Harvesting, Preparation and Preservation of Commonly

Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants, ISSN 2249 – 4340 RESEARCH ARTICLE Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 262-282, June 2013

Harvesting, preparation and preservation of commonly consumed wild and semi-wild food plants in Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom, Uganda Jacob Godfrey AGEA1*, Clement Akais OKIA1, James Munga KIMONDO2, Dino Andrew WOISO3, Bernard Bonton OBAA1, Joseph OBUA4, Prossy ISUBIKALU1, Zewge TEKLE- HAIMANOT5 1Department of Extension & Innovation Studies, College of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda. 2Kenya Forestry Research Institute, P.O Box 20412-00200, Nairobi, Kenya. 3Department of Biological Science, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3038, Morogoro, Tanzania. 4Inter-University Council of East Africa, P.O Box 7110, Kampala Uganda. 5School of Environment, Natural Resources & Geography, Bangor University, Bangor-Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, United Kingdom.

Article History: Received 31st March 2013, Revised 1st May 2013, Accepted 2nd May 2013.

Abstract: This paper provides an elaborate insight into the local methods of harvesting, preparation and preservation of the commonly consumed wild and semi-wild food plants (WSWFPs) in Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom, Uganda as one way of promoting their wide use. In-depth focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with key informants drawn from Kibanda County. Results showed a wide variation in harvesting, preparation and preservation techniques of these food plants. Gathering techniques largely depended on the plant parts harvested. Preparation procedures also varied from plant to plant. Most fruits were eaten as snacks without any special preparation procedures. However, gathered leafy plants were mostly preserved by direct sun drying. Shelf lives of freshly harvested plants varied from 2 to 10 days under special conditions. However, most preserved food materials had storage shelf life of 4 to 12 months depending on the plant species. Policy intervention on the sustainability of the local knowledge systems on WSWFPs including their harvesting, preparation and preservation practices as well as shelf life is needed. Blanching vegetables for at least 2-3 minutes before sun drying as well as the use of suitable packages for dried products should be promoted. To make preparation and preservation of WSWFPs more diverse and popular, and to provide greater recognition to WSWFPs, a cookbook for WSWFPs should be developed. Food fairs, cooking competitions and cooking demonstrations should also be promoted. Local people should be encouraged and facilitated to take and display their wild harvests in local agriculture shows and or exhibitions. Keywords: Wild edibles; wild foraging; wild foods; uncultivated foods; Uganda.

Introduction promotion of their production, consumption, From time immemorial, millions of people and conservation. Calls have been made for programs aimed at promoting the use of dwelling in the rural areas of tropical countries WSWFPs to always involve an exploration of have continued to depend on gathering, pro- local methods of processing into a palatable cessing, and utilisation of Wild and semi-wild meal (Tabuti et al. 2004). food plants (WSWFPs) for food, income, and other livelihood security options. Studies have Indigenous knowledge on food processing, shown that households gathering WSWFPs can food preservation and shelf life represents an avoid hunger, boost rural employment and gen- important basis to utilise WSWFPs and to im- erate income (Mithofer 2004), through pro- prove food security, nutrition, and livelihood. cessing and value addition (Saka et al. 2004). Rural people, notably women, hold enormous, Processing of WSWFPs is a critical factor in the yet neglected knowledge on food processing and

*Corresponding author: (E-mail) agea <@> forest.mak.ac.ug, jgagea <@> gmail.com http://www.openaccessscience.com © 2013 Copyright by the Authors, licensee Open Access Science Research Publisher. [email protected] This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC- ND 3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0) 263 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles preservation techniques (Eyzaguirre et al. sumed WSWFPs in Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom, 1999). For example, Jackson (1991) reported Uganda as a way of promoting their wide use that rural women in California have rich for improved livelihood. The exploration was knowledge of processing acorns from oak trees guided by the following research questions: before consumption- a process that entails How are the commonly consumed WSWFPs cracking the acorns, pounding, sifting, leaching, harvested, and prepared by the local people? and cooking. Similarly Zimmerman (1991) re- How are the commonly gathered WSWFPs pre- ported that rural folks in central and northern served by the local people? How long do they California know very well that Arctostaphylos preserve them before they become unsuitable manzanita berries must be pounded before for consumption (shelf-life)? cooking. Eyzaguirre et al. (1999) also pointed out that home garden crops and wild food plants Methods of data collection are often linked to extensive indigenous knowledge around food processing and preser- The study was conducted in Kibanda County vation. The local knowledge about processing of Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom. Eight (8) in-depth and preservation of WSWFPs therefore, de- focus group discussions (FGDs) using a check- serves recognition, support, and improvement. list were conducted with key informants drawn from Mutunda and Kiryandongo sub-counties. Documentation of local practices pertaining Data collected during these FGDs sessions in- to the processing and preservation of traditional cluded common methods of harvesting food plants (including WSWFPs) has been re- WSWFPs that are regularly consumed, prepara- ported to be a gateway to simple and affordable tion processes and their preservation methods. technology development (Rubaihayo et al. Local knowledge on shelf-life of the freshly 2003) that could improve local practices through harvested and/or preserved WSWFPs (how long well targeted technical support. For instance, in they are stored) were also sought during the dis- the case of indigenous fruits, documentation of cussions. Group scoring were also conducted local methods of their preparation, preservation using dry lima beans to assess the relative im- and value addition have been reported to facili- portance of the local methods of harvesting and tate their domestication, consumption and com- preservation methods of commonly consumed mercialisation (Dietz 1999, Kwesiga et al. 2000, WSWFPs. The helpful question and phrases Saka et al. 2002, Schomburg et al. 2002). How- adapted from Krueger (1994) in Henn et al. ever, Singh and Roy (1984) noted that there is (2006) were used during these discussions. wide neglect of the values of WSWFPs because little information is documented about their tra- Participants for the FGDS were selected ditional preparations and value addition practic- purposively based on their experience and es. knowledge on harvesting, preparation and preservation of WSWFPs in the area. The start- In the case of Uganda, Tabuti et al. (2004) ing points of their selection were community reported under-utilisation of WSWFPs due to meetings that were held in the two sub-counties. lack of knowledge on appropriate post-harvest Most research endeavours based on FGDs rely processing technologies. Although different on purposive sampling (Miles and Huberman, communities may have their own traditional 1994), with researchers selecting participants methods for processing of WSWFPs, there has based on the potential contributions that they been limited documentation of such information would make. Notes were made while the FGDs (Tabuti et al. 2004). In addition, the promotion were going on to capture as much information of exotic foods has shrouded the value of as possible. Close attention was paid to what WSWFPs, which may ultimately threaten the participants said, how they said it as well as continued existence of local knowledge pertain- their body languages. After each FGDs session, ing to their harvest, preparation and preservation preliminary notes captured in flipcharts were (Tabuti et al. 2004). This study therefore, ex- reviewed in a participatory manner, to validate plored the local methods of harvesting, prepara- them and to make any additions where possible tion and preservation of the commonly con- (Miles and Huberman 1994, Kitzinger and Bar- http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 264 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles bour 1999). Some important quotable statements prepared, using the participants’ own words. were also captured during the FGDs. According Where there were scoring exercises, mean to Corden and Sainsbury (2006), quoted words scores were computed. and phrases from research participants are common features of qualitative research reports. Results Quotes are used to support research claims and findings, illustrate ideas, illuminate experience, Methods of harvesting popularly consumed and evoke emotion (Beck 1993, Long and God- WSWFPs frey 2004, Sandelowski 2007). Gathering of WSWFPs involved various harvesting techniques (Table 1). These techniques, Data analysis which are determined to a great extent by the plant parts (Table 2) that are collected included Analysis of data from FGDs often involved hand plucking of edible parts such as the leaves, three major approaches: content analysis, cod- shoots, fruits, pods and flowers from the plant; ing, and analytical comparisons (Miles and picking or collecting from the ground floor nat- Huberman 1994). The basic task of content urally fallen fruits due to the influence of winds analysis was to reduce words, transcripts of in- (storms) and rainfall; up-rooting by hand pulling terviews and discussions to themes or concepts the whole plant; cutting off the tender top parts that have meaning to questions being explored. of the stem bearing edible parts (leaves, shoots All information given by participants were ob- and fruits); digging out the tubers and roots, jectively analysed for relevance (Strauss and knocking down fruits from the branches or the Corbin, 1990). Coding was aimed at reviewing crown of trees/shrubs with short sticks, stones or set of field notes and transcribes in order to dis- any other solid throwable objects; climbing and sect them meaningfully, while keeping the rela- careful shaking of tree or shrub branches to dis- tions between the parts intact (Miles and lodge the fruits. Huberman 1994). Coding systems involves three main categories: open, axial, and selective coding. In this study, only open and axial coding Table 1: Relative importance of the local me- systems were used. Open coding facilitated the thods of harvesting WSWFPs. development of categories of themes emerging Local harvesting methods Scores from FGDs held in three parishes from data while axial coding assisted in building Dii Kic Kit Mean (±SEM) connections within categories (Miles and score* Plucking of edible plant 15 13 10 12.7 (1.5) Huberman 1994). After each focus group ses- parts such as the leaves, sion, recorded notes were reviewed and re- shoots, fruits, pods and flowers. evaluated for their truthfulness and to identify Climbing and careful shak- 6 8 5 6.3 (0.9) the recurrent ideas that came out during the dis- ing of tree or shrub branches to dislodge the cussions. Tape recorded sessions of the group fruits. discussions were played and listened to again. Cutting off the tender top 3 6 8 5.7 (1.5) parts of the stem bearing Outcomes of discussions were grouped accord- edible parts (leaves, shoots ing to key themes (topics). Key statements and and fruits). Picking or collecting from 5 6 4 5.0 (0.6) ideas expressed for each topic explored in the the ground floor naturally discussion were identified and different posi- fallen fruits. Up-rooting by hand pulling 5 3 5 4.3 (0.7) tions that emerged under each key theme were the whole plant. summarised. A systematic comparison was Shooting (knocking) down 4 3 4 3.7 (0.3) fruits from branches/crown made on the emerging themes and positions of trees/shrubs with sticks, (Neuman 1994) to identify the common ideas. stones or any other throwable objects. Verbatim phrases that represent each posi- Digging for the tubers and 2 1 4 2.3 (0.9) tion/theme were pulled out. A full report of the roots. Dii: Diima, Kic: Kichwabugingo, Kit: Kitwara.*High scores imply the discussion which reflected the outcome of the relative importance of the harvesting method. Scores were made using discussions as completely as possible were later 40 dry lima bean seeds in three focus group discussions.

