HELEN METZELAAR STICHTING VROUW EN MUZIEK, AMSTERDAM What happened to women composers in Dutch music history?

(Composers whose names are in bold characterized by a high degree of sociability; type are represented in the discography playing music is often an activity done at the end of the article). together and for others.

The purpose of this article is twofold: to One of the perspectives within this more introduce a number of Dutch women com­ sociological approach concentrates on posers and to briefly discuss some aspects of examining how music is related to gender, Dutch music history in relation to gender. that is to a society's belief system or con­ The focus will be on classical music, both struction, varying in time and place, of what because there is little record of women in is considered male and female. Such a other genres, such as folksongs and liturgical division is a basic social organizing principle music, and because some genres, such as throughout history in all cultures, and also military band music, by definition tradition­ affects music at many levels. Some musical ally excluded women's participation. genres have historically been considered to be feminine, like children's songs, while Musicology has long focused on examin­ others, like drinking songs, are considered ing works by individual composers, concen­ to be more suited for men. Gender may also trating on the so-called canon, classical be examined at an institutional level: what masters such as Bach, Beethoven and roles did women and men play in various Mozart. Currently, a broader, more sociologi­ musical institutions, such as orchestras and III Ii cal approach iswfilfiiilggtound. This ap- . choral groups, as pianists or vocalists, in I: proach examines how music functions and publishing music, teaching it or consuming ii'l its social and cultural context, with attention ! it? Gender is also often a relevant factor in given to its production, distribution and the choice of a musical instrument. Some reception. Music, from its conception instruments, such as brass and percussion, through its distribution and reception, can have traditionally been regarded as more be seen as part of a functional system with a suited for boys, while others, such as the wide range of institutions, such as orches­ piano and harp, came to be considered more tras, music clubs, publishers, and suited for girls. audiences. Music, as one of the arts, is 2 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

Composition has traditionally been a male van Boetzelaer, nee van Aerssen, a personal domain; women have always formed a very attendant of Princess Caroline. Born in 1733, small percentage in this field. At any point in her upbringing included the usual require­ time their numbers in the Netherlands have ments for young ladies of standing: French, ranged from less than 1 % to about 15%. In embroidery and singing. Until her marriage the history of Dutch music, occasional but in 1765 she was a lady in waiting to Princess significant "windows of opportunity" appear Anna and later to her daughter Princess to have stimulated women to enter this male­ Caroline. She probably made music with the dominated field. In this essay several of these princesses on a daily basis, as both were very "windows of opportunity" will be described. accomplished musicians. After her marriage in 1765, she studied composition with an In the seventeenth century, the so-called Italian teacher, F.P. Ricci, who was living in "Golden Age," the arts and sciences flour­ The Hague at the time. Her first composi­ ished in the Netherlands. The Dutch Repub­ tions were ariettas, short songs in the style of lic was officially Calvinist, and in Protestant Mozart. She then wrote two collections of churches music was severely limited, but it arias with chamber orchestra, on texts by was widely practised by the well-to-do as a Metastasio. That is about all we know about leisurely pastime. Upper-class women and her, but some information can be gleaned men often made music together in informal from the dedications of her three extant domestic circles. Countless genre pieces and compositions. She dedicated the ariettas to portraits painted in the Golden Age attest to a the Marchesa Visconti, the author of the rich musical life in which both sexes partici­ poems she set to music. Opus 2 is dedicated pated. Seventeenth-century women both sang to the Italian composer Maria Teresa Agnesi, and played a wide range of instruments, the and in the dedication of opus 4 she names most common being various types of key­ the Austrian composer Marianna Martines. board instruments such as the harpsichord or These women inspired her; today we would the virginals. One survey of Dutch art in the call them role models. Golden Age showed that almost 97% of the virginals shown being performed are being Baroness van Boetzelaer is a unique figure played by women and girls. in Dutch music history. In the eighteenth century almost all composers in Holland A unique figure were foreigners who settled there. Her choice of Metastasio was also very unusual for the These domestic musical practices continued Netherlands, although his librettos were very into the eighteenth century. An especially rich popular in the rest of Europe. Not only did musical environment could be found at court she compose, she also had her music pub­ in The Hague in the second half of the eight­ lished, giving it a better chance of survival. eenth century. Prominent musicians from all over Europe, including the young Mozart and The transition to semi-public concerts his sister Maria, were invited to perform for the Stadhouder and official dignitaries. One We may safely assume that Baroness van of the audience members was Baroness Josina Boetzelaer's music making always remained What Happened to Women Composers in Dutch History? 3

