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The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Communications BLOGGING AND DEMOCRACY: BLOGS IN MALAYSIAN POLITICAL DISCOURSE A Dissertation in Mass Communications by Ming Kuok Lim © 2009 Ming Kuok Lim Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2009 The dissertation of Ming Kuok Lim was reviewed and approved* by the following: Amit M. Schejter Associate Professor of Mass Communications Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Richard D. Taylor Professor of Mass Communications Jorge R. Schement Distinguished Professor of Mass Communications John Christman Associate Professor of Philosophy, Political Science, and Women’s Studies John S. Nichols Professor of Mass Communications Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Research *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT This study examines how socio-political blogs contribute to the development of democracy in Malaysia. It suggests that blogs perform three main functions, which help make a democracy more meaningful: blogs as fifth estate, blogs as networks, and blogs as platform for expression. First, blogs function as the fifth estate performing checks-and-balances over the government. This function is expressed by blogs’ role in the dissemination of information, providing alternative perspectives that challenge the dominant frame, and setting of news agenda. The second function of blogs is that they perform as networks. This is linked to the social-networking aspect of the blogosphere both online and offline. Blogs also have the potential to act as mobilizing agents. The mobilizing capability of blogs facilitated the mass street protests, which took place in late- 2007 and early-2008 in Malaysia. Thirdly, blogs function as a platform where users can express themselves. The significance of this function becomes more apparent in countries with strict media control such as Malaysia. Blogging allows users to directly publish their thoughts, unfiltered and uncensored, by circumventing conventional mechanisms of control. It is a platform that is nearly cost-free and easy-to-use. Blogs also act as a training ground for self-expression not just for the bloggers but for readers of the blogs as well. The three functions are not mutually exclusive but are merely viewed as having enough unique qualities to be differentiated from one another. Some features do overlap, for example, the mobilization of people to participate in mass rallies could not have happened without the dissemination of the news about the rallies, and readers would have very little to comment on if the information of the rallies was not posted by the bloggers after they had taken place. This study complements existing research on mass media and democratic movement. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 1.1. 8 March 2008: Malaysia’s 12th General Election ..................................................... 1 1.2. Studying the Malaysian Blogosphere ....................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 2 REVIEWING THE KEY CONCEPTS: DEMOCRACY AND INFORMATION SOCIETY ... 15 2.1. Different Models of Democracy .............................................................................. 16 2.1.1. Aggregative Democracy ................................................................................. 16 2.1.2. Participatory Democracy ................................................................................ 18 2.1.3. Deliberative Democracy ................................................................................. 19 2.1.3.1 Deliberative Model of Democracy: A Critique .................................... 22 2.2. Malaysia’s Democracy ............................................................................................. 25 2.3. Information Society .................................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER 3 REVIEWING THE KEY CONCEPTS: BLOGGING ...................................................... 35 3.1. Blogging as Political Resistance around the World ................................................. 35 3.2. Blog: A Brief Introduction ....................................................................................... 44 3.3. Research of the Blogosphere .................................................................................... 47 3.3.1. Bloggers vs. Journalists Debate...................................................................... 48 3.3.2. Moving On: "Second Wave" of Blog Research ............................................. 52 3.4. Taking the Malaysian Blogging Paradox Seriously ................................................. 56 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................... 59 4.1. Data from Qualitative and In-depth Interviewing .................................................... 59 4.1.1. A Note on In-depth Interviews ....................................................................... 62 4.1.2. Selecting Bloggers Using the Blogroll Cross-Referencing Method ............... 62 4.1.3. What are Blogrolls? ........................................................................................ 63 4.1.4. The Initial Selection: Identifying the Blog-seeds ........................................... 64 4.1.5. Finalizing the List of Interviewees ................................................................. 64 v 4.1.6. Profiles of the Bloggers and Their Blogs ....................................................... 67 4.2. Data from Newspapers, TV Interviews, Speeches, and Other Sources .................... 75 CHAPTER 5 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND MEDIA CONTROL IN MALAYSIA ....................... 79 5.1. An Overview of Malaysia’s Socio-political Landscape ........................................... 79 5.2. Freedom of Expression in Malaysia ......................................................................... 84 5.3. An Overview of Malaysian Media Laws and Regulations ....................................... 91 5.4. The Early Years of Malaysian Mass Media ............................................................. 97 5.5. Contemporary Media Landscape in Malaysia ......................................................... 102 5.5.1. Print Media ..................................................................................................... 102 5.5.2. Broadcast Media ............................................................................................. 105 5.5.3. Internet and Mobile Media ............................................................................. 107 5.5.4. Media Ownership in Malaysia ....................................................................... 110 5.5.4.1. Criticism of Media Concentration ....................................................... 118 5.6. Watershed Moments in the Development of Malaysian Mass Media ...................... 120 5.6.1. May 13th Racial Riot ..................................................................................... 120 5.6.2. Operasi Lalang 1987 ...................................................................................... 123 5.6.3. “And they want to leap-frog into the information society” (c.1996).............. 125 5.6.4. Asian Financial Crisis and Reformasi Movement (1997-1999) ..................... 132 5.6.5. Pioneering Alternative Media in Malaysia: Malaysiakini.com (1999~ present) ............................................................................................................. 137 5.6.6. Recent Examples of Media Restrictions ........................................................ 142 CHAPTER 6 THE RESPONSES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF BLOGGING ...................................... 144 6.1. Government’s Pre-election Response to Blogging .................................................. 145 6.1.1. Government's Response #1: Insults and Verbal Threats ................................ 145 6.1.2. Government’s Response #2: Cyber-troopers ................................................. 147 6.1.3. Government’s Response #3: Arresting Bloggers ........................................... 148 6.2. Government’s Post-election Response to Blogging .................................................. 152 6.2.1. Government’s Response #4: “If you can’t beat them join them” ................... 152 6.3. Mainstream Media’s Pre-election Response to Blogging ........................................ 158 6.3.1 Mainstream Media’s Response #1: Defamation Suits..................................... 162 6.4. Mainstream Media’s Post-election Response to Blogging ....................................... 164 6.4.1. Mainstream Media’s Response #2: Bloggers Made into Headliners ............. 165 6.4.2 Mainstream Media’s Response #3: New Programs to keep up with the Times ...............................................................................................................
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