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 265 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Table 2: Methods of harvesting popularly consumed WSWFPs. WSWFPs Methods of harvesting Abrus precatorius L. Plucking the leaves and shoots. Acalypha bipartita Müll. Arg. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridley) K.Schum Plucking the fruits. Aframomum angustifolium (Sonnerat) K.Schum. Plucking the ripe fruits. Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Amaranthus graecizans L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Amaranthus hybridus subsp. Cruentus (L.) Thell. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Amaranthus lividus L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Amaranthus spinosus L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Ampelocissus Africana (Lour.) Merr. Plucking ripe fruits, cutting the stem for leaves. Annona senegalensis Pers. Climbing and plucking the ripe fruits. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) T.Anders. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Basella alba L. Plucking the leaves from the vines. Bidens pilosa L. Up-rooting the whole plant. Borassus aethiopum Mart. Picking the ripe fallen fruits. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Picking the ripe fallen fruits, climbing and shaking for ripe fruits. Capsicum frutescens L. Plucking the leaves, picking the ripe fruits, cutting the stems bearing ripe fruits. Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl Plucking the ripe fruits. Cleome gynandra L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Corchorus tridens L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Corchorus trilocularis L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Crotalaria ochroleuca G.Don Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Cutting the leaves. Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. Digging for the tubers. Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Ficus sur Forssk. Climbing and plucking the ripe fruits. Garcinia buchananii Bak. Climbing and plucking the ripe fruits, shooting the ripe fruits with sticks. Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Hiern Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Hyptis spicigera Lam. Cutting the stem of plant bearing seeds, plucking leaves and flowers. Imperata cylindrical (L.) Raeuschel Up-rooting the whole plant for its rhizomes. Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Up-rooting the whole plant and plucking the leaves later. Lantana camara L. Plucking the ripe fruits. Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels Digging for the roots. Ocimum gratissimum L. Plucking the leaves from the plant. Oxalis corniculata L. Up-rooting the whole plant. Oxalis latifolia Kunth Up-rooting the whole plant. Oxygonum sinuatum Hochst. & Steud. ex Meisn.) Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Dammer Phaseolus lunatus L. Plucking leaves, pods or flowers. Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Cutting the ripening clusters of fruits. Physalis peruviana L. Plucking/picking ripe fruits. Rhus pyroides var. pyroides Burch. Bending the branches and plucking the fruits. Rubus pinnatus Willd. Plucking the ripe fruits. Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby Plucking the tender leaves and shoots. Sesamum calycinum Welw. Plucking the leaves, cutting the stem bearing leaves. Sida alba L. Plucking the young leaves. Solanum anguivi Lam. Plucking unripe fruits from the plant. Solanum lycopersicum L. Plucking the fruits. Solanum macrocarpon L. Plucking unripe fruits or leaves. Solanum nigrum L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Sonchus oleraceus L. Plucking tender leaves and shoots, cutting stem bearing leaves or up-rooting the whole plant. Tamarindus indica L. Climbing and plucking the ripe fruits, knocking the fruits using throwable objects (e.g. stones and sticks). Tristemma mauritianum J.F.Gmel. Plucking the young leaves/shoots and fruits. Urtica massaica Mildbr. Cutting the stem bearing leaves and shoots. Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. Climbing and plucking ripe fruits. Vernonia amygdalina Del. Plucking the young leaves. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Plucking the young leaves and shoots. Vitex doniana Sweet. Climbing and shaking for ripe fruits, picking fallen fruits from the ground, knocking the fruits using throwable objects (e.g. stones and sticks). Ximenia americana L. Climbing and plucking ripe fruits.

Procedure for preparation of commonly con- ways, there were varied procedures for their sumed WSWFPS preparation. Figure 1 presents the general issues Because most of the WSWFPs documented captured from FGDs sessions concerning their preparation process, while Figure 2 shows gen- in this study area are consumed in different eralised procedural steps for preparation of most http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 266 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles WSWFPs in the study area. For many WSWFPs small pieces, washed in a dish of water and whose tender leaves and shoots are cooked, boiled for 7-10 minutes with either tomatoes or some preparation procedures including sorting, onions or both; afterwards groundnut or simsim wilting, washing, and cutting (chopping) of the paste was added, mixed and the mixture cooked plants into small pieces prior to cooking, as well for additional 10-15 minutes under low heat. as the cooking time are similar but the actual Alternatively, the chopped and washed leaves procedure was dependent on each food plant and shoots were fried with cooking oil with ad- (Table 2). For instance, there was general simi- dition of onions, tomatoes, and salt for about 10 larity in the preparation procedures for Asystasia minutes before serving. Sometimes, leaves and mysorensis and Asystasia gangetica. In both shoots are just washed without chopping, cases, tender leaves, shoots, and young stems wrapped in banana leaves and steamed with are collected, washed in a dish of water, boiling ‘matooke’ (cooking type of plantain ba- chopped and boiled for 10-15 minutes. But in nana), cassava or sweet potatoes. the case of Asystasia gangetica - , ‘magadi’ (bi However, some WSWFPs such as Rhus carbonate of soda/rock salt) or potash is added pyroides var. pyroides, Carissa edulis, Lantana while boiling to soften the leaves. The boiled camara, Vangueria apiculata and Ximenia leaves, shoots, and young stems are then either americana were reported to be consumed with- mixed with groundnut or simsim paste and out any special preparation procedures required. cooked for additional 2-3 minutes or they are In most cases, ripe fruits are simply plucked added to cooked peas and beans and boiled for from the tree or the shrub and eaten immediately extra 3-5 minutes. fresh as snacks. For others like Ficus sur, the Similarly, all members of Amaranthaceace figs are just ripped open, seeds removed and family reported in this study (Amaranthus fleshy pulp eaten. In the case of Physalis dubius, Amaranthus graecizans, Amaranthus peruviana, the outer papery cover- hybridus subsp. cruentus, Amaranthus lividus, ings/wrappings enclosing the ripe fleshy yellow and Amaranthus spinosus) had common meth- fruits is first removed before the fruits are eaten ods of preparation whereby young leaves and as snacks or as part of salads (Table 3). shoots were collected, sorted, chopped into

