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Global Trends and Environmental Issues in Nickel Mining: Sulfides Versus Laterites

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Global Trends and Environmental Issues in Nickel Mining: Sulfides Versus Laterites Ore Geology Reviews 38 (2010) 9–26 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ore Geology Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev Global trends and environmental issues in nickel mining: Sulfides versus laterites Gavin M. Mudd ⁎ Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800 Australia Department of Civil Engineering, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand article info abstract Article history: Nickel (Ni) is an important metal in modern infrastructure and technology, with major uses in stainless steel, Received 21 January 2010 alloys, electroplating and rechargeable batteries. Economic Ni resources are found in either sulfide or Received in revised form 17 May 2010 laterite-type ores. Although the majority of economic resources are contained in laterite ores, the bulk of Accepted 17 May 2010 historic Ni production has been derived from sulfide ores since laterites require more complex processing. To Available online 1 June 2010 meet future demand for Ni, there is an increasing amount of Ni being mined from laterite ores—leading to increasing energy and greenhouse gas emission costs for Ni production. In many of the major Ni fields of the Keywords: fi Nickel mining world, environmental impacts have also been signi cant, especially in Sudbury in Canada and the Taimyr Nickel sulfide and Kola Peninsulas in Russia. A major gap in the literature remains on historical trends in global Ni mining, Nickel laterite especially with respect to primary aspects such as production, known economic resources and ore grades Sustainable mining and type. This paper compiles and analyses a wide array of data on global Ni mining, presenting a coherent Resource intensity picture of major historical trends and the current industry configuration. The paper includes unique historical data sets for major Ni fields, especially the Sudbury Basin and Thompson fields in Canada and the Kambalda field in Australia. By understanding these critical ‘mega-trends’ in the Ni industry, it is possible to better understand unfolding global issues, such as environmental impacts, greenhouse gas emissions, climate change and potential industry responses, and whether ‘peak nickel’ is a viable concept and the implications these issues have for Ni production and demand. The data, trends and issues synthesized in this paper therefore provide a compelling picture of the Ni industry, and should help to inform current research and policy directions. © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction is, assuming minerals are finite, continued growth in their extraction will eventually lead to their exhaustion—forming the classic bell curve Nickel (Ni) is an important metal in modern infrastructure and of a rise, peak and fall in production (a type of curve first made famous technology, with major uses in stainless steel (∼58%), nickel-based for oil by M. King Hubbert in 1956). Yet current Ni production rates alloys (∼14%), casting and alloy steels (∼9%), electroplating (∼9%) are substantively greater than a century ago, and economic Ni and rechargeable batteries (∼5%) (Eramet, 2009; Barnett, 2010). resources are now known to be widespread across numerous parts Economic Ni resources are found in either sulfide or laterite-type ores. of the world, with major fields in Canada, Russia, Australia, the Globally, the bulk of historic Ni production has been derived from Caribbean and across the western Pacific archipelago. sulfide ores, while the majority of known Ni resources are contained A major gap in the literature remains on historical trends in global in laterite ores. This unusual difference is due mainly to the challenges Ni mining, especially with respect to primary aspects such as of processing laterite compared to sulfide ores—leading to a historical production, known economic resources and ore grades and ore type. preference for sulfide ores. To meet future demand for Ni, however, This paper compiles and analyses a wide array of data on global Ni there is an increasing amount of Ni being mined from laterite ores. mining, presenting a coherent picture of major historical trends and The issues of ‘Peak Oil’ (Cavallo, 2004; Tsoskounoglou et al., 2008) the current industry configuration. The paper includes unique and ‘Peak Gas’ (Mohr and Evans, 2007) are receiving widespread historical data sets for major global Ni fields, especially the Sudbury attention—although very little fundamental research investigates Basin and Thompson fields in Canada and the Kambalda field in whether the analogous concept of ‘peak minerals’ is also valid. That Australia. By understanding these critical ‘mega-trends’ in the Ni industry, it is possible to better understand unfolding global issues, such as environmental impacts, greenhouse gas emissions, climate change and potential industry responses, and whether ‘peak nickel’ ⁎ Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800 Australia. Tel.: +61 3 9905 1352; fax: +61 3 9905 4944. is a viable concept and the implications these issues have for Ni E-mail address: [email protected]. production and demand. 