Notes and References

1 The Growth of Trade, Trading Networks and Mercantilism in Pre-colonial South-East Asia

I. Victor B. Lieberman, 'Local integration and Eurasian analogies: structuring South• East Asian history c.1350-c.l830', Modem Asian Studies, 27, 3 (1993) p. 477. 2. Ibid., p. 480. 3. Victor B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c./580-1760 (Princeton, 1984) p. 21. 4. James C. Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand 1850-1970 (Stanford, 1971) p. 12. 5. Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Development of Thailand 1850-1950: Re• sponse to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 32. 6. Lieberman (1993) p. 500. 7. Anthony Reid, 'Economic and social change c.l400-1800', in Nicholas Tarling (ed.) The Cambridge History of South-East Asia, from Early Times to c./800, vol. I (Cambridge, 1992) pp. 481-3. For a stimulating study of how Dutch intervention and the native Islamic reform movements eroded indigenous capital• ist development in coffee production, see C. Dobbin, Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Srw~atra 1784-1847 (London, 1983). 8. Anthony Reid, 'The origins of revenue farming in South-East Asia', in John Butcher and Howard Dick (eds) The Rise and Fall of Revenue Farming: Busi• ness Elites and the Emergence of the Modern State in South-East Asia (London, 1993) pp. 70-1. 9. Anthony Reid, 'The seventeenth century crisis in South-East Asia', Modern Asian Studies 24 (October 1990) pp. 642-5; Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin (eds) Marc/rands et hommes d'affaires asiatiques dans /'Ocean lndien et Ia Mer de Chine, 13e-20e sitkles (Paris, 1988). I 0. Reid (1990) pp. 642-5. II. Reid (1992) pp. 476-7. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., pp. 482-3. 14. See Reid (1993). 15. M. C. Ricklefs, A History of Modenr Indonesia (London, 1981), p. 68. 16. Reid (1993) p. 78. 17. Ibid. 18. Reid ( 1992) p. 465. 19. Om Prakash, The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Benga/1630- 1720 (Princeton, 1985) p. 143; Sinappah Arasaratnam, Merchants, Companies am/ Commerce on the Coromandel Coast, 1650-1740 (New Delhi, 1986) pp. 134-5. 20. Robert Leroy Innes, 'The door ajar: Japan's foreign trade in the 17th century' (Ph.D., University of Michigan, 1980) pp. 322-53, 376-432. For further examples of seventeenth century prosperity see James Francis Warren, The Sulu Zone 1768-1898 (, 1981); Lieberman (1993) p. 492. 21. Reid ( 1992) p. 491. 22. Ibid., p. 501.

258 Notes and References 259

23. Ibid. 24. Reid (1992) p. 492. 25. Ibid. 26. R. Z. Leirissa, 'Raja Jailolo dan Masyarakat Halmahera. Studitentang Sejarah Masyarakat Maluku Utara' (Ph.D., Universitas Indonesia, 1990); R. Z. Leirissa, 'Changing maritime trade patterns in the Scram Sea' (Paper for Fifth Dutch Indonesian History Conference, Laagevuursche, 23-27 June 1986). 27. Much of this discussion on Indian trading networks is based on Arasaratnam (1986); K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660-1760 (Cambridge, 1978). 2!l. Sinappah Arasaratnam, 'Islamic merchant communities of the Indian sub-continent in South-East Asia' (The Sixth Sri Lanka Endowment Fund Lecture at the Uni• versity of Malaya, II October 1989) p. 6. 29. Ibid., p. 7. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid., p. 18. 32. Arasaratnam (1986) p. 147. 33. Arasaratnam ( 1989) p. 17. 34. Ibid., p. 16. 35. For an excellent analysis of kongsis see Wang Tai Peng, 'The origins of the Kongsi with special reference to West Borneo' (M.A., Australian National Uni• versity, 1977). 36. Reid ( 1992) p. 496. 37. Ibid., pp. 486-7. 38. Ibid. 39. Leonard Y. Andaya, 'Interactions with the outside world and adaptation in South East Asian society 1500-1800', in Nicholas Tarling (ed.) The Cambridge History of Solllh East Asia, from Early Times to c.1800, vol. I (Cambridge, 1992) p. 355. 40. For a quantitative study of the impact of the Dutch on Indonesia sec Niels Steensgaard, The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeemh Cemury (Chicago, 1973); Kristof Glamann, Dlllch-Asiatic Trade 1620-1740 (The Hague, 1958); J. R. Bruijn, F. S. Gaastra and I. Schoffer, Dlllch Asiatic Shipping in the 17th and 18th Centuries, 3 vols (The Hague, 1979-87). 41. Reid ( 1990) pp. 653-4. 42. Ibid. 43. Ricklefs ( 1981) pp. 105-6. 44. J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'The age of transition: the mid-eighteenth to the early nineteenth centuries', in Nicholas Tarling (ed.) The Cambridge History of South• East Asia, from Early Times to c.1800, vol. I (Cambridge, 1992), p. 603. 45. Chaudhuri (1978). 46. The relationship between English and Indian merchants is covered in Chaudhuri (1978) pp. 141-51; Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Private Investment in India 1900-39 (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 196-216. 47. Chaudhuri (1978) chapters 10-17. 48. Arasaratnam ( 1989) p. 19. 49. Arasaratnam (1986) p. 147. 50. David K. Wyatt, Thailand: A Short History (New Haven, 1982) pp. 110-11; Ishii Yonco, 'Thai-Japanese relations in the premodern period: a bibliographi• cal essay with special reference to Japanese sources', in Chawat Khamchoo and Bruce Reynolds (eds) Thai-Japanese Relations in Historical Perspective (Bangkok, 1988) pp. 1-6. 51. Innes ( 1980) pp. 376-432. 260 Notes and References

52. John E. Wills, 'China's farther shores: continuities and changes in the destina• tion ports of China's maritime trade 1680-90', in Roderick Ptak and Dietmar Rothermund (eds) Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade c./400-1750 (Stuttgart, 1991) p. 76. 53. John Crawfurd, Joumal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China (London, 1828, reprinted , 1967); Ng Chin Keong, Trade and Society: The Amoy Network on the China Coast 1683-1735 (Singapore, 1983); John E. Wills (1991). 54. Reid ( 1992) pp. 500-4.

2 Structural Change in Rural South-East Asia

I. Victor B. Lieberman, 'Local integration and Eurasian analogies: structuring South• East Asian history c.l350-c.l830', Modern Asian Swdies, 27, 3, (1993) 499. 2. Nguyen Thanh-Nha, Tableau Economique du Vietnam aux XV 11 et XVJJJ siec/es (Paris, 1970) pp. 53, 115, 150. ). James C. Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand 1850-1970 (Stanford, 1971) pp. 7-16; see also, Yoneo Ishii (ed.) Thailand: A Rice Growing Society (Hono• lulu, 1975) pp. 3-14. 4. Anthony Reid, 'Economic and social change, 1400-1800', in Nicholas Tarling (eel.) The Cambridge History of South-East Asia, from Early Times to c./800, vol. I (Cambridge, 1992) pp. 500-1. 5. Lieberman (1993) p. 501; Nguyen Thanh-Nha (1970) p. 229. 6. S. Viraphol, Tribute and Profit: Sino Siamese Trade, 1652-1853 (Cambridge, Mass, 1977) pp. 73, 104; Ingram (1971) pp. 8-9, 23--4. 7. Lieberman (1993) pp. 502, 504, 505; Ishii (1975) pp. 3-14; Nguyen Thanh-Nha ( 1970) pp. 50-7; M. C. Ricklefs, A Iii story of Modem indonesia (1981) chapter 7; A. Reid, 'An age of commerce in South-East Asian history', Modem Asian Studies, 24, I (1990) pp. 1-30. 8. John A. Larkin, 'Philippine history reconsidered: a socio-economic perspective', American 1/istorica/ Review, 87 (1982) p. 602. 9. J. A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley, 1972). 10. Alfred W. McCoy, 'A queen dies slowly: the rise and decline of Iloilo City', in Ed C. de Jesus and Alfred W. McCoy (eds) Philippine Social History (Manila, 1982). II. Alfred W. McCoy, 'Sugar barons: formation of a native planter class in the colonial Philippines', Journal of Peasant Studies, 19 (April-July 1992) p. 112. 12. Ibid., p. 113. 13. Ibid., pp. 114-5. 14. Ibid., p. 116. 15. Ibid., p. 125. 16. Ibid., p. 126. 17. For a discussion on the Latin American frontier see, Marco Palacios, Coffee in Colombia 1850-1970: An Economic, Social and Political History (Cambridge, 1980); Joe Foweraker, The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of the Pioneer Frontier Settlement in Brazil 1930 to the Present (Cambridge, 1981). 18. N. G. Owen, 'Philippine economic development and American policy: a reappraisal', in N. G. Owen (ed.) Compadre Colonialism: Studies on the Philippines under American Rule (Michigan, 1971) p. 105. 19. Ibid., p. 115. 20. Michael Adas, The Burma Delta: Economic Development and Social Change on m1 Asian Rice Frontier, 1852-1941 (Madison, 1974) p. 42. Notes and References 261

21. Ibid., p. 34. 22. Aye H1aing, 'Trends of economic growth and income distribution in Burma 1870- 1940', Journal of the Burma Research Society (JBRS) (June 1964). 23. M. S. I. Diokno, 'British firms and the economy of Burma with special reference to the rice and teak industries, 1917-37' (Ph.D., University of London, 1983) pp. 65, 69, 157. 24. Aye Hlaing (1964) p. 126; Adas (1974) pp. 118-9. 25. Adas (1974) p. 72. 26. Ibid., p. 118. 27. Ibid., p. Ill; Diokno (1983) p. 63. 28. Diokno (1983) p. 64. 29. Adas (1974) p. 188. 30. Aye Hlaing (1964) p. 96. 31. Adas (1974) pp. 75, 144. 32. Diokno (1983) p. 137. 33. Ingram (1971) p. 185. 34. Ibid., pp. 44-5. 35. Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Developmetll of Thailand, 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 50. 36. Ibid.; Ingram (1971) p. 178. 37. Pannee Aunsakul, 'The development of domestic rice trade in the central region of Thailand, 1800-1938' (Ph.D., University of Bielefeld, 1990). 38. Thaveesilp Subvattana, 'Kanpalit lai kankhakao nai phak Klang B.E. 2411-2475' [Rice production and rice trade in central Thailand, 1868-1932] (M.A., Chulalong• korn University, 1978) p. 101. 39. D. Feeny, The Political Eco11omy of Productivity: Thai Agricultural Develop• mellt 1880-1975 (Vancouver, 1982) pp. 145-6. 40. Ibid. 41. Polly Hill, The Migrant Cocoa Farmers of Southem Ghana (Cambridge, 1963); Barbara Ingham, 'Ghana cocoa farmers - income, expenditure relationships', Joumal of Developmellt Studies, 9, 3 (1973) pp. 365-72. 42. Ingram (1971) p. 285. 43. Sompop (1989) p. 74. 44. Martin J. Murray, The Development of Capitalism in Colo11ial l11do China, 1870-1940 (Berkeley, 1980) pp. 268-9. 45. P. Gourou, Land Utilization in Fre11ch Indo China (New York, 1945) p. 171. 46. Ibid., pp. 171-3, 264, 587. 47. Ibid., p. 171. 48. Ibid., pp. 171, 264, 587. 49. Terry Rambo, A Compariso11 of Peasa11t Social Systems of Northem and Southem Viet11am: A Sllldy of Ecological Adaptatio11, Social Successio11 and Cultural Evolution (Carbondale, 1973) p. 131. 50. Guy Gran, 'Vietnam and the capitalist route to modernity: village Cochin China 1880-1940' (Ph.D., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1975), p. 328. 51. Rambo ( 1973) pp. 133-4. 52. Murray (1980) pp. 389-90; Gran (1975) p. 363. 53. Gourou (1945) p. 531. 54. Ingram (1971) pp. 184-5; Gran (1975) p. 363. 55. E. Wolf, Peasallt Wars of the Twe11tieth Celltury (London, 1971) p. 269. 56. C. Fasseur, 'Some remarks on the Cultivation System in Java', Acta Historiae Nederlmrdicae (1978) 10, pp. 143-62. 57. G. R. Knight, 'The Java sugar industry as a capitalist plantation: a reappraisal' 262 Notes and References

Joumal of Peasant Sllldies, 19 (April/July 1992) p. 76. 58. R. E. Elson, Javanese Peasa/lls and the Colonial Sugar Industry: Impact and Change in an East Java Residency 1830-1940 (Singapore 1984) p. 95; G. R. Knight, 'Capitalism and commodity production in Java', in H. Alavi et a/, Capital• ism and Colonial Production (London, 1982) p. 147. 59. Elson (1984) p. 95. 60. Bambang Purwanto, 'From Dusun to the market: native rubber cultivation in southern Sumatra 1890-1940' (Ph.D., SOAS, University of London, 1992) pp. 340, 423. 61. Ibid., pp. 266, 270. 62. Ibid., p. 276. 63. Ibid., pp. 326-34. 64. Ibid., p. 338. 65. Ibid., p. 358. 66. Bambang Purwanto ( 1992) pp. 303-13; see chapter 6 (following) on Lee Kong Chi an. 67. Bam bang Purwanto (1992) p. 311. 68. Ibid., p. 340. 69. Ibid., p. 340. 70. John H. Drabble, Rubber in Malaya 1876-1922: The Genesis of the Industry (Kuala Lumpur, 1973) p. 221. 71. John H. Drabble, Malayan Rubber: The Interwar Years (London, 1991) p. 212. 72. N. R. Chakravarti, The Indian Minority in Burma (London, 1971) p. 73. 73. Ibid., p. 94. 74. C. Robequain, The Economic Development of French Indo-China (London, 1944) p. 161. 75. Ibid., p. 137. 76. Drabble (1991) pp. 9-10, 42. 77. Yuen Choy Leng, 'Expansion of Japanese interests in Malaya 1900--41 (M. A., , 1973) p. 171.