in the private sphere. Once informal get­ paying members were accepted with the togethers became more formal institutional­ stipulation that they must play in the orches­ ized structures, whereby the wealthy made tra. music outside their homes and the private domain was left behind for a more public The music department grew in fame when one, an important change occurred. Women in 1788 the S9tiety's new building on the were eased out of participation, most likely Keizersgracht in Amsterdam was opened, because the public domain was considered to including a large concert hall with excellent be for men. acoustics. This hall could seat 400 people, with seating divided into various sections for From the seventeenth through the nineteenth regents, burgomasters, and the populace. centuries countless music clubs were Four hundred men were invited to the the founded, some lasting only a short period, inaugural concert. The all-male orchestra others surviving many decades or longer. consisted of professionally paid musicians They were open to men only, men with and unpaid amateurs, the non-paying mem­ prominent public functions, such as educa­ bers of the Society. Remarkably, the next day tors, clerics, physicians and businessmen. For the entire inauguration was repeated, this example, in 1715 four lawyers in The Hague time for four hundred women. This was to decided to rent a room at an inn so that they welcome the women who were expected to could play music on Thursdays from 4 until accompany their men to the concerts. With­ 9 p.m. It is easy to imagine these lawyers out women in the audience, it was presum­ ambling over to the inn after a day's work, ably felt, the concerts would be rather dull playing music together to relax and having a events. drink and a bite to eat. These mUziekcolleges were central to Dutch musical life and some The keynote speaker, Professor J.H. van later formed the basis of city orchestras. Swinden, described the role division between men and women in which each had their In addition to music clubs, there were also proper place. This social structure was ac­ associations devoted to a wide range of cepted because it was considered to reflect a activities for their members. One of the most God-given order. Van Swinden stressed that important learned associations formed during the activities of Felix Meritis would make the Enlightenment was the Felix Meritis women happy, a happiness derived from the Society. Founded in 1777, it was the most endeavours of their husbands. A contempo­ prestigious and active cultural organization in rary described this second inauguration as Amsterdam in the late eighteenth century and follows: for most of the nineteenth. Membership was open to men eighteen years or older who Then the overture of the day were of the Christian faith. The Society was .l- before began; as soon as this i soon organized into five departments: phys­ was finished Professor van i ics, commerce, drawing, literature and music. Swinden was led by the t The music department had two types of President Commissioner to membership, paying and non-paying. Non- the same rostrum as the day 4 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

before, and made further a been part of well-bred girls' upbringing, they gracious and excellent speech were now expected to be able to play the again in the name of the piano. Because vast numbers of them were Society to the Women, to taught at least the rudiments of piano playing, welcome them on their first it is logical that some remarkable talents appearance in this new Hall, surfaced. These taJented young girls, whether and he took the opportunity to the children of profeSSional musicians or of depict the influence which the non-professionals, the so-called "dilettantes," civilization of Man, through perfomed in public, with audiences eager to their practice of Science, fine witness child prodigies. Literature and beautiful Art, has on the happiness of In the mid-nineteenth century the novelist Women, and also to show in Nicolaas Beets described the timidity of a what way and how far this dilettante soloist and her reception: "She practice can become not only looked very pale, and I suspect she had not a jewel, but also a source of much noticed the obbligato on the horn just satisfaction in the home and before. Mr. van de Hoogen took her by the true happiness for Women. little finger and led her [to the podiuml. She made a curtsey, very gracious for a dilettante (. . .), and to loud applause and boisterous A closer examination of the archives of Felix forward jostling by the men, seated herself Meritis brings to light that although women before the instrument, pulled off her gloves, were not allowed to become members, they and her sweet hands floated over the keys." did occasionally participate in the concerts. In fact, the music department is the only area in As the pianoforte grew in popularity, women which women ever participated. Women were also became engaged as concert pianists. A involved not only as members of the audience somewhat strange situation developed for but also as vocalists, both as choral singers talented women musicians. While male instru­ and as soloists. Dutch audiences were already mentalists had access to the less prominent familiar with women vocalists who appeared medium of orchestral playing, women either in the various foreign opera companies estab­ remained in the private sphere or embarked lished in Holland; opera stars were regularly upon public careers as soloists, and in the invited to sing popular arias at concerts. It latter case they were vastly more in the lime­ was because of women's vocal range that they light than orchestral players. were accepted as singers in the public do­ main. The profession of virtuoso pianist was the second arena, after singing, open to women I The piano musicians. Audiences were already used to 1- professional women vocalists. For the accept­ The second window of opportunity opened ance of women pianists in the public domain, in the late eighteenth century. Just as some we can thank the convergence of a number of training on the harpsichord or virginals had factors. We have already mentioned the long What Happened to Women Composers in Dutch History? 5