Table 3: Procedure of preparation of commonly consumed WSWFPS. WSWFPs Procedure of preparation of commonly consumed WSWFPS Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. Leaves, shoots, and young stems are collected, sorted, washed in a dish of water, chopped Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) T. Anders. and boiled for 10-15 minutes. In the case of A. gangetica, ‘magadi’ salt (bi-carbonate of soda/rock salt) or potash is added while boiling to soften them. Boiled leaves, shoots, and young stems are then either mixed with groundnut or simsim paste and cooked for additional 2-3 minutes or added to cooked peas/beans, and boiled for extra 3-5 minutes. Some- times the chopped and washed leaves, shoots, and young stems are added towards the end cooking time (about 10-15 minutes) to beans or peas. Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell. Young leaves and shoots are collected, sorted, chopped into small pieces, washed in a dish Amaranthus graecizans L. of water and boiled for 7-10 minutes with either tomatoes or onions or both. Then ground- Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus (L.) nut or simsim paste is added, mixed and the mixture cooked for additional 10-15 minutes Thell. under low heat. Alternatively, the chopped and washed leaves and shoots are fried with Amaranthus lividus L. cooking oil with addition of onions, tomatoes, and salt for about 10 minutes before serv- Amaranthus spinosus L. ing. Sometimes, leaves and shoots are just washed without chopping, wrapped in banana leaves and steamed with boiling ‘matooke’ (cooking type of banana), cassava or sweet potatoes.

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 267 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Phaseolus lunatus L. Fresh pods of P. lunatus are harvested, shelled and the beans boiled for about 2 hours; Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. then either fried with cooking oil, onions and tomatoes or pasted with groundnuts/simsim and cooked under low heat for another 3-5 minutes. For dry seeds, they are soaked for about 6 hours, seed coat removed, washed for about 3-4 times and boiled with potash or ‘magadi’ (rock salt) for about 2 hours until its porridge-like (relish). Simsim paste or ghee may be added and served. The fresh young leaves, shoots and flowers are also harvested, wilted in the sun shine for about 5 minutes, chopped, washed and boiled for 15-20 minutes with some potash or rock salt (‘magadi’) and Corchorus spp. Then groundnut/simsim paste is added and the mixture cooked for additional 3-5 minutes under low heat. In the case of V. unguiculata, the fresh leaves and shoots are pick off the stem, wilted in the sun for about 5 minutes, chopped into small pieces, washed in a plenty of water and boiled with addition of chopped pieces of Corchorus spp and potash or rock salt (‘magadi’) while stirring occasionally for about 20 minutes. Then groundnut/simsim paste is added, and the mixture cooked for additional 3-5 minutes under low heat. Crotalaria ochroleuca G.Don. Young leaves including flowers of C. ochroleuca are harvested, sorted, wilted in the sun Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby. for about 3-5 minutes, washed, chopped into small pieces and boiled with addition of Corchorus spp and potash or rock salt (‘magadi’) for 10-15 minutes. Excess water is drain off and then ghee, groundnut or simsim paste is added, and the mixture cooked for additional 3-5 minutes under low heat. In the case of S. obtusifolia, young leaves are collected, wilted in the sun for about 3-5 minutes, chopped into small pieces, washed and boiled for about 20 minutes. Raw (not roasted) simsim paste is added, and the mixture cooked again for additional 20-30 minutes to make a thicken dish without soup. Alternatively, the leaves are added to boiling beans or peas towards end of cooking time (30-40 minutes). Afterwards ghee, groundnut/simsim paste is added reheated for about 5 minutes under low heat. Annona senegalensis Pers. No special preparation required before consumption for R. pyroides var. pyroides, C. Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl. edulis, L. camara, V. apiculata and X. americana. Ripe fruits are simply plucked from the Ficus sur Forssk. tree/shrub and eaten fresh as snacks.. Soiled fruits of V. doniana collected from the ground Lantana camara L. are cleaned by water or on the cloth before the fleshy part is eaten. In the case of A. Physalis peruviana L. senegalensis, ripe fruits are plucked from the tree and the hard rough coat is removed Rhus pyroides var. pyroides Burch. often using teeth before the inner fleshy part is eaten. The seeds are spewed out of the Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. mouth. For F. sur, the figs are ripped/cut open, seeds removed and fleshy pulp eaten. The Vitex doniana Sweet ripe fruits of P. peruviana are collected, outer papery coverings (wrappings) removed and Ximenia americana L. the fleshy yellow fruits eaten as snacks or part of salads. Borassus aethiopum Mart. Ripe yellow fruits of B. aethiopum are crushed open by hitting it several times against Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. hard objects (mostly a rock outcrop or a stone) or beating them many times using a pestle. Phoenix reclinata Jacq. The fruit pulp is then either eaten immediately as a snack or mixed with water and used to make porridge, juice or local wine. Meanwhile, the ripe yellow fruits of P. reclinata plucked from the fruit clusters are eaten directly as snacks. Seeds are either discarded or collected, dried, cracked open and seed kernels boiled and eaten as a snack. In the case of C. schweinfurthii, ripe fruits are either eaten immediately or blanched in boiling water for about 2-3 minutes to soften the rind and flesh and then eaten, seeds are discarded. The seeds are discarded or occasionally roasted, cracked open and the kernel eaten. Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridley) Ripe fruits of Aframomum spp. are collected, cracked open often using the teeth and the K.Schum. pulp eaten as a snack with or without seeds. Fruit pulp is occasionally macerated and Aframomum angustifolium (Sonnerat) mixed with water, filtered and added to orange juice, porridge or used as an ingredient for K.Schum. making local wine. The seeds are discarded seeds are dried, grounded and used as condi- Garcinia buchananii Bak. ments/spices for local breads. For T. indica, ripe fruits are collected and fruit coatings Tamarindus indica L. removed by hand before fruit pulp is either eaten immediately as snacks or soaked in water to make juice upon addition of sugar or used in the preparation of local bread and porridge. In the case of G. buchananii, ripe fruits are harvested, peeled and the pulp eaten as snacks. The discarded seeds are either roasted directly using a pan or wrapped in banana leaves and baked in hot ash and eaten as a snack. Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. M. whitei roots are harvested, washed and the outer cover is chewed as a snack. Alterna- Imperata cylindrical (L.) Raeuschel. tively, rootstocks are washed, peeled and dried in the sun, pounded and used as condi- Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels. ments/flavourings for food, juices, teas and porridge. In the case of D. minutiflora, the harvested tubers are cleaned by washing with water and placed in a banana leaf in a pan or a pot and either boiled or steamed with or without peeling for about one hour before serving. The rhizomes of I. cylindrical are dug or just pulled, cleaned often with leaves or on a cloth and chewed immediately to quench thirst while herding, collecting firewood or com- ing back from a day’s hard farming activities away from home. Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf Leaves of C. citrates are cut, tied together in a loop to weigh about 50-100 grams and boiled with tea for about 5-10 minutes. The leaves are also tied in a loop and cooked with food to impart flavour. When the food is ready to be served, the loop is removed and thrown away. The leaves are also harvested and boiled in water for 5-10 minutes to impart flavour in the water. The water is then cooled and used for making juices and local wines.

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 268 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Abrus precatorius L. No special preparation is required for this group of food plants. Leaves of A. precatorius, Oxalis corniculata L. O. corniculata and O. latifolia are plucked and chewed immediately as snacks. Ripe fruits Oxalis latifolia Kunth and young leaves/shoots of T. mauritianum are also plucked and eaten immediately as a Rubus pinnatus Willd. snack; its young leaves/shoots are also mixed with other salads and eaten. In the case of R. Tristemma mauritianum J.F.Gmel. pinnatus, the ripe fruits are picked and eaten mostly as a snack or part of local salad dish.