3 Western Capital and Entrepreneurship: Strategy and Structure

I. Harrisons & Crosfield (hereafter H&C) Minutes of the Annual General Meet• ings of the Board, 1909--41, provided much of the material for this chapter. 2. H&C Directors' Reports, 1890-1940. 3. John H. Drabble, Malayan Rubber: The Interwar Years (London, 1991) pp. 238, 255, 260. 4. The Truman Committee on the International Rubber Regulation Committee, PRO co 852/450/2-168494. 5. Ibid. 6. H&C Balance Sheets, 1908--40. 7. Ibid. 8. II&C Directors' Report and Statement of Accounts, year ending 31 December 1931, p. 4. 9. Sphere of Operations of /larrisons & Crosfield, privately published and circu• lated work, giving details of the activities of the company from 1844 to the early 1930s (I January 1932). I 0. H&C ledgers, journals, published balance sheets, directors' reports, and annual statements of accounts, for the period 1910--40. II. H&C Minutes of AGM, 15 December 1912, 12 December 1937. 12. H&C, 'A Statement of the Distribution of Capital, 1936-39', 20 February 1940. Notes and References 263

13. Ibid. 14. H&C, Statement of Financial Accounts for the years 1920 and 1939, covering H&C, its associated companies and separate sterling companies. 15. Mira Wilkins, 'The free-standing company 1870-1914: an important type of British foreign direct investment', Economic History Review, 2nd series, 41, 2 (1988) p. 277. 16. Jean-Francois Hennart, 'The transaction cost theory of the multinational enter• prise', in C. Pitelis and R. Sugden eds, The Nalllre of the Trans-national Firm (London, 1991) p. 83. 17. Rubber Plantations Investment Trust Ltd, Schedule of Investments, 1935-38, 10 February 1939. 18. Ibid. 19. Rubber Plantations Investment Trust Ltd, Minutes of Annual General Meeting, 31 December 1909-31 December 1940. 20. 'Shareholding: Harrisons & Crosfield Ltd and Rubber Plantations Investment Trust Ltd', H&C document dated 23 August 1920. 21. John H. Drabble, Rubber in Malaya /876-/922: The Genesis of the Industry (Kuala Lumpur, 1973) pp. 49, 64; 'Truman' PRO CO 852/450/2-168494. 22. Drabble (1973) p. 66. 23. Drabble (1991) Appendix 2, p. 308. 24. Allied Sumatra Plantations Ltd, Directors' Report and Statement of Accounts for year ending 31 December 1926, 20 April 1927, p. 3; see also Financial Times, 3 June 1927. 25. Sphere of Operations of Harrisons & Crosfield, I January 1932, p. II. 26. Drabble (1991) pp. 25-80. 27. Ibid., p. 302. 28. United Sua Betong Estate, Ledger Books 1-5, Journals 1-3, Directors' Reports and Statement of Accounts 1915--41. 29. Linggi Plantations, Ledger Books 1-6, Journals 1-3, Balance Sheets 1905--41. 30. D. K. Fieldhouse, Unilever Overseas: The Anatomy of a Multinational 1895- /965 (London, 1978) p. 15. 3 I. Alfred D. Chandler, Jnr, Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capital• ism (Cambridge, Mass, 1990). 32. C. Abel and C. M. Lewis, Latin America, Economic Imperialism and the State (London, 1991 ), Introduction to Section 3. For an opposite view see Hennart (1991); S. J. Nicholas, 'British multinational investment before 1939', Journal of European Economic History, II (1982) p. 606; and P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstmction /914-1990, (London, 1993) pp. 45--48, 83-93.

4 The Strength of Western Capital: The Teak Industry

I. T. A. B. Corley, A History of the Burmah Oil Company 2 vols (London, 1983); C. Gerretson, Geschiedenis der Koninklijke (Leiden, 1958) which is a history of the Royal Dutch. 2. M. S. I. Diokno, 'British firms and the economy of Burma, with special refer· ence to the rice and teak industries 1917-1937' (Ph.D., University of London, 1983), pp. 172-3. 3. Ibid., p. 22 I. 4. Ibid. 5. Aung Tun Thet, Burmese Elllrepreneurship: Creative Response in the Colonial Economy (Wiesbaden, 1989) p. 82. 264 Notes and References

6. Ibid. 7. Diokno (1983) pp. 254-72. 8. Ibid., p. 192. 9. Ibid., p. 221. 10. Ibid., p. 212. II. Ibid., p. 232. 12. Ibid., p. 226. 13. Helmut G. Callis, Foreign Capital in South-East Asia (New York, 1942) pp. 88-96; Diokno (1983) p. 209. 14. Diokno (1983) p. 221. 15. A. C. Pointon, The Bombay-Burmah Trading Corporation Limited, 1863-1963 (London, 1964) pp. 50--2; N. L. Peluso, 'Markets and merchants: the forest products trade of East Kalimantan in historical perspective' (Ph.D., Cornell University, 1983). 16. Charles Robequain, The Economic Development of French Indo China (London, 1944) pp. 272-4. 17. Ian Brown, The Elite and the Economy in Siam, c.1890-1920 (Singapore, 1988) pp. 112-4. 18. Suchiro Akira, Capital Accumulation in Thailand: 1855-1985 (Tokyo, 1989) p. 58. 19. Ibid., pp. 58-9. 20. Malcolm Falkus, 'Early British business in Thailand', in R. P. T. Davenport• Hines and Geoffrey Jones (eds) British Business in Asia since 1860 (Cambridge, 1989) p. 140. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid., p. 14 I. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Pointon (1964) p. 79. 27. Ibid., p. 38. 28. Suchiro ( 1989) p. 60. 29. Ibid., p. 63. 30. Ibid., p. 30. 31. Falkus ( 1989) p. 143. 32. Sompop Manarungsan, Economic Developmem of Thailand, 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 128. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid., p. 129. 35. Brown (1988) p. 112. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid., p. 113. 39. Falkus (1989) p. 142. 40. Sompop ( 1989) p. 128. 41. Falkus (1989) p. 138. 42. Ibid. 43. Diokno (1983) p. 243.

S Chinese Response to Competition: Mining

I. Mary F. Somers Heidhues, Bangka Tin and Memok Pepper: Chinese Settlement on an Indonesian Island (Singapore, 1992) pp. 77-86, 110-32. Notes and References 265

2. Ibid., p. 131. 3. Wong Lin Ken, The Malayan Tin Industry to 1914, with Special Reference to the States of , , Negri Sembilan and Pahang (Tuscan, 1965) p. 229. 4. Yip Yai Hoang, The Developmefll of the Tin Mining Industry of Malaya (Kuala Lumpur, 1969) p. 271. 5. Wong (1965) p. 170. 6. Ibid., p. 63. 7. Ibid., p. 210. 8. Yip (1969) p. 20. 9. Lim Chong Yah, Economic Development of Modern Malaya (Kuala Lumpur, 1967) p. 63. 10. Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Development of Thailand 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 152. II. W. Robertson, Tin: Its Production and Marketing (Westport, Conn., 1982) p. 59. 12. Yip (1969) pp. 131, 134. 13. Ibid., pp. 259-60, 277-8; Sompop (1989) pp. 151-2; J. T. Thoburn, Multinationals, Mining and De1•elopment: A Study of the Tin Industry (Farnborough, 1981) p. 62. 14. Wong (1965) p. 218. 15. Ibid., p. 63. 16. Ibid., p. 95. 17. Ibid., p. 64. 18. Selangor Secretariat Files (cited hereafter as SSF), SSF (1896) Files 865, 491. 19. Wong ( 1965) p. 94. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid., p. 60; Yip ( 1969) p. 92. 22. Ibid. 23. Wong (1965) p. 117. 24. Wong (1965) p. 175. 25. SSF (1896) File 3129. 26. SSF ( 1898) File 1140. 27. SSF (1908) File 2745. 28. See SSF (1893-1916) File 4795 onwards for a list of Lake Yew's applications for mining concessions. 29. Ibid. 30. SSF (1916) File 1687, 3353. 31. SSF ( 1899) Files 730, 732, 2261. 32. SSF (1903) File 5540, (1916) File 1687. 33. SSF (1896) File 1341, (1898) File 1140; see also The Malay Mail 21 March 1898. 34. SSF (1916) File 5357. 35. SSF (1902) File 813. 36. Jennifer W. Cushman, Family and State: The Formation of a Sino-Thai Tin- Mining Dynasty 1797-1932 (Singapore, 1991) p. 81. 37. Ibid., p. 66. 38. Ibid., p. 67. 39. Ibid., p. 78. 40. G. C. Allen and A. G. Donnithorne, Westem Enterprise in Indonesia and Malaya (London, 1957) p. 160. 41. Phuwadol Songprasert, 'The development of Chinese capital in southern Siam 1868-1932' (Ph.D., Monash University, Australia, 1986) pp. 270-2, 303-14. 42. Ibid., p. 388. 43. Ibid. 266 Notes and References

44. Ibid., p. 383. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., p. 388. 47. Ibid., p. 392; see also Sompop (1989) p. 151. 48. Ibid. 49. F. D. Birch, 'Tropical milestones: Australian gold and tin mining investment in Malaya and Thailand 1880-1930' (M.A., University of Melboure, 1976) p. 220. 50. Michael R. Godley, 'Nanyang Chinese networks: an overview' (Unpublished paper, University of Canberra, November 1992) p. 19. 51. Malcolm Palkus, 'Early British business in Thailand', in R. P. T. Davenport• Hines and Geoffrey Jones (eds) British Business in Asia since 1860 (Cambridge, 1989) p. 153. 52. Cushman ( 1991) pp. 103-8. 53. Jean-Francois Hennart, 'The tin industry', in Mark Casson, et a/. (eds) Multi• nationals and World Trade: Vertical Integration and the Division of Labour in World Industries (London, 1986) p. 230. 54. Lim Chong Yah (1967) p. 69; K. E. Knorr, Tin Under Control (Stanford, 1945) p. 89; Yip (1969) p. 21. 55. Allen and Donnithorne (1957) p. 157. 56. Thoburn (1981) p. 64. 57. PRO CO 852/510/2-168494. 58. Allen and Donnithorne (1957) p. 157. 59. Phuwadol (1986) p. 388. 60. Hennart ( 1986) p. 233. 61. Ibid.; H. Klein, 'The Creation of the Patino tin empire' Inter-American Econ• mnic Affairs, 19 (August 1965) pp. 3-23. 62. PRO CO 852/510/2-168494. 63. J. J. Puthucheary, Ownership and Control in the Malayan Economy (Kuala Lumpur, 1979) pp. 91-2. 64. PRO CO 852/510/2-168494. 65. Puthucheary (1979) pp. 86-94. 66. Yip (1969) pp. 218, 239. 67. Ibid., p. 160. 68. Knorr (1945) p. 90. 69. Yip (1969) p. 160. 70. Renong Tin Dredging Co. ledger no. I, in Guthrie Archives. 71. This account of Renong Tin Dredging Co. has used ledgers, journals, balance sheets and miscellaneous materials available in Guthrie Archives. 72. This account of Nan yo Kogyo Koshi ( 1920-9) and its restructured successor company, Ishihara Sangyo Kaiun Goshi Kaisha (1929-33) is based on, Bunji Nagura, The Prewar Japanese Steel Industry and Iron Ore Resources in South• East Asia: The Development of Malaysian Iron Ore by the Ishihara Sangyo Company (Tokyo, 1981). This is a private publication of United Nations Uni• versity, Humanities and Social Development Programme. 73. Ibid., p. 21. 74. Ibid., pp. 32-3. 75. Ibid. 76. Bunji Nagura ( 1981) p. 30. 77. Bunji Nagura (1981) p. 53. 78. Ibid., p. 17. Notes and References 267

79. Ibid., p. 2. 6 The Chinese Response to Competition: Rubber and Pineapple

I. John H. Drabble, 'Investments in the rubber industry in Malaya 1900-1922', Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 3 (1972) p. 254. 2. Ibid., p. 250. 3. Ibid. 4. John H. Drabble, Malayan Rubber: The lllferwar Years (London, 1991) p. 10. 5. Drabble (1972) footnote 74 on p. 260. 6. Drabble (1972) p. 250; Drabble (1991) p. 10. 7. Drabble (1991) p. 269. 8. Drabble (1991) p. 269. 9. Drabble (1972) p. 253. 10. Colin Barlow and John H. Drabble, 'Government and the emerging rubber in• dustries in Indonesia and Malaya, 1900-1940', in A. Booth, W. J. O'Malley, Anna Weidemann (eds) Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era (New Haven, 1990) p. 188. 11. Ibid. 12. Barlow and Drabble (1990) p. 206; Drabble (1991) p. 247. 13. Drabble (1991) p. 96. 14. W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore, Report on a Visit to Malaya, Ceylon and Java 1928 (HMSO, 1928) Cmd 3235, cited in Drabble (1991) p. 45. 15. Drabble (1991) p. 81. 16. Ibid. 17. C. F. Yong, : The Making of an Overseas Chinese Legend (Singapore, 1987) p. 74. 18. D. H. Grist, Nationality of Ownership and Natllre of Constiflltion of Rubber Estates in Malaya (Kuala Lumpur, 1933) pp. 3-6, 17-26. 19. Drabble ( 1991) p. 39. 20. Ibid., pp. 69-71. 21. Richard A. Hawkins, 'The pineapple canning industry during the world de• pression of the 1930s', Business History, 31, 4 (October 1989) p. 53. 22. Ibid., p. 48. 23. Letter from Manager of Hongkong Bank in Singapore to Hongkong Bank in Hong Kong, 3 March 1919. 24. Yong (1987) p. 55. 25. Letter from Manager of Hongkong Bank in Singapore to Hongkong Bank head• quarters in Hong Kong, 3 March 1920. 26. 'Tan Kah Kee & Co. Investments in China, NEJ and , 1920- 29', Singapore branch of Chartered Bank, document dated 16 June 1931. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 30. Letter from Hongkong Bank (Singapore) to Hongkong Bank headquarters, 11 April 1921. 31. Correspondence between Hongkong Bank (Singapore) and Hongkong Bank headquarters on compradore's limit and information on all his customers, December 1925. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. Overdrawn current accounts 1926-27, Hongkong Bank (Singapore). 35. 'Amalgamated Balance Sheet as at 16 June 1932', Tan Kah Kee & Co. Ltd. 268 Notes and References

36. Report on the Accounts to 31 December 1931, Tan Kah Kee & Co. Ltd., from chartered accountants Rennie Lowick & Co., Singapore. 37. Ibid. 38. Letter from Hongkong Bank (Singapore) to Hongkong Bank headquarters, I May 1930. 39. Memorandum from Manager Hongkong Bank (Singapore), 3 June 1924. 40. Yong (1987) pp. 52-7. 41. Amalgamated balance sheet Tan Kah Kee & Co. Ltd, 31 December 1930. 42. Ibid., 31 December 1931. 43. Accounts for six months ended 31 December 1932, by Rennie Lowick & Co. 44. Ibid. 45. Report of Accountants, 30 June 1933, part I. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. Table on Tan Kah Kee manufactures and average monthly imports into the NEI, Straits Settlements, Philippines, China, India, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, January 1928-12 January 1932, ref: Singapore 64l(a), 8 December 1932, Chartered Bank. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid. 51. List of Tan Kah Kee's current accounts with Hongkong Bank and others, September 1932. 52. Report on Tan Kah Kee, 30 September 1932, ref: 642(a) Chartered Bank. 53. Yong (1987) p. 74. 54. Malaya: Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, for years 1928-36 (Singa• pore); Jndische Verslag, for years 1935-9 (Netherlands); Kolonial Verslag, for 1890-1934 (Netherlands); see also, Dennis Koh Soo Kin and Tanaka Kyoko, 'Japanese competition in the trade of Malaya in the 1930s', Southeast Asian Studies, 21, 4 (March 1984) pp. 374-99. 55. Summary of Imports, PRO CO 852/94/14-165505. 56. Lee Rubber Co. Ltd, summary of share capital and shares for years 1927-41, in Registrar of Companies' files, Singapore National Archives. 57. Lee Rubber Co. Ltd, balance sheets 1934, 1941, ref: GHO 41.7 and 06.2 Hongkong Bank Archives. 58. Lee Pineapple Co. Ltd, summary of share capital and shares for years 1930- 41, Registrar of Companies' files, Singapore National Archives. 59. Bambang Purwanto, 'From Dusun to the market: native rubber cultivation in southern Sumatra 1890-1940' (Ph.D. London, 1992) p. 312; K. D. Thomas and J. Panglaykim, 'The Chinese in the South Sumatra rubber industry: a case in economic nationalism', J. A. C. Mackie (ed.) The Chinese in Indonesia: Five Essays (London, 1976) pp. 147-8, 152. 60. Ibid; Purwanto (1992); PRO CO 852/120/12 1936. 61. The main companies of Lee Kong Chian operating in Indonesian rubber remilling were Seng Lee (1939), Hock Seng Lee (1935) Hap Tong (1930) and Hock Lee (1932). 62. De Javasche Bank 2023/2028, Medan 1935-40; Thomas and Panglaykim (1976) pp. 147-8. 63. Ibid. 64. List of Chinese accounts guaranteed by compradore See Tiong Wah, 15 April 1931; Report on Chinese failures in Malaya and Singapore, 26 August 1932; Letter from W. Hay (Hongkong Bank, Singapore) to E. J. Davies (Hong Kong), 21 September 1932. Notes and References 269