tradition of women keyboard players in families, and could continue teaching if they domestic circles. In addition, two cultural remained single. developments seem to have intertwined: the vogue of musical virtuosity became coupled Gertrude van den Bergh is a good to a romantic idolization of heroines. example. Like Baroness van Boetzelaer she Women, deemed to be the emotional sex, lived in The Hague, but she was a member of were considered well suited to express ro­ the working class and much less privileged. mantic sentiments, and piano music was one She never married and had to earn her own of the vehicles used to express these senti­ living, spending long days teaching members ments. of the House of Orange and other members of the nobility at two guilders per lesson. The situation of all-male orchestras accom­ She also composed some pieces for her panying women soloists reflects a romantic pupils and other works during her summer image of men serving the idealized woman, holidays, but unfortunately most of these the heroine. And indeed, top performers were works were never published and have been greatly honored and treated as stars. The lost to posterity. One of her manuscripts greatest star was Clara Schumann (1819- that did survive is a Lied ohne Worte ('song 1896), who visited the Netherlands in 1853, without words'). Gertrude van den Bergh 1855, 1863, 1876 and 1877. Dutch reviews was the first composer in the Netherlands often gave her extensive coverage, with a to write in this new genre. much shorter reference to her husband Robert (the composer). By the end of the nineteenth century the number of women studying music had Concert pianists were expected to perform increased exponentially. This can be seen in at least one piece they themselves had writ­ statistics from 1888 until 1913, which com­ ten. This custom led to the appearance of the pare the number of women and men who first significant group of women pianist­ became certified through exams given by the composers. Examples of well-known pianists Maatschappij tot Bevordering der Toonkunst who composed works for performance in­ (Society for the Advancement of Music) and clude Gertrude van den Bergh (1793-1840), the Nederlandsche Toonkunstenaarsvereeniging Elizabeth Jeanne Broes (1795-1853), Clasine (Dutch Musicians' Association). In this 25- van Brussel (after 1806-?) and Madeleine]. year period the Society awarded 326 diplo­ Graever (1830 - ?). mas to 285 women and 41 men, while the Association awarded 968 diplomas to 806 As the popularity of the piano increased in women and 162 men. These women mostly the nineteenth century, and a burgeoning majored in singing and piano, plus a few in middle class sought to imitate the upper violin, and one in piano tuning. classes, the demand for music teachers also increased. Because the demand was greater What did all these hundreds of women than the supply, women were welcomed into graduates do? Little research has been done the field of music pedagogy. These women in this area, but most likely the vast majority provided a source of income for their of the pianists went into teaching, at least 6 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

until they got married or could afford to stop. hired, the cellist Cato van der Hoeven. A small percentage of the vocalists worked in opera and oratorio productions, but the With little opportunity to interact with majority were teachers. Perhaps the best orchestras, it should not surprise us that known is Catharina van Rennes (1858- many women composers limited themselves 1940), who founded her own singing school to writing chamber music. As Rhian Samuel in Utrecht. remarked (The Norton-Grove Dictionary of Women Composers, New York: Norton, 1994: Women pedagogues needed teaching xiii): materials and soon began writing children's songs. Judging by the popularity of their While her domestic life has songs, women well knew how to appeal to often limited practical oppor­ children, paying more attention than their tunities for composing, even male colleagues to what children would enjoy when she has managed to find singing. Some songs were not only popular the time and space for this with children but also with adults, achieving activity, she has been far less the status of national hit tunes. Significantly, able than her male peers to vocalists often incorporated these songs, with enjoy valuable interaction with their early romantic Mendelssohnian flavour, orchestras and opera compa­ into their recital programs, much to the nies and to develop her tech­ enjoyment of Dutch audiences. nique (a situation which bears many parallels to that of Orchestras women painters, barred in the nineteenth century from life­ Traditionally, orchestras often developed drawing classes). Her success from city military bands or from the afore­ in these larger media, particu­ mentioned muziekcolleges, both of which were larly before the present day, organizations for men only. In Groningen, should therefore be seen as Haarlem, Amhem and Utrecht, orchestras doubly significant. were formed from the schutterij or citizen soldiery. The number of women composers increases As long as women stuck to singing and piano, orchestras could remain all-male At the end of the nineteenth century the affairs. But as women in increasing numbers number of women composers began to rise. at the end of the nineteenth century ventured A number of social factors probably contrib­ into playing the harp, orchestras began hiring uted to this increase. The demand for more female harpists. The admission of women to music teachers and teaching materials, com­ orchestras was a slow process. The mon to all of Europe, has already been men­ Concertgebouw Orchestra, for example, hired tioned as one factor. A second, specific to the its first woman in 1890, and it would take Netherlands, is the cultural revival in the seven years before the second woman was 1880s known as the Tachtigers Movement. _ ~--*____ C

