theme is a universal idea explored in a literary work. Example: One theme in Romeo and Juliet is an exploration of the relationship between love and hate: it is the love between Romeo and Juliet which is able to end their parents’ hate.

Bibliography Shakespeare, William. Romeo and Juliet.

Warriner, John E., and Francis Griffith. and Composition: Complete Course. Heritage ed., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977.

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