65. Hongkong Bank, Singapore, lists of bad debts dated 18 September 1930, 22 May 1931, 4 August 1933, 4 December 1934. 66. Lee Kong Chian current account with Hongkong Bank, Singapore, I October 1934, 16 November 1934. 67. Ibid., 20 December 1934, 21 January 1935. 68. Ibid., 22 June 1935. 69. W. G. Huff, 'Sharecroppers, risk management and Chinese estate rubber de• velopment in interwar British Malaya'. Economic Developme/11 and Cullllral Change 40, 4 (July 1992) p. 749. 70. Summary of accounts for Lee Rubber Co. Ltd and Lee Pineapple Co. Ltd, 1935. 71. 'Particulars of Malayan pineapple packing factories', PRO CO 852/575/10- 163620, p. 23. 72. Ibid., p. 24. 73. Western Canner and Packer: Twenty-third Annual Yearbook, 35, 5 (25 April 1943) p. 156. 74. Hawkins (1989) pp. 49, 51. 75. Ibid., pp. 58-9. 76. Ibid., p. 62. 77. PRO CO 852/296/5 163409, 26 October 1939. 78. British Shipping in the Orient, Thirty-eighth Report of the Imperial Shipping Committee (HMSO, 1939), (hereafter cited as BSO), para. 286; PRO CO 852/ 58/3, II August 1936. 79. BSO, para. 289. 80. PRO CO 852/296/5 163409, 24 December 1939. 81. Ibid. 82. Report on Heah Joo Seang, Hongkong Bank (), 22 June 1939. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid. 85. Letter from W. Hay (Hongkong Bank, Singapore) to H. E. Muriel (Hongkong Bank, Penang), 2 June 1931. 86. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Singapore to L. N. Murphy (Hong Kong), 20 August 1934; W. Hay (Singapore) to G. B. Dunnell (Penang), 18 January 1935. 87. Ibid. 88. BSO, para. 289. 89. PRO CO 852/337/11 163409, 21 November 1940. 90. Ibid.; 'Rubber trade to the USA', PRO CO 852/584/9 163620; 'Rubber exports to the USA', PRO CO 852/94/14 165505. 91. BSO, para. 290. 92. Koh and Tanaka (1984) p. 381. 93. PRO CO 852/296/5 163409, 24 December 1939. 94. One Hundred Years of Mitsui Bussan: Draft Documents, edited by the Insti• tute of Japanese Business History, (Tokyo, 1979) chapter 6, section 3 (avail• able only in Japanese). 95. Ibid. 96. Ibid. 97. Ibid. 98. Ibid. 99. PRO CO 852/320/2 170888. 100. PRO CO 852/296/5 163409. 101. See, Malaya, Return of Foreign Imports and Exports 1935-37; Malayan Sta• tistics, December 1939-1940; The Foreign Trade of Malaya for the Year 1938. I 02. Mitsui Bus san ( 1979) chapter 6, section 3. 270 Notes and References

7 Chinese Strategy in Rice: Networks and Restructuring

I. See especially, Michael Adas, The Br1rma Delta: Economic Development and Social Change 011 an Asian Rice Frontier, 1852-1941 (Madison, 1974); James C. Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand 1850-1970 (Stanford, 1971 ); Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Development of Thailand 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989); Norman G. Owen, 'The rice industry of mainland South-East Asia 1850-1914', Journal of the Siam Society, 59 ( 1971 ). 2. Owen (1971) p. 87. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., p. 92. 6. James C. Ingram, 'Thailand's rice trade and the allocation of resources', in C. D. Cowan (ed.) The Economic Developmem of South East Asia (London, 1964) p. 104. 7. M. S. I. Diokno, 'British firms and the economy of Burma, with special refer• ence to the rice and teak industries 1917-1937' (Ph.D., University of London, 1983) p. 63. 8. 'Rangoon Rice Business'. Report on a visit to Rangoon in September 1923 by a representative of the British banks operating in Burma, dated 26 November 1923, Chartered Bank Archives. 9. For an excellent analysis of how the Pool achieved price controls, see Diokno (1983) pp. 93-160. I 0. Ensor Report on Beng Hwat, 6 November 1928, Archives. II. Diokno ( 1983) p. 92. 12. Ibid., pp. 92-3. 13. Ibid., p. 94. 14. Ibid., p. 125. 15. Ibid., p. 63. 16. Ibid., p. 75. 17. Owen (1971) p. 118. 18. Michael R. Godley, 'Nanyang Chinese networks: an overview' (unpublished paper, November 1992) p. 4. 19. Ibid., p. 7. 20. Carl A. Trocki, Opium and Empire: Chinese Society in Colonial Singapore, 1800-1910 (New York, 1990) pp. 174-5. 21. Phuwadol Songprasert, 'The development of Chinese capital in southern Siam, 1868-1932' (Ph.D., Monash University, 1986) pp. 150, 153; Song Ong Siang, One Hundred Years History of the Chinese in Singapore (Singapore, 1967) p. 93. 22. Phuwadol (1986) p. 187. 23. Lee Poh Ping, Chinese Society in Nineteemlr Century Singapore: A Socioecon• omic Analysis (Kuala Lumpur, 1978). 24. Charles Robequain, Tire Economic Development of French Indo China (Lon• don, 1944) p. 37. 25. Details of clients for years 1910-32, Hongkong Bank, Saigon; Martin J. Murray, The Development of Capitalism in Colonial Indo China, 1870-1940 (Berkeley, 1980) p. 449. 26. Hakiem Nankoe, Jean-Claude Gerlus and Martin J. Murray, 'The origin of the opium trade and the opium regie in colonial Indo China', in John Butcher and Howard Dick (eds) The Rise and Fall of Revenue Farming: Business Elites and the Emergence of the Modem State in South-East Asia (London, 1993) p. 183. Notes and References 271

27. Ibid., p. 187. 28. List of Chinese rice milling failures, 12 November 1932, Hongkong Bank, Saigon. 29. Report of the Select Committee of the Legislative Council appointed to exam• ine Sir John Coode's report upon the improvement of Penang Harbour, Straits Settlemellfs Legislative Council Paper No. 15 (1892) p. C437. 30. Edward W. Feldwick (ed.) Present Day Impressions of the Far East and Promi• nent and Progressive Chinese at Home and Abroad (London, 1917) pp. 855-6, 861-2. 31. Statement on the Central Milling Agency, 2 June 1924, Hongkong Bank, Penang. 32. Straits Settlements Trade Commission's Report (hereafter SSTCR), vol. I (1933- 4) p. 47. 33. SSTCR (1933-4), vol. 3, Statistical Appendices, Table 16, p. 499. 34. Ibid. 35. J. A. Fowler, Netherlands East Indies and British Malaya, a Commercial and Industrial Handbook (Washington, 1923), pp. 379-80; L. A. Beale, A Review of the Trade of British Malaya in 1928 (Department of Overseas Trade, Lon• don, 1929). 36. Report on the Improvement of Penang Harbour, Straits Settlements Legislative Council (Paper no. 15, 1892) pp. C339, C418, C421; Mercantile Reports in SSTCR 1933-4, vol. 2 Appendices. 37. Suehiro Akira, Capital Accunmlation in Thailand, 1855-1985 (Tokyo, 1989) pp. 72-83. 38. Ibid., pp. 81-2. 39. Ingram ( 1964) pp. 102-3; G. William Skinner, Chinese Society in Thailand: an Analytical History (New York, 1957) pp. 100-1. 40. Suehiro ( 1989) p. 92. 41. Ibid., p. 117. 42. Ibid., p. 128. 43. W. G. Huff, 'Bookkeeping barter, money, credit and Singapore's international rice trade, 1870-1939', Explorations in Economic History, 26 (1989) p. 163. 44. Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Developmellf of Thailand 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 54. 45. Ibid. 46. Letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Singapore to Hong Kong Headquarters, 2 September 1932. 47. Ibid. 48. Sompop (1989) p. 209. 49. Figures calculated from Ingram (1964) pp. 108, 120-2. 50. Yu Kwei Cheng, Foreign Trade and Industrial Development of China (Wash• ington, 1956), pp. 44-5, 215; Hsiao Liang-lin, China's Foreign Trade Statistics 1864-1949 (Cambridge, Mass, 1974) p. 33. 51. Sompop (1989) p. 75. 52. Pannee Aunsakul, 'The development of domestic rice trade in the central re- gion of Thailand, 1800-1938' (Ph.D., University of Bielefeld, 1990), p. 144. 53. Suehiro (1989) p. 50. 54. Ibid., p. 48. 55. Ibid., p. 51. 56. Aunsakul (1990) p. 144. 57. Ibid., pp. 140-9. 58. Suehiro (1989) p. 85. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid., pp. 84-7. 272 Notes and References

61. Ibid., p. 117. 62. Ibid., p. 63. 63. Details of client's credit limit, 22 October 1922, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok; statement for Lam Sam and Kwang Kho Long. 64. Suehiro ( 1989) pp. 55-6. 65. Letter from Branch Manager, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok to Hong Kong branch, 20 June 1934. 66. Credit extension for Lam Sam, Hongkong Bank, Saigon, 19 September 1935. 67. Credit request to finance Lam Sam rice trade with USA and Cuba, 16 January 1935, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok. 68. V. D. Wickizer and M. K. Bennett, The Rice Economy of Monsoon Asia (Stanford, 1941) Table 4, p. 322. 69. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, lamenting decline of business of west• ern banks in Thailand, 19 October 1940. 70. Details of client's credit limits, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, 22 October 1922; statement on Lam Sam and Kwang Kho Long. 71. Credit request for Lam Sam, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, 16 January 1935. 72. Letter from H. Aspinall of Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to headquarters in Hong Kong on silver flows into Bangkok, 19 November 1933; also Bangkok branch manager to headquarters, 19 October 1939. 73. Hongkong Bank Archives and Siam Commercial Bank Archives. The records of the Commercial Registration Department, Ministry of Commerce (Thailand) have also been useful for the history of Lam Sam. The file on the Lam Sam company Wu Tung Pak contains documents, dated 12 August 1939 and 13 August 1942, giving information on the shareholdings of the several companies, and Lam Sam balance sheets. The file on Thai Niyom Panich Co. (1939) contains various documents on Lam Sam showing the transfer of shares between Chi• nese rice millers and Thai army and navy personnel and professionals, 1939- 41; unpublished balance sheets of Thai Niyom Panich for 1939-42. 74. Hongkong Bank Archives and Siam Commercial Bank Archives. 75. This study of Wang Lee and the connections with the home village in China is based on Choi Chi-Cheung, 'Competition among brothers: the Kin Tye Lung Company and its Lienhaos (associate companies)', paper for conference 'Chi• nese business houses in South-East Asia since 1870' at the Centre for South• East Asian Studies, SOAS, 22-4 March 1993. 76. Ibid., p. I. 77. Ibid., p. 5. 78. Suehiro (1989) p. 119. 79. Choi (1993) p. 7. 80. Statement on the rice millers of Bangkok, 12 June 1936, Siam Commercial Bank Archives. 81. Choi (1993) p. 12.

8 Chinese Financial Institutions: From Revenue Farms to Modern Banks

1. Suehiro Akira, Capital Accumulation in Thailand: 1855-1985 (Tokyo, 1989) p. 86. 2. Ian Brown, The Elite and the Economy in Siam, c./890-1920 (Singapore, 1988) p. 142. 3. Suehiro ( 1989) pp. 81, 86. 4. Lysa Hong, Thailand in the Nineteenth Century: Evolution of the Economy and Society (Singapore, 1984) pp. 88-9. Notes and References 273

5. Ibid., p. 86. 6. Wong Lin Ken, The Malayan Tin Industry to 1914, with Special Reference to tile States of Perak, Se/angor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang (Tuscan, 1965) p. 251. 7. Phuwadol Songprasert, 'The development of Chinese capital in southern Siam 1868-1932' (Ph.D., Monash University, 1986) pp. 74, 208; Wong (1965) pp. 251, 261. 8. Report by Prince Damrong to King Chulalongkorn, 17 February 1908, N. A. r5 Kh 14.1 K/7. 9. Michael R. Godley, 'Chinese revenue farm networks: the Penang connection', in John Butcher and Howard Dick (eds) The Rise and Fall of Revenue Farm• ing: Business Elites and the Emergence of the Modem State in Sor1th-East Asia (London, 1993) p. 93. 10. Ibid. II. F. W. Diehl, 'Revenue farming in Netherlands East Indies 1816-1925', in Butcher and Dick (1993) pp. 218-9. 12. J~~;mes R. Rush, Opium to Java: Revenue Farming and Chinese Enterprise in Colonia/Indonesia, 1860-1910 (Ithaca, New York, 1990) pp. 124, 240. 13. Ibid.; F. W. Diehl, 'The opium tax farms in Java 1813-1914: the quest for maximization of government revenue and Chinese tax farmers profit' (paper presented to Conference on Indonesian Economic History in Dutch Colonial Period, Australian National University, Canberra 1983). 14. Lance Castles, Religion, Politics and Economic Behaviour in Java: The Kudus Cigarette Industry (Yale, 1967) p. 70; C. Dobbin, 'Revenue farming and the Indonesian textile industry' (Paper presented at conference, 'Revenue farming in South-East Asia', Canberra, June 1988). 15. Selangor Secretariat Files: SSF 3614/1908, SSF 3398/1908, SSF 4638/1906. 16. SSF 3501/98, SSF 4230/99. 17. SSF 203/1895, SSF 5043/1898, SSF 2261/1899, SSF 5454/1899; John Butcher, '' in Butcher and Dick (1993) p. 260. 18. Rush (1990) p. 184. 19. Ibid., p. 186. 20. Ibid. 21. John Butcher, 'The demise of the revenue farms system in the Federated Malay States, Modern Asian Studies, 17 (1983) pp. 405, 410; Carl A. Trocki, Opium and Empire: Chinese Society in Colonial Singapore 1800-1910 (Ithaca, New York, 1990) Chapter 8. 22. Trocki ( 1990) pp. 96-7. 23. Ibid., pp. 200-4. 24. Ibid., p. 188. 25. Godley (1993) p. 94. 26. Ibid. 27. Trocki (1990) pp. 147-8; Carl A. Trocki, 'Tan Seng Poh' in Butcher and Dick (eds) (1993) pp. 252-3. 28. Trocki (1993) pp. 252-3. 29. Rush (1990) pp. 184-9; Trocki (1990) p. 189. 30. Java Bank, File nos 1841-71 on Be Biauw Tjoan; Trocki (1990) pp. 180-l, 202-4. 31. The only empirical work on the remittance system (available only in Chinese) is, Takeshi Hamashita, 'Traditional society and local finance: the remittance system and local associations in Chinese societies in Singapore and Malay• sia' in Research on Chinese Traditional Activities in Sollfh-East Asia, Part 2 (Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 1984). 274 Notes and References