What Happened to Women Composers in Dutch History? 7

The authoritative Sem Dresden, in his Het At the tum of the twentieth century a muziehleven in Nederland sinds 1880 (1923), number of Dutch women considered them­ linked this cultural revival to the increase in selves to be professional composers. This can women composers, albeit in a footnote: be seen from the fact that they become mem­ "The fact that no longer only the male sex bers of the 'Gertootschap van Nederlandse was composing surely justifies the above Componisten', founded in 1911. Within five expressed opinion that the art of musical years eleven women became members: composition was making a comeback in Catharina van Rennes, Hendrika van the Netherlands." Tussenbroek (1854-1934), Henriette van Heukelom-van den Brandeler (1884-1985), A third factor contributing to the rise of Anna Lambrechts-Vos (1876-1931), Nelly women composers is the women's emancipa­ van der Linden van Snelrewaard-Boudewijns tion movement. As women became increas­ (1869-1926), Gertruida Vogel-van ingly conscious of their lack of equal rights in Vladeracken (1880-1947), Anna Stibbe the public domain, they began to organize (1879-7), Comelie van Oosterzee, Bertha themselves for the right to vote, for education Frensel Wegener-Koopman, Marie van Essen and work. In 1898 this culminated in a (7-7), and Manna de Wijs-Mouton (1872- national exhibition, the Nationale 1947). Tentoonstelling Vrouwenarbeid (National Wom­ en's Work Exhibition) held in The Hague. By the 1930s the number of women com­ The exhibition committee commissioned posers had reached a new high. In 1936 Comelie van Oosterzee (1863-1943) to write Henk Badings published a book on Dutch a cantata for the opening ceremony, which contemporary composers, in which he she herself conducted. Unfortunately, much named 96 composers; sixteen of these were of her music, including a symphony and an women. Perhaps the best known was the opera, has been lost, probably in the World pianist-composer Henriette Bosmans (1895- War II bombing of Berlin, where she long 1952), whose output includes ten orchestral resided. works. A flamboyant woman whose circle consisted mainly of Amsterdam musicians, In 1913 a second women's exhibition was her music enjoyed numerous performances. held, this time in Amsterdam. A competition for a cantata to open the exhibition was Decline organized. Six women submitted scores and Bertha Frensel Wegener-Koopman (1875- After World War II the number of women 1953) was chosen. Although this cantata has composers slowly declined. Factors contrib­ not survived, many of her songs were pub­ uting to this decrease include the post-war lished. Perhaps typically Dutch is her versatil­ emphasis on family life and the extremely ity with languages, as she is equally adept in low percentage of women working outside her settings of German, French, English and the home. Those who were still composing Dutch poetry. A good example of her work is grew older, while very few young women her setting of Rabindranath Tagore's poem aspired to enter the profession. The propor­ "Do not go, my love." tion of Dutch women composers decreased 8 Canadian Joumal of Netherlandic Studies