Bidens pilosa L. Young leaves of V. amygdalina and B. pilosa are harvested, sorted, wilted for about 5 Vernonia amygdalina Del. minutes in the sun, washed, chopped into small pieces, and boiled for 15-20 minutes; after which the water is drained off. Ghee, groundnut or simsim paste may be added, and cooked for additional 3-5 minutes under low heat. The drained water from the boiled leaves is drunk or kept for medicinal use. Leaves of B. pilosa are alternatively mixed with beans or peas towards the end of cooking time (15-20 minutes). Again ghee, groundnut or simsim paste may be added and the mixture cooked for extra time of about 5 minutes under low heat. Young leaves of B. pilosa are also boiled in water for about 5 minutes and served as a substitute of tea with little addition of sugar. It is locally nicknamed ‘herbal tea’. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) Tender leaves of S. oleraceus, are collected, sorted, wilted in sun for much longer time S.Moore. (10-15 minutes) and added to boiling beans or peas towards the end of cooking time (15- Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. 20 minutes) to form a thickened or mashed dish. In the case of C. crepidioides, young Sonchus oleraceus L. leaves and sometimes young stems are collected, sorted, wilted in the sun for about 5 minutes, washed, cut into small pieces and added to cooking beans, peas or meat towards the end of cooking time (15-20 minutes). For E. arabicum, fresh leaves are collected, sorted, wilted for about 5 minutes in the sun, chopped into small pieces, washed and boiled for 10-15 minutes. Afterwards excess water is drained off, little milk, ghee, groundnut or simsim paste is added and the mixture cooked for extra 5-10 minutes under gentle heat. Basella alba L. Tender leaves of B. alba are collected, wilted in the sun shine for 5-10 minutes, washed, Cleome gynandra L. chopped and either added to the boiling beans, peas or meat towards to end of the cooking Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv. time (10-15 minutes) or boiled separately for about 10 minutes, followed by draining off excess water. Little milk/ghee, groundnut or simsim paste is added and cooked for extra 3- 5 minutes under low heat. Alternatively, the tender leaves are washed and wrapped in bananas leaves and steamed with cooking type of plantain banana, cassava, yams or sweet potatoes. In the case of C. gynandra and C. hirta, tender stems, leaves and shoots are harvested, sorted, wilted for about 5 minutes in the sun shine, washed, chopped into small pieces and boiled for about 1.5 hours. After the water is drain off and ghee, groundnut/simsim paste is added and the mixture is cooked for extra 5-10 minutes under gentle heat. Alternatively, tender stems, leaves and shoots are mixed with Amaranthus spp., chopped, washed and fried with cooking oil or ghee, onions and tomatoes for about 20-30 minutes before serving. Corchorus tridens L. Tender leaves and shoots of H. sabdariffa and H. acetosella are harvested, sorted, wilted Corchorus trilocularis L. in the sun for about 10 minutes, washed, chopped and boiled for about 5 to 10 minutes. Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Hiern Afterwards, excess water is drained off. Groundnut/simsim paste or the mixture of the two Hibiscus sabdariffa L. pastes is added, and cooked under low heat for extra 3 to 5 minutes before serving. Alter- Sida alba L. natively, the wilted, chopped and washed tender leaves and shoots are added to cooking beans/peas often towards of the end of cooking time (20-30 minutes). In the case of C. trilocularis and C. tridens, young leaves are harvested, sorted, wilted in the sun for about 5 minutes, washed, chopped into small pieces and added to other cooking foods like fresh and smoked meat, fish, peas, beans or other vegetables like V. unguiculata. Similarly, the tender leaves of S. alba are collected, wilted in the sun for about 5 minutes, chopped into small pieces, washed and added to other cooking foods especially beans, peas and meat towards the end of cooking time (10-20 minutes). Solanum anguivi Lam. Fruits of S. anguivi are harvested, washed and either added to other cooking foods such as Solanum macrocarpon L. beans, peas and meat towards the end of cooking time (15-20 minutes) or boiled separately for 15-20 minutes before serving. Alternatively, the fruits are wrapped in banana leaves and steamed for about 30-40 minutes before serving. Similarly, the tender leaves and shoots of S. macrocarpon are collected, washed, chopped and either wrapped in bananas leaves and steamed for 30-40 minutes before serving or boiled for 15-20 minutes. Alterna- tively, the leaves are fried with cooking oil or ghee, onions and tomatoes for 10-15 minutes before serving. The fruits of S. macrocarpon are collected, washed and cut into halves or quarters and either boiled (for 15-20 minutes)/steamed (for 30-40 minutes) before serving or added to boiling beans or peas towards the end of cooking time (15-20 minutes).

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 269 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Capsicum frutescens L. Tender leaves and shoots of S. nigrum are harvested, sorted, washed, chopped and either Solanum lycopersicum L. fried with cooking oil/ghee, onions and tomatoes for 10 to 15 minutes or steamed for 30- Solanum nigrum L. 40 minutes before serving. Alternatively, it is boiled for 20-30 minutes, after which the excess water is drained off and either groundnut or simsim paste is added and the mixture cooked for extra 3-5 minutes under low heat. Occasionally after the leaves and shoots are boiled for 20-30 minutes, it is mixed with boiling beans/peas 5-10 towards the cooking time. The ripe fruits of S. nigrum are harvested and chewed immediately as snacks. Few fruits of C. frutescens are harvested, crushed/chopped and added to either cooking food or served food as spices/appetizer; its tender leaves are harvested, washed and either fried for about 10 minutes or boiled for about 15 minutes before adding groundnut or simsim pastes and cooking for extra 3-5 minutes under low heat. In the case of S. lycopersicum, fruits are harvested, washed, cut into halves or quarter pieces and either added to other cooking foods often towards the end of cooking time (5 to 10 minutes) or boiled for about 10 minutes and pasted with groundnut/simsim paste. Alternatively, the chopped fruits eaten raw as in salads or are fried for 5 to 10 minutes before serving. Acalypha bipartite Müll. Arg. Tender leaves and shoots of A. bipartite and I. eriocarpa are collected, sorted, wilted in Hyptis spicigera Lam. the sun for 3-5 minutes, washed, chopped and either added to other cooking foods mostly Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. beans, peas and meat often towards the end of the cooking time (20-30 minutes) or boiled Ocimum gratissimum L. separately for 15-20 minutes, after which the excess water is drained off and groundnut or simsim paste is added and the mixture cooked for more 5-10 minutes under low heat. In the case of O. gratissimum, young leaves are harvested, sorted, washed and either boiled with tea for about 5 minutes before the tea is served or added to cooking food as flavour- ing spice. Meanwhile the seeds of H. spicigera are harvested, dried properly in the sun, threshed, roasted and pounded using mortar and pestle and used as paste for preparing other foods. Young leaves and flowers of H. spicigera are also harvested, wilted in the sun for about 5 minutes, washed, chopped and either fried with cooking oil/ghee for about 10- 15 minutes before serving or they are added to other cooking foods mostly beans, peas, fresh or smoked meat towards the end of cooking time (20-30 minutes). Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Steud. Young leaves of S. calycinum harvested, sorted, washed, chopped and either steamed for ex Meisn.) Dammer 30-40 minutes before serving or added to other cooking foods to thicken the sauce. Alter- Sesamum calycinum Welw. natively, harvested leaves are dried in the sunshine, grounded into powder, and added to other cooking foods as thickener. Young leaves of O. sinuatum are harvested, sorted, washed chopped, and either added to cooking foods mostly beans and peas towards the end of cooking time (20-30 minutes) or boiled for 10 to 15 minutes before pasting it with groundnut or simsim paste and cooking for extra 5-10 minutes under low heat. Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. Fresh young leaves of U. massaica are harvested, wilted in the sun shine for about 5 Urtica massaica Mildbr. minutes, washed, chopped and added to cooking beans or peas towards the end of cooking time (15-20 minutes) or boiled for 10 to 15 minutes before draining of excess water. Later ghee, milk, groundnut or simsim paste is added and stirred, the mixture cooked for extra 5-10 minutes under low heat. In the case of A. africana, leaves are collected, washed and boiled for 5-10 minutes before draining off water. Afterward, groundnut/simsim paste is added and the mixture cooked for extra 3-5 minutes under low heat. Ripe fruits of this plant are also harvested and chewed immediately as snacks.