0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2010.05.003 10 G.M. Mudd / Ore Geology Reviews 38 (2010) 9–26 2. Background: nickel resources, historical overview and (Habashi, 2009). Mining of this lateritic Ni deposit, just north of Noumea, production methods began in 1875 although the smelter near Noumea closed shortly after due to indigenous conflict (Howard-White, 1963). A new smelter was built in 2.1. Nickel resources 1880 at Thio, on the east coast, and New Caledonia quickly rose to the position of the world's largest Ni producer. Early ore grades were As a metal, Ni would commonly be considered a ‘finite’ resource particularly rich at some 12% Ni in the 1870s but declined to 5% Ni by 1909 and therefore mining is intrinsically unsustainable. However, with (Barlow, 1907; RONC, 1917). The French Ni company, Société Le Nickel appropriate technology, policies and programs, Ni can also be easily (SLN), was formed in 1880, and Ni matte from New Caledonia was recycled—which could be perceived to provide an effectively infinite exported to France for refiningatanewplantatLeHavre. resource and supply. The primary issues centre around energy The 1880s was a pivotal decade for Ni with the discovery of the requirements, environmental impacts and economic costs, leading massive Sudbury Ni–copper (Cu) field in northern Ontario, Canada, to the current preference for most Ni being supplied from mining as and the emergence of Ni's benefit as an alloying agent in steel, the lowest cost supply option (i.e., recycling rates are low at present). particularly for armor plating in military applications (Habashi, 2009). There are abundant economic Ni resources known around the world, The discovery of Sudbury occurred during the construction of the principally in Australia, Canada, New Caledonia, Philippines, Indonesia Canadian Pacific Railway in 1883, and was initially thought to be a and Russia, amongst others. According to the US Geological Survey, large, rich Cu deposit. In 1886, during smelting, it was found that global economic and sub-economic resources in 2008 were estimated Sudbury was actually a Ni–Cu ore—although no economical metal- at 220 Mt Ni—a value whose magnitude has been similar for at least a lurgical methods were known at the time to separate and purify such decade, and even shows a gradual increase over this time (e.g., metals (Howard-White, 1963). Given the apparent scale of Sudbury's resources in 1998 were 180 Mt Ni) (USGS, var.-a). deposits and richness of the ores, along with growing Ni demand, Nickel is commonly present in two principal ore types—sulfide or there was major incentive to develop new metallurgical processes— laterite. Sulfide ores are typically derived from volcanic or hydro- which was achieved with perhaps unparalleled success in the modern thermal processes and usually include copper (Cu) and/or cobalt (Co), mining industry (Simons, 1988; Marcuson and Díaz, 2007). The and often precious metals such as gold (Au) or platinum (Pt), processes included simple heap roasting, the Orford Process for palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) (the platinum group metals or smelting and refining, including its subsequent modifications by PGMs) (Naldrett, 2002; Hoatson et al., 2006). Laterite ores are formed Viktor Hybinette, and the Mond and Hybinette processes for refining. near the surface following extensive weathering of ultramafic rocks, These innovations allowed the Sudbury field to flourish and establish and occur abundantly in tropical climates around the equator, the arid a dominant position as the world's biggest Ni producer for many regions of central Western Australia or humid areas of Eastern Europe decades. By 1905, Canada was producing ∼9 kt Ni/year – and growing (Elias, 2002). The weathering leads to distinct ore types, namely, rapidly – and had permanently overtaken New Caledonia (∼6to7kt limonite, nontronite and saprolite/garnierite/serpentine, with differ- Ni/year). ent impurity levels of magnesium, iron and silica, as well as a Two of the earliest companies at Sudbury, the Canadian Copper transition zone between the ore types (Elias, 2002; Dalvi et al., 2004; Company and Orford Copper Company, merged in 1902 to form the Wedderburn, 2009). A typical laterite profile is shown in Fig. 1. International Nickel Company Limited (‘Inco’), which later merged with the Mond Nickel
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