32. I am indebted to David K. Y Chng for this information. 33. V. B. Van Gutem, 'Tjina Mindering' Kolonia/e Stlldien, I (February 1919) pp. 113, 115. 34. Ibid., pp. 128-42. 35. Selangor Secretariat Files (hereafter SSP), 445/1905; 3709/1907; 60 19/1907; 215/1907; 2647/1909. 36. SSP 445/1905. 37. Van Gutem (1919) pp. 113-5. 38. SSP 113/1910. 39. For an analysis of interest rates in general, see, Van Gutem (1919) pp. 128-42; J. L. Vleming, Het Clrineesclre Zakenleven in Nederlandsclr-lndie (Weltevreden, 1926) p. 213; W. J. Calor, The Economic Position of the Chinese in the Nether• lands Indies (Chicago, 1936), p. 119. 40. See also Jan T. M. Van Laanen, 'Between the Java Bank and the Chinese moneylender: banking and credit in colonial Indonesia' in Anne Booth, W. J. O'Malley and Anna Weidemann (eds) Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era (New Haven, 1990) p. 260. 41. Ibid., p. 261. 42. C. F. Remer, Foreign Investments in China (New York, 1968) pp. 177-90; V. Purcell, The Chinese in Sorltheast Asia (London, 1965) pp. 134-5, 200; Wu Zhuhui, Kakyo honshitsu no bunseki [On the essential characteristics of the overseas Chinese] (Tokyo, 1961), pp. 267-8; Lin Jinzhi, Jindai Huaqiao touzi gowrei qiye gailun [An outline of overseas Chinese investment in do• mestic enterprises in modern times] (Xiamen, 1988) pp. 56-8; George Hicks (ed.) translated by Amy Wong, Survey Report of South-East Asian Chinese Remittances and lnvestmellts in tire 1930s (private publication, Hong Kong, 1991) pp. 29-31. 43. Suchada Tantasuralerk, 'Poeykwan: the remittance among overseas Chinese in Thailand' (M. A., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 1987). 44. Ibid., p. 112. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., p. 67. 47. Ibid., p. 103. 48. Tan Ee Leong, 'The Chinese banks incorporated in Singapore and the Federa• tion of Malaya', Jounral of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 42, I ( 1969) p. 270. 49. Volkstelling 1930 [Census of 1930 in Netherlands India] (Batavia Landsdrukkerij, 1933-36) 7, pp. 366-7 (publication of Netherlands Indies, Department Van Economische Zaken. Tijdelijk Kantoor Voor de Volkstelling). 50. For a discussion on Hui see, Clifford Geertz, 'The rotating credit association: a middle rung in development', Economic Development and Cultural Change 10, (1962) pp. 243-62; J. Dyer Ball, Things Chinese (London, 1904) pp. 632- 45; Vleming (1926) pp. 174-7; Cator (1936) p. 80. 51. Vleming (1926) pp. 164-7. 52. 'Failure among clients of Bank Compradore, See Tiong Wah', 23 November 1930, Hongkong Bank, Singapore. 53. 'Bad and doubtful debts and fraud', 26 September 1931, Hongkong Bank, Singapore. 54. Letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Singapore to headquarters Hong Kong, 12 December 1932. The collapse of the Chinese compradore of the Saigon branch of the Hongkong Bank, and his attempts to abscond leaving personal debts to bank of HK$2 million (on security of only HK$379 511) is noted in Notes and References 275

letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Saigon, to headquarters, 2 December 1931. 55. My thanks are due to Professor Geoffrey Jones for this point. 56. Letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Singapore to head office in Hong Kong, 12 November 1939. 57. Statement on client's bad and doubtful debts and fraud, Hongkong Bank, Sin• gapore, 26 September 1931. 58. The Ensor reports on Beng Hwat, 6 November 1928, 28 February 1929, 30 June 1929, Lloyds Bank Archives. 59. Ibid., report 30 June 1929. 60. Correspondence between Hongkong Bank, Singapore and headquarters, 2 July 1912. 61. List of bad and doubtful debts, 22 August 1934, Hongkong Bank, Penang. 62. For the difficulties of Kwik Hoo Tong, Be Biauw Tjoan, Deli Bank, and others during 1914-41, see Java Bank Box File Nos. 1856-62; 1863-71; 1872-1907. 63. Tan Ee Leong (1969); Punnee Bualek, 'The growth and development of Chi• nese capitalist bankers in Thailand 1923-1973 ', in Nyaw Mee-Kau and Chang Chak-Yan (eds) Chinese Banking in Asia's Market Economies (Hong Kong, 1989) p. 293; Ingekomen brieven, 1919-49, File nos 2920-2922, Java Bank. 64. Ian Brown, The Elite a11d the Eco11omy i11 Siam c.1890-1920 (Singapore, 1988) p. 136. 65. Suehiro (1989) pp. 81, 86. 66. Brown (1988) p. 136. 67. Ibid., p. 137. 68. Ibid., p. 142. 69. Balance sheet and annual report of Sze Hai Tong Bank, 1908. 70. Balance sheets and annual reports of Ho Hong Bank. 71. Ibid. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 74. Tan Ee Leong (1969) p. 267. 75. For the Deli Bank, see Java Bank Box Files 1872-1907, especially letters 96/ 7, 25 September 1923, 96/9, 30 October 1923, 94/18, 26 November 1921. For Be Biauw Tjoan, see Box Files 1841-1871, Java Bank. 76. For Oei Tiong Ham, see Java Bank Files enclosures: c.v. 107/4, II May 1934, 119/13, 15 July 1946, 114/30, 30 August 1941, 106/14, 15 September 1933, 106/21, 30 October 1933, 189/18, 24 February 1937. 77. Letter to president and directors of Java Bank, c.v. 114/30, 30 August 1941, Batavia. 78. Letter from agent of Java Bank, Semarang, to Batavia, 105/10, 23 May 1932, 114/21, 17 September 1941. 79. Java Bank correspondence, 106/1, 9 May 1933, 106/5, 29 June 1933, 106/5, 30 June 1933, 106/5, II July 1933 and 24 July 1933. 80. Java Bank correspondence, 106/11, 3 September 1933, 106/17, 19 September 1933. 81. Java Bank correspondence, 112/44 c.v., 16 February 1940. 82. PRO CO 273/576/82156-162568; Java Bank correspondence, 114/30, 30 Au• gust 1941. 83. Hiroshi Shimizu, 'A study of Japan's commercial expansion into the Nether• lands Indies from 1914 to 1941', Nagoya Shoka Daigak11 Ronsh11 [Nagoya Commercial University] 34, 2 (March 1990). 84. Java Bank box files 1787, 1841, 1867. 85. Java Bank box files 1872-1907, enclosures 95/10 and 94/18 on liquidation of the Deli Bank. 276 Notes and References

86. Java Bank box files 1841-1871, enclosure 100/143, 29 December 1927, on Be Biauw Tjoan. 87. Brown (1988) p. 144. 88. Ibid., p. 145. 89. Suehiro (1989) p. 134. 90. Lee Sheng Yi, The Monetary and Banking Developmelll of and Sin- gapore (Singapore, 1974) p. 71. 91. Tan Ee Leong (1969) p. 261. 92. Java Bank correspondence 100/143, 29 December 1927. 93. Letter from Medan to Batavia, 16 May 1928, Java Bank Archives. 94. Michael R. Godley, The Mandarin Capitalists from Nanyang: Overseas Chi• nese Enterprise in tire Modemisation of China, 1893-19 Il (Cambridge, 1981) pp. 85-91, 171-2. 95. Ibid. 96. Java Bank correspondence, 'Liquidation of Deli Bank', 96/9, 30 October 1923. 97. Ibid.; Java Bank box files 1872-1907, enclosures 94-96, letter from agent of Java Bank, Medan, 18 September 1935, regarding the organisation of Tjong A Fie's Trust - the Toen Mock Thong. 98. Java Bank box files 1872-1907. 99. Java Bank correspondence, Batavia, reports on Be Biauw Tjoan, 99/13, 12 July 1926, 99/31, 10 October 1926. I 00. Balance sheets, Ho Hong Bank, 1917-1931. 101. Brown (1988) pp. 142-3. 102. Brock K. Short, 'Indigenous banking in an early period of development: the Straits Settlements 1914-1940', The Malayan Economic Review, 16, April 1971, pp. 67, 70. 103. Balance sheets of the three banks, 1931. I 04. Short (1971) p. 72. 105. Frank H. H. King, Tire Hongkong Bank between the Wars and the Bank Interned 1919-1945: Re111r11 from Grandeur, Vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1988) pp. 182-3. 106. Java Bank letter, 96/9, 30 October 1923. I 07. Short ( 1971) Table l on p. 72; balance sheets of the banks incorporated in the Straits Settlements 1914-40. I 08. OCBC balance sheets and annual reports, 1933-40. 109. R. Brown, 'Chinese business and banking in South-East Asia since 1870', in Geoffrey Jones (ed.) Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990) pp. 180-2. II 0. Calculated from data in Short (1971) pp. 60-3, and OCBC balance sheet 1940. Ill. Punnee Bualek (1989) Table I on p. 293. 112. Ministry of Commerce Commercial Registration Department, Bangkok, cor• respondence on Wang Lee, 23 August 1939. 113. Siam Commercial Bank Archives statement on Wang Lee, 15 August 1941.

9 Chettiar Credit Networks

I. Records of conversations with Chinese traders in Phuket, NA r7 SB 2.28/29; Selangor Secretariat Files: SSP 1900 file 4010, SSP 1902 file 1460, SSP 1918 file 4755, SSP 1925 file 1453. 2. SSF 1932 file 1952, 1931 file 2100, 1924 file 1796, 1923 files 153 and 3968- 3978, 1896 file 4891, 1885 file 203. 3. Memorandum on Chettiar loans, Hongkong Bank, Singapore, II May 1929. 4. U Tun Wai, Burma's Currency (Calcutta, 1953) p. 57. Notes and References 277

5. N. R. Chakravarti, The Indian Minority in Burma: The Rise and Decline of an lmmigram Community (London, 1971) p. 71. 6. Lim Teck Ghee, Peasants and Their Agricultural Economy in Colonial Malaya 1874-1941 (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 200; Malaya, Federal Council Proceed• ings, 19 January 1931, Bl6-23. 7. Ibid. 8. Lim Teck Ghee (1977) p. 200. 9. Report of Burma Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee 1929-30 (RBPBEC) vol. 3 (Rangoon, 1930) pp. 226-34. I 0. Internal note on money supply in Rangoon, Lloyds Bank, 22 May 1933. II. Ibid. 12. Memorandum, 'Monies advanced by the banks of Burma to Chetties for fi• nance to the Burma rice cultivators and middlemen', 2 May 1934, Lloyds Bank, Eastern Department. 13. Ibid. 14. Murugappa Group Business Prospectus (Madras, 1982); Shoji Ito, 'A note on the business combine in India with special reference to the Natukkottai Chettiars', Developing Economies, 4A, 1966, pp. 367-80. 15. RBPBEC, 3, pp. 11-33, 80-92. 16. Ibid. 17. Michael Adas, The Burma Delta: Economic Developmem and Social Change on an Asian Rice Frontier, 1852-1941 (Madison, 1974) pp. 164-5; RBPBEC, 3, p. 22. 18. Lim Teck Ghee (1977) p. 200; Paul Kratoska, The Chelliar and the Yeoman: British Cultural Categories and R11ral Indebtedness in Malaya (Institute of South• East Asian Studies, Occasional Paper 32, Singapore, 1975) pp. 11-12. 19. RBPBEC, 3, pp. 11-33, 80-92. 20. Ad as (1974) pp. 136-7. 21. Notices of declaration of bankruptcy in the Government Gazette of the Straits Selllements and Federated Malay States, 1920-2 (the years of the rubber slump). 22. Memoirs of Prince Boriphat and Phra Aramsakornkit, 14-17 March 1930, NA r7 SB 2.28/29. 23. Jennifer W. Cushman, Family and State: The Formation of a Sino-Thai Tin• Mining Dynasty 1797-1932 (Singapore, 1991) pp. 69-75. 24. F. D. Birch, 'Tropical milestones: Australian gold and tin mining investment in Malaya and Thailand 1880-1930' (M.A., University of Melbourne, 1976) p. 218. 25. Phuwadol Songprasert, 'The development of Chinese capital in southern Siam 1868-1932' (Ph.D., Monash University, 1986) p. 312. 26. Note on details of Tan Kah Kee's financial relations, Hongkong Bank, Penang, II April 1932. 27. Malaya, Federal Council Proceedings, 19 January 1931, B 16-23. 28. Note on credit limits of Chettiars, 16 January 1928, Lloyds Bank, Rangoon; leiter from Manager, Lloyds Bank, Rangoon, to London, 22 January 1935. 29. Memorandum, 'Monies advanced by the banks of Burma to Chetties for fi• nance to the Burma rice cultivators and middlemen', 2 May 1934, Lloyds Bank Eastern Department. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Letter from Manager, Lloyds Bank, Rangoon to London, 22 January 1935. 34. Note of 3 August 1939, Lloyds Bank, Eastern Department Committee. 35. Ibid. 278 Notes and References

36. Note of 21 January 1922, Lloyds Bank, Eastern Department. 37. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Colombo, to Hong Kong, 22 February 1936. 38. Note of 13 June 1937, Hongkong Bank, Calcutta. 39. Chakravarti (1971) p. 95. 40. J. Pavadarayan, 'The Chettiar of Singapore: a study of an Indian minority com• munity in South-East Asia' (Ph.D., University of Bielefeld, 1986) p. 191; Chakravarti (1971) pp. 93-4. 41. RBPBEC, vol. I, p. 150; U Tun Wai (1953) pp. 54-5; Annual Report of Singa• pore Chettiar Chamber of Commerce, Registrar of Societies (Singapore, 1947); V. Krishnan, Indigenous Banking in So/1/h India (Bombay, 1959) p. 41. 42. 'Status of Chettiar Moneylenders', report from Lloyds Bank, Rangoon, to London, 19 February 1937; Adas (1974) p. 114. 43. C. J. Baker, An Indian Rural Economy 1880-1955: The Tamilnad Countryside (New Delhi, 1984) pp. 315-329. 44. Ibid. 45. Correspondence 1917-32 of Chartered Bank, Singapore. 46. Ibid., 1917-32. 47. For a clear view of Chettiar impact on finance in South-East Asia, see Compton Mackenzie, Realms of Silver: One Hundred Years of Banking in the East (Lon• don, 1954) pp. 90, 106, 108. 48. Internal correspondence, Chartered Bank, Penang, II February 1922, 22 March 1927, 30 June 1929.

