HELEN METZELAAR STICHTING VROUW EN MUZIEK, AMSTERDAM What happened to women composers in Dutch music history? (Composers whose names are in bold characterized by a high degree of sociability; type are represented in the discography playing music is often an activity done at the end of the article). together and for others. The purpose of this article is twofold: to One of the perspectives within this more introduce a number of Dutch women com­ sociological approach concentrates on posers and to briefly discuss some aspects of examining how music is related to gender, Dutch music history in relation to gender. that is to a society's belief system or con­ The focus will be on classical music, both struction, varying in time and place, of what because there is little record of women in is considered male and female. Such a other genres, such as folksongs and liturgical division is a basic social organizing principle music, and because some genres, such as throughout history in all cultures, and also military band music, by definition tradition­ affects music at many levels. Some musical ally excluded women's participation. genres have historically been considered to be feminine, like children's songs, while Musicology has long focused on examin­ others, like drinking songs, are considered ing works by individual composers, concen­ to be more suited for men. Gender may also trating on the so-called canon, classical be examined at an institutional level: what masters such as Bach, Beethoven and roles did women and men play in various Mozart. Currently, a broader, more sociologi­ musical institutions, such as orchestras and III Ii cal approach iswfilfiiilggtound. This ap- . choral groups, as pianists or vocalists, in I: proach examines how music functions and publishing music, teaching it or consuming ii'l its social and cultural context, with attention ! it? Gender is also often a relevant factor in given to its production, distribution and the choice of a musical instrument. Some reception. Music, from its conception instruments, such as brass and percussion, through its distribution and reception, can have traditionally been regarded as more be seen as part of a functional system with a suited for boys, while others, such as the wide range of institutions, such as orches­ piano and harp, came to be considered more tras, music clubs, publishers, and suited for girls. audiences. Music, as one of the arts, is 2 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies Composition has traditionally been a male van Boetzelaer, nee van Aerssen, a personal domain; women have always formed a very attendant of Princess Caroline. Born in 1733, small percentage in this field. At any point in her upbringing included the usual require­ time their numbers in the Netherlands have ments for young ladies of standing: French, ranged from less than 1 % to about 15%. In embroidery and singing. Until her marriage the history of Dutch music, occasional but in 1765 she was a lady in waiting to Princess significant "windows of opportunity" appear Anna and later to her daughter Princess to have stimulated women to enter this male­ Caroline. She probably made music with the dominated field. In this essay several of these princesses on a daily basis, as both were very "windows of opportunity" will be described. accomplished musicians. After her marriage in 1765, she studied composition with an In the seventeenth century, the so-called Italian teacher, F.P. Ricci, who was living in "Golden Age," the arts and sciences flour­ The Hague at the time. Her first composi­ ished in the Netherlands. The Dutch Repub­ tions were ariettas, short songs in the style of lic was officially Calvinist, and in Protestant Mozart. She then wrote two collections of churches music was severely limited, but it arias with chamber orchestra, on texts by was widely practised by the well-to-do as a Metastasio. That is about all we know about leisurely pastime. Upper-class women and her, but some information can be gleaned men often made music together in informal from the dedications of her three extant domestic circles. Countless genre pieces and compositions. She dedicated the ariettas to portraits painted in the Golden Age attest to a the Marchesa Visconti, the author of the rich musical life in which both sexes partici­ poems she set to music. Opus 2 is dedicated pated. Seventeenth-century women both sang to the Italian composer Maria Teresa Agnesi, and played a wide range of instruments, the and in the dedication of opus 4 she names most common being various types of key­ the Austrian composer Marianna Martines. board instruments such as the harpsichord or These women inspired her; today we would the virginals. One survey of Dutch art in the call them role models. Golden Age showed that almost 97% of the virginals shown being performed are being Baroness van Boetzelaer is a unique figure played by women and girls. in Dutch music history. In the eighteenth century almost all composers in Holland A unique figure were foreigners who settled there. Her choice of Metastasio was also very unusual for the These domestic musical practices continued Netherlands, although his librettos were very into the eighteenth century. An especially rich popular in the rest of Europe. Not only did musical environment could be found at court she compose, she also had her music pub­ in The Hague in the second half of the eight­ lished, giving it a better chance of survival. eenth century. Prominent musicians from all over Europe, including the young Mozart and The transition to semi-public concerts his sister Maria, were invited to perform for the Stadhouder and official dignitaries. One We may safely assume that Baroness van of the audience members was Baroness Josina Boetzelaer's music making always remained What Happened to Women Composers in Dutch History? 3 in the private sphere. Once informal get­ paying members were accepted with the togethers became more formal institutional­ stipulation that they must play in the orches­ ized structures, whereby the wealthy made tra. music outside their homes and the private domain was left behind for a more public The music department grew in fame when one, an important change occurred. Women in 1788 the S9tiety's new building on the were eased out of participation, most likely Keizersgracht in Amsterdam was opened, because the public domain was considered to including a large concert hall with excellent be for men. acoustics. This hall could seat 400 people, with seating divided into various sections for From the seventeenth through the nineteenth regents, burgomasters, and the populace. centuries countless music clubs were Four hundred men were invited to the the founded, some lasting only a short period, inaugural concert. The all-male orchestra others surviving many decades or longer. consisted of professionally paid musicians They were open to men only, men with and unpaid amateurs, the non-paying mem­ prominent public functions, such as educa­ bers of the Society. Remarkably, the next day tors, clerics, physicians and businessmen. For the entire inauguration was repeated, this example, in 1715 four lawyers in The Hague time for four hundred women. This was to decided to rent a room at an inn so that they welcome the women who were expected to could play music on Thursdays from 4 until accompany their men to the concerts. With­ 9 p.m. It is easy to imagine these lawyers out women in the audience, it was presum­ ambling over to the inn after a day's work, ably felt, the concerts would be rather dull playing music together to relax and having a events. drink and a bite to eat. These mUziekcolleges were central to Dutch musical life and some The keynote speaker, Professor J.H. van later formed the basis of city orchestras. Swinden, described the role division between men and women in which each had their In addition to music clubs, there were also proper place. This social structure was ac­ associations devoted to a wide range of cepted because it was considered to reflect a activities for their members. One of the most God-given order. Van Swinden stressed that important learned associations formed during the activities of Felix Meritis would make the Enlightenment was the Felix Meritis women happy, a happiness derived from the Society. Founded in 1777, it was the most endeavours of their husbands. A contempo­ prestigious and active cultural organization in rary described this second inauguration as Amsterdam in the late eighteenth century and follows: for most of the nineteenth. Membership was open to men eighteen years or older who Then the overture of the day were of the Christian faith. The Society was .l- before began; as soon as this i soon organized into five departments: phys­ was finished Professor van i ics, commerce, drawing, literature and music. Swinden was led by the t The music department had two types of President Commissioner to membership, paying and non-paying. Non- the same rostrum as the day 4 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies before, and made further a been part of well-bred girls' upbringing, they gracious and excellent speech were now expected to be able to play the again in the name of the piano. Because vast numbers of them were Society to the Women, to taught at least the rudiments of piano playing, welcome them on their first it is logical that some remarkable talents appearance in this new Hall, surfaced. These taJented young girls, whether and he took the opportunity to the children of profeSSional musicians or of depict the influence which the non-professionals, the so-called "dilettantes," civilization of Man, through perfomed in public, with audiences eager to their practice of Science, fine witness child prodigies.