Local preservation techniques of popularly con- banana leaves prior to storage; and burying in a sumed WSWFPs moist light soil. Eight local preservation techniques were re- The choice of preservation techniques, how- portedly used to preserve commonly harvested ever, depends on individual WSWFPs (Table 5). and consumed WSWFPs in the study area. For instance, ripe fruits of Canarium Mean scores from three FGDs indicated that schweinfurthii (mwafu) are gathered washed direct sun drying was the major preservation and boiled in salted water for 5-10 minutes, af- technique for most gathered WSWFPs in the ter which the fruits are cooled and stored in air- study area (Table 4). Other preservation tech- tight containers in a cool place. In the case of niques included boiling, parboiling or blanching Cleome gynandra, leaves are parboiled or of the plant materials prior to sun drying; sun blanched in hot water for about 5 to 8 minutes, drying followed by sprinkling with chilli (Cap- then dipped in cold water for about 5 minutes sicum frutescens) powder; smoking in the kitch- before sun drying and pounding the leaves. Oth- en roof ceiling over fireplace; keeping the plant er people simply cook Cleome gynandra leaves material in a moist cool place; wrapping in fresh by boiling for about 20-30 minutes, before draining off excess water. The cooked leaves are

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 270 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles then mashed to form cakes, which are sun-dried Annona senegalensis, Crassocephalum and stored in shielded containers for future use. crepidioides, Cymbopogon citratus and Vitex Some WSWFPs such as Abrus precatorius, doniana are not preserved. Acalypha bipartita, Ampelocissus africana,

Figure 1: General issues related to preparation of WSWFPs captured from FGDs.

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 271 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles

Figure 2: Generalised procedures for preparation of commonly consumed WSWFPS in Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom.

Table 4: Relative importance of the local preservation methods. Local preservation methods Scores from FGDs held in three parishes Dii Kic Kit Mean (±SEM) score* Direct sun drying 15 17 15 15.7 (0.7) Boiling/parboiling/blanching prior to sun drying 4 5 3 4.0 (0.6) Sun drying followed by sprinkling with chilli (Capsicum 3 2 4 3.0 (0.6) frutescens) powder. Sun drying followed by sprinkling with salt (sodium chloride). 3 1 1 1.7 (0.7) Smoking in the kitchen roof over fireplace. 1 2 2 1.7 (0.3) Keeping in moist cool/cold place. 2 1 2 1.7 (0.3) Wrapping in fresh banana leaves and storing. 1 1 2 1.3 (0.3) Burying in moist sandy soil. 1 1 1 1.0 (0.0) Dii: Diima, Kic: Kichwabugingo, Kit: Kitwara. *High scores imply the preservation method is popular whereas low scores imply it is less popular. Scores were made using 30 dry lima bean seeds.

Shelf life of preserved/collected WSWFPs longest reported shelf life of about 8-10 months and 10-12 months, respectively. On the contra- Shelf lives of freshly harvested plants var- ry, freshly gathered leaves of Acalypha bipar- ied from 2 to 10 days under special conditions. tite, can only keep fresh for up to 2 days even However, most preserved food materials had after being watered sparingly. Similarly, gath- storage shelf life of 4 to 12 months depending ered ripe fruits of Annona senegalensis and on the plant species (Table 6). For instance, Aframomum alboviolaceum can only keep fresh dried leaves of Amaranthus dubius, Amaranthus for up to 3 and 10 days respectively. No infor- graecizans, Amaranthus hybridus subsp. mation was provided on the shelf life of some of cruentus, Amaranthus lividus, Amaranthus gathered WSWFPs such as Abrus precatorius, spinosus were said to have shelf life of about six Ampelocissus Africana, Crassocephalum (6) months when kept in shielded containers or crepidioides, Erucastrum arabicum and pots. Similarly, dried fruits of Capsicum Garcinia buchananii because these plants are frutescens and seeds of Hyptis spicigera had the http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 272 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles neither preserved nor stored before their con- Crassocephalum crepidioides Neither preserved nor stored. (Benth.) S.Moore sumption (Table 6). Most WSWFPs that are eat- Crotalaria ochroleuca G.Don Sun drying the leaves and flowers en as snacks immediately after they are harvest- Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Neither preserved nor stored. ed, falls into this category where no information Stapf Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. Fresh tubers buried in a dug hole and on their shelf life was reported in FGDs. covered with sandy soil watered sparingly every day to keep soil moist. Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & Neither preserved nor stored. C.A.Mey. Table 5: Local preservation techniques for pop- Ficus sur Forssk. Fruits (figs) are split open, dried and ularly consumed WSWFPs. ground into flour, which are stored or mixed with grain flour for porridge. WSWFPs Local methods of preservation Garcinia buchananii Bak. Fruits not preserved or stored. Abrus precatorius L. Not preserved and stored. Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Sun drying the leaves. Ripe fruits are Acalypha bipartita Müll. Arg. Not preserved. Hiern also sun dried and the seeds threshed Aframomum (Ridley) K.Schum Ripe fruits are preserved by keeping in out. alboviolaceum a moist cool/cold place. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Same as with Hibiscus acetosella. Aframomum angustifolium Same as with Aframomum Hyptis spicigera Lam. Sun drying the seeds. Leaves and (Sonnerat) K.Schum. alboviolaceum flowers not preserved. Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Sun drying and pounding the leaves Imperata cylindrical (L.) Rhizomes neither preserved nor Thell. and shoots. Raeuschel stored. Amaranthus graecizans L. Sun drying and pounding the leaves Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Leaves neither preserved nor stored. and shoots. Lantana camara L. Fruits neither preserved nor stored. Amaranthus hybridus subsp. Sun drying and pounding the leaves Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels Peeling and sun drying the fleshy part Cruentus (L.) Thell. and shoots. of the roots, which are then pounded. Amaranthus lividus L. Sun drying and pounding the leaves Ocimum gratissimum L. Sun drying and grinding the leaves to and shoots. powder. Amaranthus spinosus L. Often not preserved but leaves can also Oxalis corniculata L. Leaves neither preserved nor stored. be sun-dried, pounded and kept for Oxalis latifolia Kunth Leaves neither preserved nor stored. future use. Oxygonum sinuatum Hochst. & Sun drying and grounding the leaves Ampelocissus Africana (Lour.) Not preserved and stored. Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer and shoots into powder. Merr. Phaseolus lunatus L. Fresh seeds are blanched by placing Annona senegalensis Pers. Not preserved. them into boiling water for about 5 Asystasia gangetica (L.) Sun drying and pounding the leaves minutes, removed and then placed in T.Anders. and shoots. cold water for 5 to 10 minutes. Mature Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) Not preserved in the past but now, pods are harvested, dried in sunshine T.Anders. leaves are sun-dried, pounded and for about 7 days, before shelling and kept for future use. drying seeds for addition 3-5 days. Basella alba L. Leaves not preserved. Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Not preserved. Bidens pilosa L. Sun drying and pounding the leaves. Physalis peruviana L. Ripe fruits are wrapped in fresh ba- Borassus aethiopum Mart. Fresh ripening fruits preserved by nana leaves to preserve them. The keeping in a moist cold place (often leaves act as a coolant. kept outside at night). Rhus pyroides var. pyroides Fruits neither preserved nor stored. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Ripe fruits are boiled in salted water Burch. for 5-10 minutes, cooled and stored in Rubus pinnatus Willd. Fruits neither preserved nor stored. airtight containers in a cool place. Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Boiling the leaves for10 to 15 minutes Capsicum frutescens L. Leaves not preserved but fruits are sun Barneby and then sun drying and grounding the dried. Fruits are also smoke-dried by boiled leaves. hanging them in the kitchen roof Sesamum calycinum Welw. Sun drying and pounding leaves into ceiling over the fireplace. powder. Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl Fruits neither preserved nor stored. Sida alba L. Neither preserved nor stored. Cleome gynandra L. Parboiling or blanching the leaves in Solanum anguivi Lam. Sun drying the fruits. hot for about 5 to 8 minutes, then Solanum lycopersicum L. Ripe fruits not preserved transferring the leaves to cold water for about 5 minutes before sun drying Solanum macrocarpon L. Sun drying the leaves and shoots. and pounding the leaves. Alternative- Solanum nigrum L. Same as with Solanum macrocarpon. ly, the leaves are cooked for about 20- Sonchus oleraceus L. Neither preserved nor stored. 30 minutes, water drained off and the Tamarindus indica L. Sun drying the fruits. cooked leaves mashed to form cakes, which are dried in sunshine and stored Tristemma mauritianum Neither preserved nor stored. in shield containers for future use. J.F.Gmel. Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv. Rarely preserved or stored. When Urtica massaica Mildbr. Neither preserved nor stored. preserved the same process as in Cle- Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. Neither preserved nor stored. ome gynandra is followed. Vernonia amygdalina Del. Sun drying the harvested leaves Corchorus tridens L. Parboiling leaves and shoots in hot for Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Sun drying and crushing the leaves about for 2-3 minutes, before sun into smaller pieces. drying and crushing them to powder. Vitex doniana Sweet Ripe fruits not preserved for storage. Corchorus trilocularis L. Preserved in the same ways as with Ximenia americana L. Same as in Vitex doniana. Corchorus tridens.