10 Marketing and the Textile Trade: An Indian Success

I. W. Mass and W. Lazonick, 'The British cotton industry and international com• petitive advantage: the state of the debates', in Mary B. Rose (ed) International Competition and Strategic Response in the Textile Industries since 1870 (Lon• don, 1991) pp. 9-65; W. Lazonick and W. Mass, 'The performance of the British cotton industry 1870-1913', Research in Economic History, 9 (1984); W. Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy (Cambridge, 1991) Chapter I. 2. Stanley Chapman, 'The decline and rise of textile merchanting 1880-1990' in Rose (1991) pp. 171-90. 3. Letter from J. Robertson to John Hay, April 1936, in Guthrie Letter Book; A. Hood Begg (Penang Guthrie) to London, on the Import Department, 30 June 1908; 'Some Notes', in letter from Hay to London, I June 1936. 4. Derived from summaries of Guthrie's financial position and performance of sections, I July 1911, 31 May 1927, 20 October 1941. 5. Ibid. 6. Leller from Guthrie, Singapore, to London, containing half yearly accounts of Piece Goods Department June 1922-December 1935. 7. Transcript of oral history interview, Sachdev Durgadass (Oral History Depart• ment, Singapore National Archives, Singapore, 1984). 8. Shinya Sugiyama, 'Textile marketing in East Asia 1860-1914' Textile History, 19, 2 (1988) p. 284; Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Private Investment in India 1900- 1939 (Cambridge, 1972) p. 231; letter from A. Hood Begg, Penang Guthrie, to London on piece goods imports from UK, I July 1907 (Guthrie Archives). 9. James C. Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand 1850-1970 (Stanford, 1971) pp. 113-23. 10. Correspondence between Guthrie Singapore and London, 1917, 1918, 1933. II. Shinya Sugiyama, 'The expansion of Japan's collon textile exports into South-East Notes and References 279

Asia' (paper presented at workshop 'International Commercial Rivalry in South• East Asia in the Interwar Period', Shimoda, Japan, 12-15 April 1988) Table 6 on p. 21. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., Table 4 on p. 21. 14. Kaigai Keizai Jijo dated 22 February 1932 (Japanese Foreign Ministry, Tokyo) p. 225; J. J. Van Klaveren, The D11tch Colonial System in the Indies (Rotter• dam, 1953) p. 193. 15. Ibid. 16. Ingram (1971) p. 120. 17. Sugiyama (1988) 'The expansion of Japan's cotton textile exports .. .' p. 23. 18. T. Uyeda, The Small Industries of Japan (New York, 1938) pp. 39, 41; see also my Table I 0.2. 19. K. Seki, The Cotton Industry of Japan (Tokyo, 1956) p. 30. 20. Alex J. Robertson, 'Lancashire and the rise of Japan 1910-1937' in Rose (1991) p. 90. 21. Ibid. 22. Seki (1956) pp. 304, 312-3, 338; Takamura Naosuke, Nippon Bosekigyoshi Josetsu [The History of the Cotton Spinning Industry in Japan] vols. I, 2 (Hanawa• Shobo, 1971 ). 23. Sugiyama (1988) 'The expansion .. .' p. 12; Hiroshi Shimizu, 'A study of Ja• pan's commercial expansion into the Netherlands Indies from 1914 to 1941', Nagoya Shoka Daigaku Rons/111 [The Journal of the Nagoya Commercial Uni• versity] 34, 2 (March 1990) pp. 60-l. 24. Shimizu (1990) pp. 60-l. 25. Mass and Lazonick (1991) p. 44. 26. Sugiyama (1988) 'The expansion .. .' p. 13. 27. Ibid., p. 24. 28. Ibid., p. 12. 29. Nippon Menka Kabushiki Kaisha 50 Nenshi (Tokyo, 1943) pp. 140-l. 30. Shimizu (1990) p. 53. 31. Ibid., p. 56. 32. Mass and Lazonick (1991) p. 37. 33. Shimizu (1990) p. 56; letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Batavia, to Kobe branch, I March 1927. 34. Ibid. 35. Kaoru Sugihara, 'Japan as an engine of the Asian international economy c.l880- 1936', Japan Forum 2, I (April 1990) pp. 141-2. 36. Sugiyama (1988) 'The expansion .. .' p. 13. 37. Ibid. 38. Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Private Investmelll in India 1900-39 (Cambridge, 1972) p. 244. 39. Memorandum regarding the effect of the Importation of Textiles (Quotas) Or• dinance 1934 on the entrepot trade of Singapore, 19 September 1934, Commit• tee of the Singapore Chamber of Commerce, CO 323/1306/31838/4. 40. PRO C0852/19/1/165382. 41. Seki (1956) p. 77; Robertson (1991) p. 97. 42. Bagchi (1972) p. 242. 43. W. A. I. M. Segers, Manufacturing Industry 1870-/942 Vol. 8 of Changing Economy of Indonesia, p. 154. 44. Hiroshi Shimizu, Anglo-Japanese Trade Rivalry in the Middle East in the Inter• war Period (London, 1986) pp. 46-9. 280 Notes and References

45. Straits Settlements, Proceedings of the Legislative Council, II June 1934, p. B94. 46. Straits Times, 4 December 1937; CO 852/224/3. 47. Mededeelingen van het Centraal Kantoor voor de Statistiek 161, Hande/sstatistiek N.E.I., 1874-1937. 48. lndisch Verslag ( 1940) p. 339. 49. PRO C0852/167/9-165334, Appendices 4-7. 50. I have used two major sources for information on the Sindhi network: the Siam Commercial Bank Archives in Bangkok, and the Hongkong Bank Archives in Hong Kong (both include their branch records); also The Indians Abroad (Bombay, 1934); Claude Markovits, 'The Sindhwork merchants: the economic role and organization of a worldwide trading network from Hyderabad (Sind), 1860-1947' (unpublished paper, 1992). Markovits estimates that there were almost 20 000 Sindhi merchants in the textile diaspora. 51. Oral history transcripts of D. T. Assomull and G. G. Khemani, Singapore. 52. Siam Commercial Bank, Bangkok, Details of Clients. K. A. J. Chotirmall, 10 December 1926, details the monthly bullion and foreign exchange transactions of this firm and its branches. 53. Markovits (1992) p. 4. 54. See note 51. 55. Mitsui Bussan Ltd., Kohan Mitsui Bussan Kabushiki Gaisha Hyakunetl shi [A Centennial History of Mitsui & Co. Ltd] 2 vols (privately published, Tokyo, 1978). 56. Ibid. 57. Markov its (1992) p. 5. 58. K. N. Vaid, Tile Overseas Indian Community in Hong Kong (Hong Kong, 1972); Kunio Yoshihara, Philippine Industrialisation: Foreign and Domestic Capital (Singapore, 1985) p. 151. 59. Hongkong Bank, Saigon, internal note giving clients' details, 8 May 1934. 60. Ibid. Similar information on Pohomull Bros is contained in Hongkong Bank, Kobe, letter from Kobe to Hong Kong headquarters, 22 August 1932. Some detail on D. Chellaram may be found in Kobe branch letter, 19 August 1930. 61. List of credit limits of clients, 1921-9, in Siam Commercial Bank Archive. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid. 64. Letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Saigon, to headquarters, on credit limits of clients, 2 September 1934. For useful information on Sindhi merchants, see also Hongkong Bank files for Bombay, 1921-9. 65. Siam Commercial Bank files, 1909-29; oral history transcript of Sachdev Durgadass. The Mercantile Bank, Singapore, files have details on Gian Singh Co. Ltd, 1935-57. 66. List of loans to Indian textile traders, 1921-34, in Siam Commercial Bank Archives. 67. Note on credit relations with Gian Singh, 1935-41, Mercantile Bank, Singapore. 68. PRO C0852/394/4-168535. Utoomal Assomall & Co. was the main merchant in Burma's textile trade with Japan. 69. C0852/167/9-165334; C0852/l09/l0-162772. 70. C0852/109/I0-162772. 71. C0852/19/I-175382; C0852/l67/9-165334; C0852/351/2-163463. 72. C0852/167/9-165334; C0852/1 09/10-162772. 73. C0852/167/9-165334. 74. C0852/351/2-163463. Notes and References 281

II Entrepreneurship and Property Development: The Case of A. E. Nana

I. Leo Douw, 'The entrepreneurial interest in non-Communist land reform: West 1929-49', paper for workshop, 'Chinese business houses in Asia since 1870', SOAS, 22-4 March 1993, pp. 4-6. 2. N. R. Chakravarti, The Indian Minority in Burma: The Rise and Decline of an Immigrant Community (London, 1971) p. 91. 3. Ibid., p. 63. 4. David Feeny, The Political Economy of Productivity: Thai Agricultural Devel• opment 1880-1975 (Vancouver, 1982) p. 22. 5. Anne Booth, 'The economic development of South-East Asia, 1870-1985', Australian Economic History Review, 31, I (March 1991) p. 36. 6. Daniel F. Doeppers, 'Metropolitan Manila in the Great Depression: crisis for whom?' (unpublished paper, kindly made available by author). 7. Thaveesilp Subvattana, 'Kanpalit lai kankhakhao nai phak Klang B.E. 2411- 2475' [Rice production and rice trade in Central Thailand 1868-1932) (M.A., Chulalongkorn University, 1978) pp. 101-2; David B. Johnston, 'Rural society and the rice economy in Thailand, 1880-1930' (Ph.D., Yale University, 1975) p. 121. 8. Ibid. 9. Selangor Secretariat Files. SSF 1896 file 1337, SSF 1896 tile 1960, SSF 1901 file 6555, SSF 1902 file 1450, SSF 1905 file 250, SSF 1915 file 2967. 10. John Butcher, 'Loke Yew', in John Butcher and Howard Dick (eds) The Rise and Fall of Revenue Farming: Business Elites and the Emergence of the Modern State in South-East Asia (London, 1993) p. 259. II. Ibid. 12. SSF 1917 file 2098, SSF 1898 file 1140, SSF 1898 file 2827. 13. SSF 4065 file 1898. 14. Butcher (1993) p. 260. 15. This account of A. E. Nana is derived from the archives of I) The Hongkong Bank (Bangkok branch), for the period 1906-41; 2) The Siam Commercial Bank for 1917-41; 3) The Ministry of Commerce and its Commercial Registration Department, Bangkok; 4) The National Archives, Bangkok, which includes files on a) Ministry of Justice, 1910-25, b) Ministry of Interior, 1925-35, c) Minis• try of the Capital, 19 I 0-25, d) Department of Land Registration of the Minis• try of the Capital 1910-25, e) Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1925-39, f) Minis• try of Finance and the Office of the Financial Adviser, 1900-39. 16. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to Calcutta branch, I I March 1919. 17. H. C. Geerligs Prinsen, The World's Cane Sugar Industry (Aitricham, 1912) pp. 140-1. 18. Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Development of Thailand 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 101. 19. Geerligs Prinsen (1912) p. 141. 20. H. C. and R. J. Geerligs Prinsen, Cane Sugar Production 1912-1937 (London, 1938) p. 83. 21. Ibid.; Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Private Investment in India 1900-39 (Cambridge, 1972) p. 372. 22. Department of Commercial Registration, Ministry of Commerce, letters: 3 April 1914, on proposed registration of Randery Burah Makan Co. Ltd (RBM); 2 December 1915, includes documents on RBM with particulars on capital, partners and articles of association. 23. Department of Land files (in the Ministry of the Capital) NA r6 Nl5 18/2 March 282 Notes and References

1922; Ministry of Interior files, NA r7 M 31.11/26, r7 M 17/3, r7 M 31.1/27, r7 M 31/6. 24. Ibid.; Letter from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok to Hong Kong, 15 January 1929. 25. Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, Credit Limit of A. E. Nana & Co. Ltd, 19 April 1913; Memorandum, II April 1927. 26. Internal note on A. E. Nana & Co. Ltd, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, 12 July 1935. 27. Letter of Credit Limit: A. E. Nana & Co. Ltd, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, 4 February 1922. 28. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to Hong Kong, 26 March 1929; De• partment of Land Registration (Ministry of Interior) files: r7 M 31/11/26, r7 M 31.1/27, r7 M 17/3; Ministry of Capital file r6 N 15.8/2. 29. Letters from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to Hong Kong, 21 November 1923, 22 July 1932. 30. Ministry of Justice file r6 J 2/8, Legal Dispute over Land settled in Nana's favour in 1910. 31. Ministry of Interior files, r7 M 31/6, r7 M 17/3. 32. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to Hong Kong, 4 January 1934. 33. Ibid. 34. G. William Skinner, Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History (New York, 1962 edn) p. 276. 35. Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, Credit Limit 1913; Credit Limit 1923. 36. Letter from Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to Hong Kong, 5 March 1923. 37. Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, Letter Book, 30 December 1921-8 October 1926. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid. 43. Internal note, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, 20 June 1931. 44. Letter from Manager, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, to Hong Kong, 25 November 1920. 45. Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, Credit Limit, 7 October 1925. 46. Memorandum, Hongkong Bank, 20 June 1931. 47. Credit Limits, Randcry Burah Makan Co. Ltd, Hongkong Bank, Bangkok, 25 January 1933, 8 June 1933, 5 September 1933, 12 October 1933. 48. List of loans and assets (land, property, shares) held against these loans, Siam Commercial Bank, 2 June 1923, 26 September 1923, 5 September 1933. 49. Letter from Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Siam) to Ministry of Commerce, 7 July 1934, on the will of A. E. Nana; copy of letter to British Embassy (Bangkok). 50. Ministry of Commerce (Department of Commercial Registration), Balance Sheet of A. E. Nana & Co. Ltd, 15 March 1941; Ministry of Interior, Land Sales (A. E. Nana & Co. Ltd), II June 1941.