from about 15% to less than 2% in the in the number of young Dutch women 1980s. composers. Perhaps the second women's emancipation contributed indirectly to An exception was Tera de Marez Oyens this growth. Two of these new composers (1930-1996), a rather lone figure. A prolific are Ig Henneman (b,1945) and Caroline composer, she explored various genres, as did Ansink (b.1959). many of her male contemporaries. Her earli­ est compositions included religious works Henneman, born in Haarlem, began her such as choral songs and psalm settings. career as an orchestral musician. In 1978 she Raising her four children stimulated her to co-founded the first all-female rock band, write educational works and children's op­ F.e. Gerania, and wrote her first music for eras. In 1978 she wrote a manual for school this group; in 1989 she founded the Ig teachers, Werken met moderne klanken, a Henneman Quartet and wrote all the music progressive series of short vocal or instru­ for it. Later she also founded the Henneman mental, mainly graphically notated, etudes. Tentet, consisting of a soprano and nine Her own workshops on contemporary music, instruments. She is increasingly involved in which she continued to present throughout developing a genre which lies somewhere her career, proved her to be a talented between classical music and improvisation. teacher. In the 1960s she became interested She has set to music seven poems by Emily in electronic music and studied with Dickinson, and poems about birds in six Gottfried M. Koenig at the Institute for languages, and improvisations on medieval Sonology in Utrecht. Many of her works ballads by Francesco Landini. According to show that she was often inspired by text. She the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi­ also composed several large-scale dramatic cians (London: Macmillan, 2001), these works to texts by her second husband, the works have not all been published, but they political scientist and philosopher Menachem have been recorded. Arnoni, including the oratorio The Odyssey of Mr. Good-Evil (1981). Caroline Ansink was born in Amsterdam. She teaches flute at the Utrecht Conservatory In the 1980s Dutch conservatories increas­ and has received a number of awards for her ingly began to attract foreign composition compositions. Her output ranges from or­ students. These foreigners included ambi­ chestral to chamber to choral works. She has tious young women who often decided to set to music a wide range of poetry, from stay in Holland after graduation. One of the ancient Greek texts to Paul Celan and con­ reasons to establish the Netherlands as a temporary Dutch writers; her choice often home base is its excellent infrastructure for reflects her hatred of social injustice. Her contemporary music. Many ensembles enjoy dramatic monologue Ni Dieu, ni Diable, about state funding and there is ample opportunity Joan of Arc, features a demanding soprano for compositional commissions and grants. role accompanied by piano and percussion, which dialogue with the singer. Her work is Just as at the end of the nineteenth century, expressive and has lyrical melodies, and she the end of the twentieth also saw an increase does not avoid tonality. What Happened to Women Composers in Dutch History? 9

Currently the percentage of women com­ 1953) posers is about 7%. Why is this figure still so Tatlin Records TA 001: 24 songs in German, low? One reason may be that music institu­ English, French and Dutch. Ingrid Kappelle, tions are still dominated by men. True, soprano, Miklos Schwalb, piano. women are now allowed to play in orches­ tras. But where are the women conductors? Anna CramefiC1873-1968) Where are the women impresarios, women Globe GLO 5128: Anna Cramer: Liederen. publishers, women music directors, women Rachel Ann Morgan, mezzo soprano, Maria board members, women managers? Why not Benoist, piano. require music organizations receiving govern­ ment funding to fulfill a quota, specifying for Henriette Bosmans (1895-1952): instance that 15% of the music performed 1) NM Classics-special 92095: Henriette must be by women? Although such a pro­ Bosmans: Concertstuk for flute and chamber posal has little chance of being implemented, orchestra (1929), Poeme for cello and orches­ it is comparable to a constitutional amend­ tra (1923), Concertino for piano and orches­ ment in India requiring 30% of the members tra (1928). of the Lower House of Parliament to be women. 2) Globe GLO 5183: "Henriette Bosmans and her circle" : Julia Bronkhorst, soprano, and It is certainly promising that the percentage Maarten Hillenius, piano. of women currently studying composition in the Netherlands is much higher, for instance, 3) Tatlin Records TA 002: Chamber music by 20% at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague Henriette Bosmans and Lex van Delden. and 30% at the Amsterdam Conservatory. These young women need our support. To Tera de Marez Oyens (1932-1996) ensure that women's voices may be heard is 1) Composer's Voice CD 8702: Charon's Gift, one of the goals of the Dutch Women and Litany of the Victims of War, Sinfonia testi­ Music Foundation (website: www. monial. vrouwenmuziek.nl) . 2) Marcato Keyboard MCD 189601: Concer­ DISCOGRAPHY tos: Confrontations (piano), Linzer Concert of selected CDs with music by Dutch women (accordion) Structures and Dance (violin). composers 3) BV Haast 9211: From Death to Birth, NM Classics 92018 Six Dutch women com­ Ballerina on a Cliff, Ambiversion, Vignettes, posers: Gertrude van den Bergh, Catharina Trio, Dreams of Madness. van Rennes, Elisabeth Kuyper, Henriette Bosmans, let Stants and Tera de Marez Ig Henneman (born 1945): Oyens. Visit the Internet site BV Haast Records distribution: WIG 02: "Ig www.muziekgroep.nl for a listing of their Henneman Tentet plays Dickinson," a cycle CDs plus music samples. of seven poems by Emily Dickinson (1830- Bertha Frensel Wegener-Koopman (1874- 1886). 10 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

Caroline Ansink (born 1959): Erasmus Muziek Producties WVH 159: "Oh beminnelijk litteken," Poems by Lucebert set to musk by Caroline Ansink.