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 273 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Table 6: Shelf life of preserved/collected Garcinia buchananii Bak. – Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Both dried seeds and leaves WSWFPs. Hiern often stored for about 5-6 WSWFPs Shelf-life months. Abrus precatorius L. – Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Same as with Hibiscus Acalypha bipartita Müll. Arg. If watered sparingly, can keep acetosella Welw. ex Hiern. fresh only for 2 days Hyptis spicigera Lam. Dried seeds can be kept for 10 to Aframomum alboviolaceum Ripe fruits can be kept for up to 12 months. (Ridley) K.Schum 10 days. Imperata cylindrical (L.) – Aframomum angustifolium Same as with Aframomum Raeuschel (Sonnerat) K.Schum. alboviolaceum. Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. – Lantana camara L. – Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Dried materials are stored for up Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Powder is often stored for 8 to Thell. to 6 months in shield contain- Skeels 12 months in shield containers. ers/pots. Ocimum gratissimum L. Powder often kept for up to 6 Amaranthus graecizans L. Dried materials are stored for up months in shield containers. to 6 months in shield contain- Oxalis corniculata L. – ers/pots. Oxalis latifolia Kunth – Amaranthus hybridus subsp. Dried materials are stored for up Oxygonum sinuatum Hochst. Powder can be stored for 4 to 6 Cruentus (L.) Thell. to 6 months in shield contain- & Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer months in shield containers. ers/pots. Phaseolus lunatus L. Shelf life of the fresh seeds is Amaranthus lividus L. Dried materials are stored for up prolonged for 3 to 5 days after to 6 months in shield contain- blanching. Dried seeds are stored ers/pots. for about 6 months. Amaranthus spinosus L. Dried materials can also be Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Ripening fruit clusters often kept stored for about 6 months in fresh for up to 2 days. shield containers/pots. Physalis peruviana L. Wrapped ripe fruits in fresh Ampelocissus Africana (Lour.) – banana leaves have shelf-life Merr. prolonged for 5 to 7 days. Annona senegalensis Pers. Harvested ripened fruits often Rhus pyroides var. pyroides – keep fresh for up 3 days. Burch. Asystasia gangetica (L.) Dried materials stored for 3 to 4 Rubus pinnatus Willd. – T.Anders. months in shield containers/pots. Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Dried powder can be stored for Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) Dried materials stored for 3 to 4 Barneby up to 6 months, when sprinkled T.Anders. months in shield containers/pots. with crushed chilli pepper. Basella alba L. Harvested leaves can keep fresh Sesamum calycinum Welw. Dried powder often kept for 5 to 2 to 3 days. 7 months in shield containers. Bidens pilosa L. Dried materials stored for 5 to 6 Sida alba L. – months in shield containers/pots. Solanum anguivi Lam. Dried fruits can be stored for 4 Borassus aethiopum Mart. Fruits are preserved for up to 2 to 6 months. months. Solanum lycopersicum L. Ripe fruits often for about 4 Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Fruits are preserved for 3 to 4 days. months. Solanum macrocarpon L. Dried crushed leaves often Capsicum frutescens L. Dried fruits can be stored for stored up to 5 months. about 8 to 12 months. Solanum nigrum L. Same as with Solanum Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl Fresh harvested fruits often con- macrocarpon L. sumed with 2 days. Sonchus oleraceus L. – Cleome gynandra L. Dried materials in this way often Tamarindus indica L. Dried fruits often stored for stored for about 3 to 4 months. about 3 to 4 months. Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv. Dried crush leaves can also be Tristemma mauritianum – kept for up to 4 months. J.F.Gmel. Corchorus tridens L. Powder often kept for about 4 to Urtica massaica Mildbr. – 5 months in shield containers. Vangueria apiculata – Corchorus trilocularis L. Same as with Corchorus tridens K.Schum. L. Vernonia amygdalina Del. Dried leaves can be kept for up Crassocephalum crepidioides – to 12 months. (Benth.) S.Moore Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Dried leaves preserved for about Crotalaria ochroleuca G.Don Dried material often kept for 6 months in a shield contain- about 5 to 7 months in shield ers/pots. containers. Vitex doniana Sweet Ripe fruits can be kept fresh for Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) – 2 days. Stapf Ximenia americana L. Same as in Vitex doniana Sweet. Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. Buried tubers are preserved for “–” implies no information provided on shelf life because the up to 2 months. plant part is neither preserved nor stored. Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. – & C.A.Mey. Ficus sur Forssk. Flour can be kept for up to 3 months. http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 274 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Discussion field and carry them home”. Other than pulling Methods of harvesting popularly consumed the whole plant, sometimes, the stems of the plant are cut to nearly ground level. Cutting the WSWFPs tender top parts of the stem was reported in the Gathering of WSWFPs either for their nutri- FGDs to encourage branching out and produc- tional or medicinal value is something humans tion of more leaves and side shoots. However, it have done since time immemorial. In this study, must be noted that there is a danger that some it was noted that the gathering process involves plants (e.g. Acalypha bipartite) can completely several harvesting techniques which are deter- die out after the stems have been cut. Pulling out mined to a great extend by the plant parts that the whole plant was reported as a common prac- are collected for consumption or sale. Hand tice mainly for edible weeds on-farms and was plucking of edible plants parts such as the fresh noted as the simplest way of controlling edible leaves, shoots, fruits and pods was one of basic weeds, when still small, before they develop a and flexible harvesting technique for most larger root system that makes pulling them dif- WSWFPS gathered for consumption in the ficult. The practice is often done after a good study area. For most gathered leafy WSWFPs, rainfall, when the soil is softened so that the tender leaves and shoots are simply picked by roots pull out smoothly from the earth to avoid snipping them off stalk with fingers. In the case injuries to the hand. of shrubs or low-branched trees, fruits are On the other hand, tubers and roots of some plucked directly from the lowered branches by WSWFPs such as Dioscorea minutiflora (wild the collector while standing on the ground, a yams) and Mondia whitei (Omurondwa), were finding which is similar to what Morandini n- (1962) described as a typical technique of har- dug out either using small hoes or pointed ‘pa -like cutting machetes fre- vesting fruits for seed extractions. gas’ (large cleaver quently used to cut through rainforest under- Hand plucking of the edible parts has many growth and for agricultural purposes or to per- benefits. Firstly, the ideal or target edible parts form crude cutting tasks such as making simple of the plant are easily selected by eye and the wooden handles for other tools) and sometimes non-target edible parts such as immature or the whole plant is completely up-rooted. This damaged leaves, pods or fruits are straight away practice however, contrasts with the gathering excluded from the collection batch thus, easing practices elsewhere like in Australia where Abo- the sorting of the plants during the preparation riginal women and children used sharp pointed process. Secondly, picking the leaves from the digging sticks for harvesting tubers of wild plants is known to stimulate growth of the plant yams (Microseris scapigera) and edible roots (Moss 1988, Ken 2007). Harvesting by either (e.g. Braken fern- Pteridium esculentum) in- up-rooting the whole plant through hand pulling stead of using farm implements (Isaacs 1987). or cutting off the tender top parts of the stem Collection of fallen edible fruits from the was a common practice for harvesting certain ground floor due to natural ripening and abscis- WSWFPs such as amaranthus species and other sion have been reported as common practice weedy WSWFPs growing on-farm, a finding with a number of large-fruited genera (Robbins which corroborates to what Guárino (1997) re- et al. 1981, Rai and Uhl 2004, Kadzere et al. ported; that most underutilized and neglected 2006). It is cheap, less dangerous harvest prac- African traditional vegetables are often harvest- tice and does not require as skilled labour as, for ed by hand pulling or cutting off the aerial plant example, climbing and shaking the tree branch- parts. es to dislodge fruits. In the present study, gath- The importance of hand pulling as a gather- ering wild fruits from the ground below fruit ing technique was echoed during FGDs, where trees or shrubs were said to be a common prac- one participant said “Gathering dodo tice mostly by women and girls because culture (Amaranthus dubius) is the easiest way to feed often restricts them from climbing trees for fear my family when I don’t have what to cook. I just of exposing some cherished body parts. On a walk around and simply pull them out of the similar note, Byaruhanga and Opedum (2008)