12 Industrialisation

I. J. Fei and G. Ranis, The Development of the Labour Surplus Economy (Illinois, 1964). 2. Jan Boeke, Economics and Economic Policy of Dual Societies as exemplified by Indonesia (Haarlem, 1953). 3. Clifford Geertz, Peddlers and Princes: Social Developme/11 and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns (Chicago, 1963). 4. Lance Castles, Religion, Politics and Economic Behavio11r in Java: The K11dr1s Cigarette Industry (Yale, 1967). Notes and References 283

5. F. Bray, The Rice Economies (Oxford, 1986). 6. K. Ohkawa and S. Mundie, 'Agricultural surplus flow in Japan 1868-1937', The Developing Economies, 17, 3 (1979) pp. 247-65. 7. M. Fruin, Kikkoman: Company, Clan and Community (Cambridge, Mass, 1983); 0. Saito, 'The rural economy: commercial agriculture, by-employment and wage work', in M. Jansen and G. Rozman (eds) Japan in Transition (Princeton, 1986). 8. W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, 1961). 9. Ma. Theresa Colayco, The Ropemakers: The Story of Manila Cordage Co. (Makati, 1975). 10. W. A. I. M. Segers, Manufacturing Industry 1870-1942: The Changing Economy in Indonesia, vol. 8 (Amsterdam, 1987) p. 28. II. James C. Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand 1850-1970 (Stanford, 1971 edn) pp. 135-41. 12. P. T. Bauer, The Rubber Industry: A Study in Competition and Monopoly (Lon• don, 1948) p. 265. 13. Lim Chong Yah, Economic Development of Modern Malaya (Kuala Lumpur, 1967) p. 272. 14. Charles Robequain, The Economic Developmellt of French Indo China (Lon- don, 1944) p. 248. 15. Ibid., p. 280. 16. Ibid., p. 248. 17. Segers (1987) p. 28. 18. Ibid. 19. Jack Shepherd, Industry in Southeast Asia (New York, 1941), p. 44. 20. Segers ( 1987) p. 31. 21. Sompop Manarungsan, The Economic Development of Thailand 1850-1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy (Bangkok, 1989) p. 252. 22. Alfred W. McCoy, 'A queen dies slowly: the rise and decline of Iloilo City' in Alfred W. McCoy and Ed C. de Jesus, Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformation (Sydney, 1982) pp. 301-7. 23. Segers (1987) p. 35. 24. Ibid., p. 31. 25. Ibid., p. 32. 26. T. G. Rawski, Economic Growth in Prewar China (Berkeley, 1989) p. 280; Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Private Investment in India 1900-39 (Cambridge, 1972) p. 118. 27. Anne Booth, Agricultural Development in Indonesia (Sydney, 1988) p. 29; Sompop ( 1989) p. 32. 28. Sompop (1989) p. 32. 29. Ingram (1971) p. 55. 30. Sompop (1989) p. 168. 31. J. J. Polak, The National Income of the Netherlands Indies 1921-39, as re• printed in P. Creutzberg (ed.) The Changing Economy in Indonesia vol. 5, Na• tional Income (The Hague, 1979), Table 8.2; H. J. Van Oorschot, De Ontwikkeling Van De Nijverheid in lndonesie (The Hague, 1956) p. 93. 32. Michael R. Godley, The Mandarin Capitalists from Nanyang; Overseas Chinese Enterprise in the Modernization of China 1893-1911 (Cambridge, 1981) Chapter 6. 33. Ibid., p. 154. 34. Michael R. Godley, 'Bacchus in the East: the Chinese grape wine industry 1892- 1938', Business History Review, 60, (Autumn 1986) p. 393. 284 Notes and References

35. Ibid. 36. Ibid., pp. 396-7. 37. Ibid., p. 403. 38. Godley (1981) p. 128. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid., pp. 186-7. 42. Java Bank file 1872, February 1921. 43. Claude Markovits, 'The Tala paradox' (paper for workshop 'Concepts of economic organization in India', SOAS, July 1992). 44. Java Bank files 1874, 1875, 1877, 1882. 45. PRO CO 852/122/5 - 163409; CO 852/122/5 - 162729. 46. Victor Purcell, The Chinese in South-East Asia (London, 1965, 2nd edn) pp. 504-5. 47. The Manila Chronicle, 31 January 1968. 48. Norman G. Owen, 'Philippine economic development and American policy: a reappraisal', in Norman G. Owen (ed) Compadre Colonialism: Studies on the Philippines under American Rule (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1971) pp. 103-28. 49. M. C. Guerrero, 'A survey of Japanese trade and investments in the Philippines with special reference to Philippine-American reactions 1900-41 ', Philippine Social Science and Humanities Review, 31, I ( 1966) p. 28. SO. Ibid., pp. 25-7. 51. Philippine Legislature Official Gazette, 17, 22 (28 May 1919) pp. 908-9. 52. For a summary of the cement industry in the Philippines see, Ian Brown, 'Some comments on industrialisation in the Philippines during the 1930s', in Ian Brown (ed) The Economies of Africa and Asia in the flllerwar Depression (London, 1989) pp. 203-20. 53. Helmut G. Callis, Foreign Capital in South-East Asia (New York, 1942) pp. 12, 20. 54. 'Memorandum on industrial ventures in the Kingdom of Siam', I May 1914, Siam Commercial Bank Archives. 55. Alfred W. McCoy, 'Sugar barons: formation of a native planter class in the Colonial Philippines', The Joumal of Peasallt Sllldies, 19, 3/4 (April/July 1992) p. 126. 56. Frank H. Golay, 'South-East Asia: the "Colonial Drain" revisited', in C. D. Cowan and 0. W. Wolters, South-East Asian History and Historiography (Ithaca, 1976) p. 377. 57. Ibid., p. 376. 58. Ibid. 59. Ian Brown, The Elite and the Economy in Siam c./890-1920 (Singapore, 1988) Chapter 5. 60. Segers (1987) pp. 37-8. 61. Martin J. Murray, The Development of Capitalism in Colonia/Indo China, 1870- 1940 (Berkeley, 1980) p. 349. 62. Brown ( 1989) p. 206. 63. La Fabrica de Cerveza de San Miguel [San Miguel Brewery 1890-1940: Golden Jubilee] (Manila, 1940, unpaginated). 64. The following account of Boon Rawd Brewery is derived from three sources: I) History of Phirompakdi and the Brewery (Bangkok, 1975). This is an anniversary volume containing interesting detail on Phirompakdi's background, his travels to Indo China and Germany to gain expertise, and details of the actual construction of the brewery and the products. 2) Files of the office of the Financial Adviser (ref. K Kh 0301/17/28), which contain information on the Notes and References 285

beer excise revenue in Siam in the 1920s, the government attitude to local production, and protectionism in general. 3) The Ministry of Commerce files on Boon Rawd for 1934-58. These contain critical information on capital, profits and markets. Included are all details of the company balance sheets. 65. Balance sheet of Boon Rawd, 1958, Ministry of Commerce. 66. This account of Malayan Breweries is based largely on Minutes of Directors' Meetings, 15 April 1931-2 December 1941. These documents were made available to me by Ian Brown. The Straits Times is useful for the published balance sheets of Malayan Breweries Ltd and its parent company, Fraser & Neave. The Minute Book of General Meetings of Fraser & Neave for the 1930s is also useful. The Archipelago Brewery is derived from Articles of Association of Archipel Brouwerij Compagnie N.V., Batavia, June 1931, and Registrar of Companies Files Singapore, Archipelago Brewery Co. Ltd, file 675/1931. Minutes of Directors Meeting, 15 April 1931, to form MBL. Participants were Fraser & Neave, Heineken and Sofibra. 67. Minutes of Directors Meeting, 7 September 1933, Malayan Breweries. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. MBL, 7 February 1934, 5 March 1936. 71. Ibid. 72. MBL, 4 September 1935. 73. MBL, 17 April 1935. 74. MBL, 6 April 1938. 75. MBL, 1934-7. 76. MBL, 10 March 1937. 77. MBL, 2 March 1938. 78. Ibid. 79. MBL, 2 November 1938. 80. MBL, 7 June 1939. 81. MBL, 19 July 1939. 82. 'Siam Cement Company', The Record, Ministry of Commerce (July 1923) pp. 13-15. 83. AGM of the Siam Cement Co. Ltd, 27 June 1921, Ministry of Commerce. 84. Extraordinary General Meeting, 29 February 1936, Siam Cement Co. Ltd, Min- istry of Commerce of the Kingdom of Siam. 85. EGM, 19 March 1940. 86. Brown (1988) p. 151. 87. The Siam Cement Company (Bangkok, 1957) p. 12. 88. Ibid. 89. Brown (1988) p. 154. 90. Ibid. 91. Minutes of AGM, Siam Cement Co., 3 March 1914, 14 December 1917, 27 June 1921, 14 November 1922, 12 December 1924. 92. Ibid.; 29 February 1936, 14 March 1937, 19 March 1940. 93. Brown (1988) p. 155. 94. Cebu Portland Cement Co. 1922-1953, (Cebu Portland Cement Co., Manila, n.d.); Annual Report of Collector of Customs (Philippine Islands; Department of Finance, Bureau of Customs) for 1925-38. 95. Cebu Portland Cement Co. 1922-1953. 96. Ibid. 286 Notes and References

Conclusion

I. There were undoubtedly several cases of weak business organisation and failures within western capital in colonial South-East Asia. The difficulties faced by Oost Borneo Maatschappij in the 1890s and Russell & Co in the 1920s in Malaya were severe enough to prompt drastic restructuring to avoid liquidation. But the overwhelming evidence points to longevity and some entrepreneurial success among western business groups in this period. This can be attributed to size, reputation, vastly superior technological and commercial expertise, besides access to metro• politan funds and favours from colonial governments, particularly in tax and other concessions. Archival Sources

l. COMPANY ARCHIVES

The records of the following have been used extensively: I The Hongkong Bank and its various branches and agencies covering South• East Asia, Hong Kong, China, Japan and India, held at Group Archives, Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Hong Kong. ii The Mercantile Bank, relating to South-East Asia and India, held in the HSBC archive, Hong Kong. iii The Siam Commercial Bank, held in Bangkok. iv The Java Bank, held by Bank Indonesia in Jakarta. v The Lloyds Bank Archive, London. vi Cox & Co., held in the Lloyds Bank Archive. vii The Chartered , Australia and China; Eastern Bank; P & 0 Bank• ing Corporation. These were all held by the Chartered Bank PLC Archive, but unfortunately, and half way through my research, the Archive was closed and the materials dispersed in an ad hoc manner. Some of them were transferred to the Guildhall Library. viii The Guthrie Archive, in the School of Oriental and African Studies. ix The Harrisons & Crosfield Archive, Portsmouth. x Registrar of Companies Files on the Archipelago Brewery, Singapore. xi The Minutes of Directors Meetings of Malayan Breweries Ltd, 1933-41, Sin• gapore. xii Minutes of Directors Meetings of Fraser & Neave, 1923-41, Singapore.

2. OFFICIAL AND OTHER DOCUMENTS

These are listed according to the region they covered.

Burma

India Office Library, London: - Report of the Burma Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, 1929-30, 3 vols. ii Madras Provincial Banking Enquiry Report, 1930. iii Statistical Abstract for British India (annual), 1916-37. iv Irrawaddy Flotilla Co., Manuscript Collection. v Official Reports and Publications on the forest system of British Burma, and on the rice and petroleum industries. vi Agricultural Surveys and Reports. vii British Parliamentary Papers relating to Burma. viii Proceedings of the Department of Commerce and Industry, Burma, 1919-20. ix Report of the Indian Industrial Commission, 1916-18. x Report of the Rice Export Trade Enquiry Committee, 1937. xi London Rice Brokers Association, Weekly Rice Circulars, 1921-37. (held at Association office).

287 288 Archival Sources

Malaya and Singapore

I Public Record Office, London CO 273 Original Correspondence between Governor, Straits Settlements, and Secretary of State for Colonies, 1897-1940. co 426 Register of Correspondence, Straits Settlements, 1896-1919. co 427 Register of Correspondence, Straits Settlements, 1920-37. co 574 Government Gazettes, Federated Malay States. co 575 Manual of Statistics, Imports and Exports, Federated Malay States, 1904-41. co 576 Federal Council Proceedings. co 717 Original Correspondence between High Commissioner, Federated Malay States, and Secretary of State for Colonies, 1920--40. CO 740 Imports/Exports, British Malaya, 1921-37. CO 828 Federated Malay States Acts, 1925-48. CO 852 Economic Correspondence, 1935-55. CO 953 Singapore Correspondence, 1936-51. FO 371 Correspondence, 1920-39. ii Selangor Secretariat Files, 1875-1941 (Arkib Negara, Kuala Lumpur). iii Registrar of Companies Files, 1900-41, Singapore National Archives. iv Oral History Transcripts of the Oral History Department, National Archives, Singapore. v Newspapers: Straits Times, 1920-39.

Netherlands East Indies

Algemeen Rijksarchief at The Hague I Kolonien (Kol), 1901-63: a. Verballen, various files, b. Mailrapporten, various files, c. Memorie van Overgave (MvO), Koninkelijke lnstituut voor de Tropen (KIT), Reports on various residencies for various years. ii Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij (NHM): reports on areas, 1905-39.

Thailand

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abaca [cordage), 223, 229, 231, 238 Bang Su, 248 accounting, 184, 200, 237, 252, 256-7 Bank Be Biauw Tjoan, 163-6, 168 Aceh, 8, 10-13, 17-18 Bank of Chettinad, 184 adathi [list), 184, 186 Bank of Malaya, 164 Africa, 189, 206-8, 247 Bank of Taiwan, 119, 200, 201 agency house, 41, 43-4, 101, 104, banking [Chinese), 104, 107-8, 134, 115-17, 122, 182, 190-2, 197, 202, 140-1, 150, 152, 159, 160-72, 181 223, 252-3, 286 banking [western), 41, 139, 167, 172-3, agriculture, 174, 180, 184, 187-8, 217, 176, 178, 180-1, 184, 185, 188, 220, 229-30, 240-1, 25 I, 253 214, 217-18, 239, 241-2 Ahmedabad, 206 Banque de I'Indochine, 133 Aik Seng & Co., 129 Bank, 209 alcohol production, 167, 233-4, 238 Batavia [Jakarta), 15, 118, 138, ISO, 153, I see also beer I 167, 189, 191, 199, 206, 208, 213, All Japan Cotton Spinners Association, 215, 217-18, 244, 246 198-9 Batavia Bank, 163 Allied Sumatra Plantations Ltd, 44, 59, batik, 193 61 bauxite mining, 95 Amoy, 14-15, 155 bazaar sales, 191 Anchor Beer, 244, 247 Be Biauw Tjoan, 163 Anderson, J., 65, 92 Be Kwat King, 166 Andres Soriano Y Roxas, 243 Beck & Co. [Bremen), 244 Anglo Burma Rice Co., 126 beer, 223, 229, 234, 238, 242-8 Anglo-Oriental, 88-92 Beng Bros., 131 Anglo-Siam Corporation Ltd, 73, 247 Beng Chong, 158-9 [see also Beng Hwat Arab, S, 8, 20, 191 & Co.) Archipelago Brewery Co., 244-7 Beng Hwat & Co., 126, 158 Arracan Rice & Trading Co., 135 Bibby and Henderson Line, 70 Asian NICs, 211, 254 Billiton Maatschappij, 77 Asian teak firms, 68-9 Blackwood & Co., 127 Assomull, Wassiamall, 203, 206, 208 Boeke, Jan, 221 Atlas Ice Co., 246 Bombay, 189, 192, 200, 207-9 Australia, 84, 87-9, 149, 172, 183, 207 Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation, Aw Boon Haw [Tiger Balm), 129 68, 70-1, 73-S, 137 Ayutthaya, 3, 10, 31, 214, 217 book-keeping barter, 133 Boon Rawd Brewery, 243-4 Baker, C. J., 188 Borneo, 199, 247 Ban Taway, 217 Borneo Company Ltd, The, 72-5, 135 Bandung, 213 Boustead & Co., 115 Bangkok, 3, 118, 121, 126, 128-9, 133, Bowring Treaty, 123, 216-7 135-8, 140-1, 150, 155, 160-1, 182, Bridgestone Tyre, 121 189, 191. 206, 208-9, 212-19 British, 38, 41, 66, 70, 74, 120-3, 129, Bangkok City Bank, 161 135, 145, 158, 165, 188-9, 191-3, Bank of Asia for Industry and Commerce, 196-7, 199, 201-3, 206, 208, 211, 165 214, 216-17, 253, 254 bankruptcy, 256 British India Steam Navigation Co .. 70, Ban Hong Guan, 129 183 Ban Joo Hin, 131, 235 British Tin Investments, 90

294 Index 295

Brown, Ian, 241 Chellaram, Dhanamal, 203, 207-8 Bulakun [Ma Lap Khun], 136 Chellaram Kishinchand, 203, 207-8 Buddhism, 3 Chettiars, 12, 20, 34, 86-7, 149, 154, Bugis, 4, 6, 8, 16, 20 156, 159, 172- 88, 212 Bulasuk, 134, 136 [see also Lo Tek Chetty, RMC Alagappa, 41 Clman] Chin Chew [commercial traveller], 128, Bullinger Pool, 126-7, 130 131 Bulloch Bros., 70, 126 Chin Seng [Kim Ching & Co.], 128 bureaucratic capitalism, 20, 235 China, 106-8, 118, 130, 134-7, 139-40, Burma, 28-30, 40, 66-71, 77, 105, 118, 142, 144, 146, 148, 155-7, 160-1, 123, 126-8, 130, 156, 174, 176-7, 163, 167, 183, 190, 192-3, 200-1, 179, 180-1, 183-5, 187, 192, 215, 233-4, 243, 246 209-10, 221, 229, 241, 247 Chinese, 10, 13-16, 19-20, 23-4, 31-2, Burma land acreage, 21 36-7, 39-40, 68, 78-89, 91, 108, Burmah Oil, 229 160, 178-9, 181-3, 185, 188, 191, Burmese foresters, 70 196, 199-201, 203, 206-7, 210-14, Burney Treaty, 132 217, 221, 223, 231-5, 238, 241, 243, Butcher, J., 147 246 Chinese Commercial Bank, 112, 134, Calcutta, 185, 214, 247 161, 164, 166, 169-70 Canton, 134, 138, 208 Chinese Protectorate, 147 , 155 Ching Government, 233 capital drain [colonial drain], 185, 187, Chino-Siam, 143, 160-1, 164-5 233-4, 240-1 Chino-Siam Steam Navigation Co. Ltd, capitalism, 220, 221, 251-4, 256-7 137 caste, 174, 184, 186 Chong Moh & Co., 131 Castles, Lance, 221 Chote Lam Sam, 138 Cebu Portland Cement Co., 239, 249 Chotirmall, K. A. J., 206-10 cement, 223, 234, 236, 238-9, 242, Chulia Muslims, 12-13, 18 248-50 Chulin Lam Sam, 132, 134, 165 Central Milling Agency, 130 Chung Khiaw Bank, 129 Ceylon, 180, 247 cigarettes, 221, 223 Chaam, 216 Cirebon, 163 Chai Lai Fang, 138 , New York, 184, 209 Chamber of Commerce, 146 client capitalism, 235 Chang Pi Shih, 82, 85-7, 143-4, 147-8, Colombo, 185, 247 163, 166-8, 233-5, 237 Colombo Trading Co., 247 Chan Hock Sun, 183 commercial networks, 242, 248, 252, Chan Sow Lin, 86 254-7 [see also networks] Chang Yu Pioneer Wine Co., 233 Confucianism, 4, 257 Chaophraya Yomarat, 248-9 coal, 237 Chapman, S., 189 Coca Cola, 243 Chartered Bank, 133, 149, 158, 176, Cochin China, 125-6, 129-30, 187 183-4, 188 commission merchant, 190 Chatthip Nartsupha, 254 compradore, 106-7, 119, 131, 138, Cheah Chen Eok, 147 157-60, 173, 182, 186, 208, 214, Cheah Choo Yew, 148 218, 256 Cheefoo, 167 Consolidated Tin Smelters Co. Ltd, 88, 90 Chee Swee Ching, Ill copper mining, 95 Cheang, 148 Cornish Smelting Co., 90 Chec Seng Rubber Works [Owner: Tan cotton industry, 189-90, 192-3, 197-203, Tcng Huang), 112, 158 207. 211, 238-9 Chce Swee Ching, 246 credit, 142, 150-72, 173-88, 190-2, 199, Check, Dr M. A., 72-5 240-1, 251 296 Index

Cuba, 138 Franklin Blake & Co., 135 currency speculation, 134, 155, 170, 176, Fraser and Neave, 244-7 206 fraud, 237 free standing firm [M. Wilkins), 55-6, Dai Nippon, 198 59-60, 65 Danish, Denmark, 160, 248 French, 40, 130, 209-10, 216-17, 234, Dawson's Bank, 179 253 Deli Dank, 147, 163-9, 234, 237 Fuji Gasu, 198 dependency theory, 185-6, 188, 220, Fukushima, 198 241-2, 251, 254 Depression, Great, 130-3, 140, 158, 164, Gan Ngoh Bee, 147, 149 167, 170, 172, 174, 177-8, 180, 184, Geertz, Clifford, 221 186, 209, 215, 239, 253, 257 German, 126, 135, 160, 206, 159, 208, Deutsche-Asiatische Bank, 209 234, 243-4 , 208 Gian Singh, 206, 209 dialect, 134, 142-3, 148-9, 153, 155-6, Gibraltar, 207 171-2 Goh Boon Keng, 147 Don Enrique Maria Barretto Y de Ycaza, Gold Standard, 165 243 Gosho, 197 discharge ticket system, 147 Green Revolution, 222 dollar companies, 100 Grut, W. L., 248 dual economy, 220--2 Guam, 243 Dutch, 8-9, 11-13, 16-17,20,40-1, 112, Guan Hong Whatt, 129 119-20, 143-4, 158, 164, 201-2, Guangdong, 137, 139-40 210, 216, 232, 235, 241, 243, 247, guild, 128 253-4 Gujcrati, 11-12,40, 173, 175-6,206, 209-10 East Asiatic Co. [Danish], 75, 115, 135 Guthrie, 41, 44, 49, 63, 91-2, 100, 191, Eastern Shareholders, 182-3 193, 247 Eastern Shipping Co. Ltd, 87, 131, 182-3 Eastern Smelting Co., 77, 87-8, 90 Hagemeyer & Co., 247 Ellerman's Arracan Rice & Trading Co. Hailam, 155 126, 135 [see also Arracan Rice & Hakka, 38, 128-9, 144, 152-3, 156 Trading Co.] Hamburg, 138, 159 Elizalde, 223, 238 Handelsbank, 163, 209 English trader [East India Company], 8, handicrafts industry, 229, 234 17-18 Hang [Cooperative), 128 European, 135-6, 138, 147, 150, 158, Hanoi, 208-9 165, 171, 174, 186, 189, 193, 198, Harperink Smith & Co., 247 206, 209-15, 232, 238, 246 Harrisons & Crosfield, 41, 43-55, 91, Eu Tong Sen, 214 108, 252-3 Ewart Latham & Co., 73 Hawaii, 104, 116 Hay, Sir John, 49, 65, 92 family-lineage, 137, 140-1, 143, 145, Hay, William, 107-8 149, 156-7, 167-8, 171, 174, 201, Heah Joo Seang, 117-22, 159 206-7, 214-19, 237, 256-7 Heap & Sons Ltd, Joseph, 127 farm household economy, 222 Heincken, 244, 247 finance, 54 Hcmmes & Co., 247 Findlay & Son, T.D., 70 Hin Giap Trading Co., 118-21 Foo Choo Choon, 84-7, 145-7, 214, 234 Ho Hong Bank, 129, 134, 155, 161, 164, Foo Tye Sin, 82 166, 168-70 Fook On Insurance Co., 139 Ho Hong & Co., 129 foreign direct investment, 238, 251 Ho Yam Lo, 146 Foucar & Co., 70 Hock Lee, Ill Index 297

Hock Tong, 111-12 Ishihara Sangyo Kaiun Goshi Kaisha, , 38, 128-30, 144, 148, 152-3, 93-4, 97-8 155-7, 163 Italy, 138 Hong Kong, 129-31, 134-40, 142-3, 146, Ito Chu Shoji, 197 148, 156, 160-1, 163, 166-7, 17-1, 182, 189, 200, 208-9, 211-12, 215, Jambi, 36 217' 243, 246-8 Japanese, 15, 19, 42, 77, 92-9, 105, Hongkong Bank, 106-8, 112-13, 133, 139, 164, 172, 174, 181, 187, 190, 158-9, 169, 185, 200, 208-9, 216-18 192, 193, 196-9, 202-3, 206-8, Honolulu, 243 210-11, 216, 222, 237, 239, 242-4, Hoosain Hamadani, 126 252-5, 257 Hong, Lysa, 143 Japan Cotton Trading Co., 210 Huff, G., 113-14 Java, Ill, 145-6,152-3,159,165,182, Hui, 15, 142, 150-7 198-201, 209, 214-15, 221, 223, Hundi [promissory note], 185-6 230, 247-8 Hyderabad, 189, 207-8 Java Bank, 159, 163-5, 167-8, 240 Java-textiel Maatschappij, 229 Iamsuri, 137 Java-China-Japan Line, 95 Ice and Cold Storage Industry, 243 joint stock company, 149, 170, 182, 187, lchira Uchse, 120 203, 237 Imperial Bank of China, 166, 234, 237 Johore, 148, 180 , 180, 184 Joo Seng Heng Bank, 160, 165, 168 Imperial Steel Works, 92, 99, 237 Jumabhoy, R., 209 Import Restriction Ordinance 1933 [Netherlands East Indies], 202 Kalimantan, 199 import substitution industrialization, Kamunting Tin Dredging Ltd, 91 223-4, 242 Kanegafuchi, 198 Indian, 10, 18, 40, 173, 176, 180-1, 185, Kanematsu Shoten, 197 187-8, 192, 197, 201-3, 209-10, Kangani [Indian labour recruiter], 230 211-12, 215, 217, 230, 232, 243, Kanni Timber Traders Association, 68 246-7 Kansas, 243 , 176 Kapitan Cina, 128, 146, 235 Indian trader, II Kawasaki dockyard, 99 Indian trading network, I 0, 13, 175, Kedah, 130, 182 189-90, 192, 196, 199-200, 206, Kediri Kongsi, 146 209-11' 230-1' 238, 252 , 128 indigenous, 10-11, 19, 27, 72, 180-1 Khaw Joo Choe, 146 Indochina, Vietnam, 3-4, 21, 33-4, 40, Khaw Sim Bee, 82, 84, 87-8, 144-6, 71-2, 105, 118, 122-3, 126-8, 138, 149, 173, 182-3, 235 176, 180, 199, 207, 240, 241, 248 Khean Guan Insurance Co. Ltd, 87 Indonesia, 158-9, 163, 165, 167, 171, Kheh, 155 192, 209, 229 Khoo Cheng Teow, 129 industrialisation, 231, 237 Khoo Hun Yeang, 149 'institutional' economics, 242, 251-7 Khoo Kok Wah, 134 interest rate, 151, 154, 157, 159, 175-6, Khoo Soo Thye, 117 179, 181, 184-6, 191 Khoo Thean Teik, 82 International Rubber Regulation Kim Hin & Company, 119 Agreement 1934-41, I 03 Kim Seng Lee, 74, 131-2, 142, 160 Intra Asian economy, 188, 200-1, 215, Kin Fat Hong, 138 242, 254 Kin Tye Lung, 140-1 investment, 51-2, 89, 100-1, 185 Kinta (Perak), 82, 89-90 iron ore, 92-99, 237 Kishi Wada, 198 Ishihara, 92-3 Klongton, 216 Ishihara Sangyo Kaiun, 92 Kobe, 189, 207-8 298 Index

Koh Guan Trust, 87 Linggi Plantations, 44, 63-4 Koh Mah Wah, 136 Lloyds Bank, 159, 180, 184 Koh Siang Tat, 82 Lo Tek Clman, 136 Kokusai Kisen Kaisha, 117-18 Loke Chow Kit, 86, 148 Komering, 37 Loke Chow Thye, 86, 214 Kong Fat Heng, 153 Loke Yew, 41, 81, 83-86, 145-6, 173, Kongsi, 15, 20, II 0, 147-9, 230, 246 213-14, 234-5 KPM [Koninklijke Paketvaart- London, 138 Maatschappij], 120, 131, 144, 163, London Rangoon Trading Co., 127 235 London Rice Brokers Association, 127 Korea, 138 London Rubber Growers Association, 101 Krupps [Germany], 249 London Tin Corporation, 89-90 Kuala Lumpur, 153, 212-13, 246 Low Chon Min, 131 Kultuurstelsel, 34-5 Low Peng Yam, 129, 161 Kurashiki, 198 Loxley and Co., 138 Kwang An Long, 137 Luang Lee Insurance Co. Ltd, 171 Kwang Kho Long, 137-8 Luzon, 239 Kwang Kim Long Bank, 138--9 Lyon, 209 Kwang Kim Long, 137 Kwang Ngek Long Chan, 137 Ma Lap Khun, 132 Kwang Tye Long, 137 Ma Son Gyi, 68 Kwong Yik bank, 161, 164-5 Macfadyen, Eric, 49, 54 MacGregor & Co., 70 labour, 22-3, 32-3, 83-4, 110, 146-50, Madras, 176, 180, 185, 247 220-2, 229-30, 235-6, 241-2, 250 Madrigal, 238 Lalchand & Co., 208-9 Madura, 145, 153 Lam Sam, 128, 136-41, 234 Magnolia Ice Cream, 243 Lampard, Arthur, 51, 54 Maize, 199 Lancashire, 189-90, 192, 20 I Makassar, 4, 8, 10-13, 18, 21, 163 Lancashire Cotton Corporation, 201 Malacca Rubber Plantations, 63 land alienation, 177-84, 187, 216-8 Malay States, 167, 174, 176, 182-3, 185, Larut [PerakJ, 81-2 190, 192-3, 199, 206, 209 Law Giok Swee, Ill Malay Reservations Amendment 1933, L.azonick, W ., 189 178 Lee Choon Guan, 114, 161 Malay smallholders, 103 Lee Kong Chian, 111-16, 122, 159, 170, Malaya, 37-39, 77, 111-12, 118, 122, 246, 256-7 134, 144, 147, 151, 156, 158-9, 160, Lee Phic Soc, 111-12 165-6, 170-1, 176-7, 180, 182-3, Lee Pineapple Co., Ill, 114-15 185, 190-9, 206-13, 231-2, 241-7, Lee Rubber Co., 103, Ill, 114, 118 249 Lee Wah Bank, 161 Malayan Breweries Ltd, 244-248 Lee Teck Oh, 136, 160 Malayan Pineapple Co., 115 Lee Wee Nam, 129, 134, 152, 155 management, 47-9, 62, 65, 141, 165-6, Lek Nana, 219 170, 200-1, 203, 235, 252-7 Leonowens, Louis, 65, 73, 75, 88, 92 Maluku, 16 Lhong Chini, 136 Manchester, 193 Liem Kok Sing, 146 Man Long, 153 Lim Boon Keng, 82, 161 Manila, 150, 206, 213, 243 Lim Kek Chuan, 147 manufacturing (industrialisation), I 06, I 08, Lim Keng Lian, 152 110-11, 122, 145, 161, 167, 172, 174, Lim Lean Teng, 117, 119, 121 180, 185, 188, 203, 208, 220-250 Lim Nee Soon, 112, 114, 158-9, 163 Mao, Princess, 216 Lim Peng Siang, 129, 134, 161, 166 marketing, 121-2, 130, 174, 189-211, limited liability, 107, 170, 256 215, 242-8 Index 299