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 275 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles opined that is a taboo across many cultures in shoots are cooked and enjoyed as vegetables. Uganda for girls and adult men to climb trees. The foods were prepared either inside a small For girls, they alleged that prohibition on climb- kitchen, outside in the open area or under a ing trees has its origin in the belief that a girl’s shaded compound tree if the weather permitted. chance of marriage would be ruined by a fall Where the kitchen is not available, food is often from a tree, and if a girl accidentally fell from a cooked under the veranda of the main house tree, she might get injuries or fractures that (hut) often on a three stone hearth or charcoal could leave life-long scars or deformation; and stove. Almost all cooked leafy WSWFPs under- few grooms would be willing to take a deformed go the following procedures of pre-cooking or scarred bride. Although fruit collection from preparation: First, apart from gathering activity, ground floor was said to be cheap and less dan- there is a sorting process where the over-mature gerous, there were concerns from women in the (old) and damaged plant parts, foreign non edi- FGDs that most of the fruits gathered from the ble material like visible insects and worms are ground are often damaged by pests or infected removed. Secondly, the plants are washed and by pathogens since the fruits might have fallen rinsed in clean water to remove soil, dirt and and been on the ground for several days. other foreign materials (e.g. stones, insects and worms) that escaped from being seen in the sort- Climbing and shaking of tree or shrub ing stage. Prior to washing, some leafy branches will often dislodge the ripe fruits, WSWFPs are first wilted in sun shine for some which can later be collected or picked from the ground (Stein et al. 1974, Rai and Uh 2004, few minutes depending on the plant species. It is Kadzere et al. 2006). Outcomes of FGD ses- a common believe that wilting vegetables helps sions indicated that climbing and shaking of the to kill worms and thus they are easily dislodged tree branches was common mainly for big fruit from the surfaces of the plants. trees (e.g. Vitex doniana), and generally for Once sorted and/or wilted vegetables have those fruits out of reach of hand plucking as been washed, they are cut (chopped) into small- well as in cases where one foresees danger of er pieces as indicated by one key informant “the his/her weight causing the breakage of the thinner the chopped pieces of vegetables are, branch when he/she moves near the apex of the the faster it cooks and hence saves you the cook- branch to reach for the fruits. Shaking tree ing time and firewood”. It was also noted that branches was also reported to result in falling of some people chopped leafy vegetables before some unripe fruits as well, thus causing wast- washing and that the sequence of these two op- age. On the hand, little has been reported about erations does matter. However, it has been re- shooting (knocking down) fruits from the tree ported that chopping vegetables before washing branches or crowns either using short sticks, causes some nutrient loss especially water- stones or other throwable objects (Kadzere et al. soluble vitamins and this is actually noted by the 2006), yet in the present study it was reported greenish colour of the washing water indicating that children mostly enjoy this practice of fruits presence of the nutrients in the water (Sharma, harvest; a practice which is often discouraged 2005; Kimiywe et al. 2007). So it is advisable to and sometimes not tolerated by elders because it chop vegetables after washing to reduce leak- causes fruit wastes, damage to the tree, and may ages of vitamins to water used for washing. also injure or dislodge non-target plant parts. Virtually all leafy WSWFPs are cooked in a similar way. Most of them are boiled, fried, added to other cooking foods or steamed. Varia- Preparation procedures for commonly con- tion was mainly in the cooking time and often in sumed WSWFPS the added ingredients such as tomatoes, curry Preparation procedures for WSWFPs that powder, ghee and groundnut or sesame (simsim) are often consumed after processing tend to rely paste. Quite often these plants are boiled or fried on the nature of the plant itself. However, there for a short period of time with few exceptions is some commonality in preparation procedures such as Cleome gynandra and Cleome hirta, for most WSWFPs whose tender leaves and which were said to take up to one and half hours