Markwald & Co., A., 135 Nederlandsche Handei-Maatchappij Marwari, 172, 175-6, 185-6, 209 [NHM], 35, 41, 159, 168 Mass, W., 189 Negros, 25-6, 213, 215, 231 Massey C. F., 239, 249 Netherlands East Indies, 71, 77, 79, Mataram, 4, 9, II, 16, 18, 21 89-90, 102, 105, 108, 111-12, 118, Matheson, Jardine, 138 120, 122, 138, 144-6, 151, 160, 164, McNelly, 121 170, 182-3, 193, 198-2, 207, McVey, Ruth, 254 209-10, 221, 229-30, 232, 235, 237, Mcdan, 112, 118, 209 240, 253-4 Mclaka, 6, 8, 11-13, 16-17, 39, 148 networks, 10, 16, 18, 60, 65 Mercantile Bank, 149, 158-9, 176, 188, Ng Boo Bee, 146, 148, 173 209 Ngwedo [cash loan], 179 Mercantilism, 9, 20, 40 Ngy Cheong Seng, 129 Mestizo, 213 Nihon Kiito, 197 Miles, E.T., 87, 90 Nihon Menka, 197 Mill, J.S., 220 Nippon Gomu, 121 Miller, H. Eric, 47, 49, 54, 65 Nippon Yusen Kaisha, 95 millers, 29, 126-7, 129, 131-3, 135-6, 140, Nisshin, 198 144, 159, 161, 171, 174, 180, 182, 223 Nomura, 118, 120, 199 mills [rice], 126, 129, 223 mining, 78-80, 89, 91, 129, 145, Oei Tiong Ham, 163-4 Mitsubishi Shoji, 116, 121, 196 oil palm, 180 Mitsui (Mitsui Bussan Kaisha), 116-18, Ong Boon Teik, 82 120-1, 198-9, 207, 210 Ong Keng Seng, 121 Mom Chao Khaisang, 216 Ong Kim Ching, 117 Mon, 3, II Oust-Borneo Maatschappij, 286 monarchs and mercantilism, 8-9 opium, 144, 173, 182 moneylenders, 28, 142, 150-1, 156, Opium and Spirit Syndicate, the Great, 173-88 148 multinationals, I 03, 128-41 Oriental Bank of Malaya, 176 Multani, 176, 186 Oriental Brewery & Icc Co., 243 Myaungmya, 181 Osaka, 192, 209 Osaka Godo, 198 Nai Lert, 216 Osaka Shoshen Kaisha, 95 Nakamura Shotcn, 199 Osborne and Chappell, 90-1 Nakhoda, 8 Oversea Chinese Bank, 134, 161, 163-4, Nakornsawan, Prince, 217 166, 169-70, 180 Nam Siam, Ill, 183 Oversea Chinese Banking Corporation, 108, Nana, A. E., 212-19 112, 134, 155, 161, 163, 169-72 Nanyo Kogyo Koshi [NKK], 92, 96, 98-9 Nanya Koro K. K., 95 Pahang, 145, 166 Nanyo Shokai, 199 Palembang, 36-7, 112, 118, 163 Nanyo Tekko Goshi Kaisha, 92 Palfreyman, A. W., 87, 90 Nanya Veem, 95 Pampanga, 24-5 Nanyo Yusen, 95 Panama, 207 Narai, King, 12 Pataling Rubber Estates Syndicate, 51 Narathip, Prince, 75, 216 Patani, 128 National & City Bank of Thailand, 165 Paterson, Simon & Co., 115 National Development Corporation Patino Mines & Enterprise, 89-91 [Philippines], 239, 249 pawnbroking, 142, 150-154, 164, 181 National Food Products Corporation, 239 peasant rebellion, I 86 Ncdcrlandisch-Indischc Bicrbrouwerijen, peasantry, 22, 32, 34-5, 38-9, 123, 125, 244 151, 154, 177-83, 186-7, 192, 221, Neill & Bell, 90-1 229, 241, 242 300 Index

Penang, 87, Ill, 118, 120-1, 126-8, 130, Rcnong Tin Dredging Co. Ltd, 63, 91-2 140, 145-8, 166-7, 176, 180, 182-3, revenue farming, 166-7, 172-3, 182, 188, 235 214, 231-2, 235, 254-5 Penpoll Tin Smelters, 90 Rewachand & Co., 208-9 Perak, 144-5, 148, 166, 235 Riau, 148, 247 Pcranakan, 153, 156 Ricardo, D. 220 Persian, 12 rice, 142, 144, 159-60, 167, 171, 174, petroleum, 223, 229, 251, 286 182, 187, 212, 214-15, 218, 223, Philippines, 4-6, I 0, 22-8, I 08, 138, 231, 251, 257 207-8, 213, 223, 229, 237-41, 243, Riggs, Fred W., 254 249 Rizal Cement Co., 249 Philippine National Bank, 240 Robson, J. H. M., 213 Phisanbut, Sue (Po Chin Sue]. 131 Robison, R., 254 Phuket, 82 Rostow, W., 222, 254 Pickenpack Thies & Co., 135 Rothschilds, 172 pineapple, 104-6, Ill, 113-16 Roxas, 238, 243 Pineapple Packers' Agency, 114 Royal Dutch Shell, 229 Pocy Kwan, 155-6 rubber, 36-8, 42, 49, 59, 85-6, 103, 122, Pohomull Bros, 203, 206-7 136, 150, 164, 166, 171, 174, 180, Pondichcrry, 209-10 182-3, 199, 212, 214, 223, 231, 251, population, 3, 15, 213, 230 253 Portuguese, 11-12, 16 Rubber Plantations Investment Trust, Postal Remittance and Savings Bank of 50-1, 58 China, 155 Rubber Growers Association, 101 Prabad Tramway Co., 216 rural capitalists, 187, 221 Prachuap Phiromphakdi, 244 Russell & Co., 286 Prcanger Bontwcverij, 229 price fixing, 246-7 Sabape loan, 178-9 Pridi, 165 Saetthapakdi, 134 principalia, 24, 27, 239, 241 Saigon, 118, 123, 126, 128, 131, 133, Priyayi, 232 138, 140, 142, 144, 150, 176, 182, Privy Purse Bureau, 131-3, 139, 160-1, 189, 206, 208, 210 165, 240, 244, 248, 253 Sakdina [Thai elite], 30, 138, 160, 216-7, Profits, 51, 127, 151, 185, 191, 206, 240, 219, 232, 235, 241, 244, 253, 254 244-5 Samutprakarn province, 216 Prome, 181 San Ah Peng, 86 Province Wellesley, 130 San Miguel, 243 Punjabi, 206, 209 Sawatdiwiangchai, Luang, 248 Pyapon, 181 Schober & Teague, 243 Scott, H. G., 65, 88 quotas, 201-3, 210-11, 229, 241-2, 253 Scott & Co., 135 Seah Eng Tong, 129 Rajadhamnuan Road, 219 Seah Eu Chin, 129 Raman Chetty, A. M. K., 182-3 See Teong Wah, 39, 112, 158 railways, 166, 215 Selangor, 144, 153, 166, 145-6, 213-14, Randery Burah Makan Co. Ltd, 215, 218-19 235 Rangoon, 123, 128-9, 131. 133, 142, Selangor Rubber Co. Ltd, 100 150, 158, 176, 180-1, 184, 189, 212 Scow Joo Seng, 160-1 Ranong, 82, 146 Scow Poh Leng, 161 real estate, 234 Semarang, 163, 165, 213 Recollect Friar Order, 249 Sembawang, 106 remittances, 32, 134, 139-40, 142, 144, Serendah & Jeher Hydraulic Co., 86 151, 155-6, 161, 164, 167-8, 176, Shan Tin Dredging Ltd, 183 185, 200-1, 234, 240-1 Shanghai, 137-9, 207, 209, 217 Index 301 sharecropping, 114 166, 168-9, 182-3, 185, 193, 207, shareholding, 47, 49, 54-5, Ill, 131, 210, 231, 235, 246 183, 244, 249, 256 Straits Trading Co., 77, 90 shipping, 17, 93-6, 117, 128, 131, 140-5, sugar, 144, 158, 163, 200, 214-15, 218, 149, 161, 171, 174, 182, 191-2, 223, 230-1 199, 206, 218, 222-3, 231, 235, 237 Sukhumvit, 219 Siam, 8, 10, 22, 30-3, 71-7, 80, 87-8, Sumatra, 6, 35-6, 105, 111-12, 143-6, 92, 112, 118, 122-3, 126-32, 134-6, 165-7, 182, 231, 235, 237, 247 138-42, 144-7, 155, 160, 165, 167, supply and demand factors in industry, 170-1, 182-3, 187, 192-3, 214-16, 242 219, 221, 223, 229-30, 235, 241, Surabaya, 165, 198-9, 208, 213, 215, 244, 247' 249 217-8, 244, 247 Siam Cement Co., 248 Swatow, 134, 137-40, 167, 171, 217 Siam Commercial Bank, 139, 143, 160-1, Syahbandar, 8-9 165, 168, 183, 208-9, 217-19, 240, syndicate capital [Chinese), 143-50 248 synthetic rubber, 49 Siam Forest Co., 73 Sze Hai Tong Banking and Insurance Siam Iron & Steel Co., 249 Co., 129, 134, 152, 161-2, 169 Siam Pak Tai, Ill Siam Rice Milling Co., 161 Tai Tong, Ill , 183 Siamese Tramway Co. Ltd, 216 Taiwan, 116, 138 Siamese Tin Syndicate, 63, 91 Tamil, 40, 230 silk, 192-3, 196, 200, 203, 207-8, 210 Tan Chang Van, 134 Sime Darby, 90-1, 246 Tan Chay Bing, 110 Sindhi, 40, 173, 203, 206-10 Tan Chay Yan, 100 Singapore, 15, 37, 39, 100, 103, 106, 112, Tan Ban Kiam, 114, 163, 166 117, 120-2, 126-9, 131-5, 137-8, Tan Guan Lee, 140 140-8, 150, 152-3, 155, 158, 161, Tan Jit Sin Co., 104 164-5, 170-1, 174, 176, 180, 188, 189, Tan Kah Kee, 104-12, 158-9, 166, 183, 190, 191, 198, 202, 206-13, 229, 235, 231' 234-5, 237 238, 243-4, 246-7 Tan Kim Ching, 128, 144 Singapore Cold Storage, 243 Tan Khian Hock, 149 Slade, H. A., 75 Tan Khuat Siong, 110 smallholdings, 36, 101-3, 112, 117, Tan Kok Tong, 146 177-83 Tan Lark Sye, 110 smuggling (textiles), 209-11 Tan Lip Buay [Wang Lee's father), 136 Sofibra, 244 Tan Peck Huad, 84, 89 Sogo Shosha, 105, 117-22, 198 Tan Seng Poh, 148 Soon Hua Kongsi, 246 Tan Siang Kee Chan, 160 Soriano, 238 Tan Tiong Seng, 163 Southern Kinta Consolidated, 91 Tan Tock Seng, 128 Spanish, 4-5, 18, 20, 23-4 Tan Tong Haj, 146 Spencer & Co., 247 tariffs, 201-2, 238-9, 241-2, 244, 249, spinning companies, 198 253 Sri Medan, 92, 94, 99 taxation, 29-30, 34, 125, 132, 217, 220, state, 145, 165, 171-2, 180, 187, 216-17, 241 219, 221-3, 230, 232, 235, 237-44, teak, 66-76, 136-7, 142, 180, 223, 229, 251, 253-7 251, 253 Steel Bros, 29, 70, 126, 210, 247 technology, 189, 200, 215-16, 221-2, sterling company, 41, 43, 55-65, 92, 236, 238, 241' 250, 252-3 100-1, 103, 191, 252-3 Teik Ching, 117 Stevenson Restriction Scheme, 102, 105, Telegu, 40 112 Tenasserim, 182 Straits Settlements, 108, 129, 139, 160, Tenerife, 207 302 Index

Teochiu, 128, 136-7, 140, 142, 144, 148, Usurious Loans Enactment 1919 152-3, 155, 157, 161 [Malaya), 178 Texas, 243 Utamram & Co., 210 textiles, 10, 140, 145, 167, 173-4, 180, Uttamchand, 206 188-211' 222-3, 229-31' 234, 239-40 Thai, 165, 214, 236, 241 Valibhoy, Mohd Ynnus, 209 Thai Farmers' Bank, 138 Van Laanen, 154 Thai Niyom Panich Co. Ltd, 132 Vicente Madrigal, 249 Thai Rice Co. Ltd, 132 village, 34 Thamboosarmy Pillay, 86 Visayas, 229 Thammasat University, 165 VOC [Dutch), 17 Thio Siong Soc, 111-12 Tiger Beer, 247 wages, 83, 230 [see also labour) timber, 42, 251 Wallace & Co., 70 tin, 19, 136, 144, ISO, 166-7, 173, Wang Lee, 134, 136-41, 171, 257 182-3, 212, 223, 229, 231' 235--6, Wang Lee Chan Bank, 141, 171 238, 251' 253 Watanmal Boolchand, 208 Tin Songkla N.L., 183 Waugh, Henry, 246 Tjong Ah Fie, 59, 165-8, 234 Western, 223, 233, 252-5 tobacco, 145, 166-7, 223, 229, 231, 238, Western capital, 185, 187-8 253 Whampoa, 167 Tokyo, 189 Windsor Rose & Co., 135 Tongkah Compound Co., 87 Wine & Spirits Association, 246 Tongkah Harbour Tin Dredging Co., women, 8, 250 87-8, 183 Wong Lin Ken, 81 Totok Cina, 152-3, 156, 163 Wong, S. Q., 82, 161 Toyo Menka, 197-9 Toyoda power loom, Toyoda automatic Xuanmin, 140-1 loom, 199 Xuanyi, 140-1 trade, I 0, 232 transaction costs, I 07 Yap Ah Loy, 41, 81, 173 Triad, 15, 39, 128-9, 147-9, 235 Yap Twee, Ill, 170 Trinh dynasty, 4 Yeap Chor Ee, 134 Trocki, C., 147 Yeap Keng Teng, 147 truck system, 83, 85, 230 (see also Yeap Kwang Seng, 81 revenue fanning) Yeoh Ooi Gark, 147-8 Yip In Tsoi, 119 U Tu, 68 Yn chausti, 238 Ung Tung Pak, 138 Yokohama Specie Bank, 119, 159,200-1, United Overseas Bank, 161 208 United Sua Be tong Estates, 41, 61, 63 Yoshihara, Kunio, 254 United States of America, 113, 117, 120, Yuen Fat Hong, 138 122, 138-9, 163, 171, 174, 189, 193, 199, 209, 213, 216, 234, 238-9, 255-7 Zaibatsu, 199-200, 222