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 276 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles of boiling before it is ready for serving. Some of thereby destroying most nutrients. Besides, the vegetables like Vigna unguiculata are boiled steamed vegetables tend to retain their original with the addition of a small quantity of ‘magadi’ colours than the boiled ones. (bi-carbonate of soda) or potash that is locally Given that the eating habits in Uganda have made from burnt ashes of some amaranthus spe- been changing fairly fast, the frying of foods cies especially Amaranthus spinosus to soften such as green vegetables, which used to be a them. In other cases, some plants are boiled to- culinary practice of town and city dwellers, has gether with other vegetables mostly Corchorus been adopted by the rural dwellers and is now spp. which imparts the slippery texture to the becoming a traditional way of preparing some sauce. Elsewhere, similar observations were specific dishes (Musinguzi et al. 2006). In the made by Jones (1963) who noted that Swazi present study, most leafy WSWFPs are also stir- women cook most green vegetables for a short fried and consumed. Here, little oil is first heat- time except in the case of coarser green Europe- ed in a saucepan until when it begins fuming, an vegetables such as cabbage or spinach that then the sliced onions are added and cooked for were boiled for lengthy periods. Ogle and about 1-2 minutes while stirring them all the Grivetti (1985) reported that Swazi women also time, before adding the chopped vegetables. use bi- carbonate of soda to cook ‘igushe’ or Tomatoes, curry powder or other spices like other leafy vegetables if the leaves are not ten- powdered or freshly crushed ginger, are later der. They noted that instead of amaranthus ashes added. The mixture is continuously stirred until like in the present study, women preferred the it is ready for serving. The duration (time) of traditional aloe ash to make the potash which is frying, depends on the type of vegetable being a cheap alternative to bi-carbonate of soda. In cooked. Kenya, it is common to boil vegetables with trona, crude hydrated sodium carbonate to sof- Previous work in different parts of Uganda ten and improve the flavour of vegetables (Katende et al. 1999, Tabuti et al. 2004, (Bittenbender et al. 1984). Musinguzi et al. 2006) indicates that wild snacky foods are often eaten immediately with Steaming vegetables has been reported as little or no preparation. Similarly in the present one of the easiest and most nutritious way to study, people generally reported eating snacky cook vegetables (Lowe 1943). In steaming, veg- WSWFPs without any special preparation pro- etables are cooked gently over but not in hot cedures except in some few cases where the water. As opposed to the ideal way of steaming plant has multiple pattern of consumption like in vegetables using perforated steaming basket the case of Borassus aethiopum, where the ripe placed over a pot or saucepan containing boiling fruit is crushed open by hitting it several times water. In the present study, local people mostly against hard surface (mostly a rock outcrop) or wrapped the vegetables firmly in fresh banana beating it many times using a pestle to expose leaves with or without adding spices and the fruit pulp. The fruit pulp is then either eaten steamed them over the boiling cassava, sweet immediately as a snack or mixed with water and potatoes or the cooking type of bananas locally used to make porridge or local wine. Similarly, g- called ‘matoke’. This practice of preparing ve after the collection of the ripe fruits of etables has also been reported in Uganda by Tamarindus indica, the fruit coatings are re- Manoko and van der Weerden (2004) who noted moved by hand before the fruit pulp is either that the young shoots and leaves of some vege- eaten immediately as a snack or soaked in water tables such as Solanum nigrum are mixed with to make juice upon addition of sugar or used in groundnut paste, wrapped in banana leaves and the preparation of local bread and porridge. steamed either alone over the boiling water or over other boiling foods. One advantage of steaming vegetables to boiling them is that Local preservation techniques for popularly steamed vegetables retain many more of their consumed WSWFPs vitamins and minerals than boiled ones (Lowe 1943). When people boil vegetables, they are Results from this study indicate that local typically cooked for an extended period of time people use many techniques to preserve some of http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 277 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles the collected WSWFPs that they gather. Alt- Other WSWFPs (e.g. Corchorus tridens and hough preservation procedures tend to be more Senna obtusifolia) are however, first boiled, specific for each food plant as described in the parboiled or blanched prior to sun-drying. The result section, direct sun drying technique was duration of boiling, parboiling or blanching generally popular for those WSWFPs that are were said to be dependent on each plant species normally stored for future use. Sun drying is one although most edible plant parts were parboiled of the oldest methods of food preservation. Dry- or blanched for about 2 to 8 minutes. There is ing preserves foods by removing enough mois- general consensus that blanching and parboiling ture from it to prevent decay and spoilage. Most prior to drying improves nutrient retention and WSWFPs especially the leafy vegetables are sensory attributes of vegetables (Lee 1958), sun-dried directly after edible parts including however in the present study, it was reported leaves, shoots, young stems or flowers are har- during FGDs that parboiling and blanching help vested, sorted, washed and/or chopped to small to soften vegetables. Besides, being slightly pieces, by spreading them on rocky cleaned sur- cooked, the dried food would require less cook- faces or locally made trays, a practice similar to ing time in future. Others believed that blanch- what Beemer (1939) described in Swaziland- ing or parboiling WSWFPs prior to sun drying “cultivated and wild vegetables were cut into helps to prevent the stored products from dis- small pieces and spread on a flat surface to dry colouring or developing an off flavour or strong in the sun. In the evenings and on windy days odour. the vegetables were brought indoors until they Sprinkling of hot chilli (Capsicum were dry”. frutescens) powder or common salt (sodium No specific information was gathered on the chloride) to dried products before storage was duration of sun drying. Some informants said not uncommon among the households in the the duration of sun-drying depend on the study locality. It was a common belief that WSWFPs being dried and on brightness of the sprinkling little chilli powder (kamulari) or sunshine (implying hot or high temperatures) common salt over dried vegetables helps to ex- but what they well know is that the product tend shelf life of the stored product. Salting of must be dried properly and be kept dried in stor- dried vegetables prior to storage has been re- age. Interestingly, they also use colour and ported previously in literature (Chioffy and weight change to determine whether the leafy Mead 1991). However, there is a dearth of doc- vegetables are already dry and ready for storage. umented information on use of hot chilli powder Because drying removes moisture, the food be- in food preservation. It was generally believed comes smaller and lighter in weight accompa- here that use of hot chilli would deter or repel nied with colour changes (green to brown). For the deteriorating agents. Salting dried vegetables instance, it was claimed that 10 to 15 kg of fresh prior to storage reduces the moisture activity of leafy vegetables would reduce in weight to vegetables and makes free moisture less availa- about 1-1.5 kg or even less when it is complete- ble for spoilage microorganisms; it also lessens ly dry and ready for storage, but that it returns to soluble oxygen in the moisture and thus prohib- its original size when water is added. Other its the growth of aerobic microorganisms (Wang people simply crush the leaves between the fin- 1999, Wahlqvist 2002, Azam-Ali et al. 2003). gers and when the leaves crumble to a fine However, dried vegetables may lose much of powder, it is said to be perfectly dry and there- their nutrients through salting (Chioffy and fore ready for storage. Sun drying technique is Mead 1991) and according to Agrodok (1997) not only cheap but has also received much em- vegetables should only be salted when other phasis in the tropics (Ajayi and Osifo 1977, methods of preservation cannot be used. Katende et al. 1999, Musinguzi et al. 2006, Smoking certain food plants put in the Osunde and Musa-Makama 2007, Oladele and kitchen roof ceiling over fireplace; keeping Aborisade 2009) compared to other methods of them in moist cool environment, burying in the food preservation described in the literature. moist light soil or wrapping them in fresh banana leaves before storage although uncommon

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 278 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles were nevertheless being used by some people. The dried WSWFPs especially vegetables Hot chilli (Capsicum frutescens) fruits for in- were almost in many cases stored in airtight and stance are quite often preserved by smoking water proof containers/packages such as clay them over time inside the kitchen roof directly pots, tins and plastic bags to ensure long shelf above the cooking fireplace. The theory behind life. The fact that local people use air-tight and smoking technique is that the combination of or water proof containers to store their dried smoke and heat helps to dry and drive away mi- food materials implies their awareness of the crobes and moisture from the foods. To some influence of free air (oxygen) and moisture in people smoke drying food adds an interesting causing deterioration of dried vegetables. Much flavour to dried food, yet to others smoke drying as they may not understand the chemistry be- imparts a bad smell to the dried food products. hind this deterioration (oxidative reactions), at On the other hand, most fresh fruits are pre- least they know it is safer to keep dried food served for some few days by wrapping them in products especially vegetables in airtight and fresh banana leaves or simply keeping them in a water proof containers for elongated shelf life. clean cool place especially around clay pots that The storing or keeping dried food materials in a are traditional used to store and cool drinking dry, cool and dark place away from direct light water inside a house. Tubers and rootstocks also indicates their awareness of the influence of such as yams are buried in a light-moistured soil light on stored products. However, when probed especially sandy in nature. Elsewhere, Madge during FGDs, participants could not, explain (1994) reported similar preservation techniques why dried vegetables should always be kept in a of collected wild food plants in Gambia. For dry, cool and dark place. What they are sure of instance the use of banana leaves to wrap and is keeping dried vegetables in a dry, cool and keep fruits fresh because of their power to re- dark place helps extend the shelf life. Of course main ‘cold and airproof’ for several days. the literature suggests that low storage temperatures extend the shelf life of dried products and that all dried vegetables deteriorate to some ex- Shelf life of freshly gathered and preserved tent during storage when exposed to direct light, WSWFPs losing flavour, colour and aroma (Dauthy 1995). Shelf life of a product is critical in determin- For this reason, dried vegetables will not retain ing both its quality and profitability. Many gath- their appeal indefinitely when they are not pre- ered WSWFPs are quite perishable and will of- cautionary stored in dry, cool and dark place. ten start to spoil (taste bad, smell bad or look bad) a few days after harvest. These changes are often a result of chemical, physical and microbi- Conclusions al reactions. Findings of this study show that This case study was geared at improving the local people are well acquainted with the shelf understanding of the use of WSWFPs by explor- life of many gathered WSWFPs in their locality ing local methods of their harvesting, processing as well as their storage conditions for extended and preservation in Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom, shelf-life. For example, most fresh leafy Uganda. It was obvious that the gathering pro- WSWFPs were said to have shelf life of less cesses for WSWFPs involves various harvesting than 5 days while being sparingly watered and techniques, which are determined to a great, ex- kept in a cool place. Similarly, stored wild fruits tend by the plant parts that are collected for do- can only keep fresh for few days, very often less mestic consumption or sale. These techniques than 5 days or up to 10 days at most under spe- included hand plucking of edible parts such as cial conditions such as wrapping in fresh banana the leaves, shoots, fruits and pods from the leaves before storage. However, most properly plant; picking or collecting fruits from the dried leafy WSWFPs accompanied by proper ground floor; pulling (up-rooting) the whole storage requirements have a long shelf life of 4 plant from the soil by hands; cutting off the ten- to 6 months. Moreover, some dried seeds, fruits der top parts of the stem bearing the edible and rootstocks of some WSWFPs were said to parts; digging out the tubers and roots, knocking have shelf-life of between 8 to 12 months. down (‘shooting’) fruits from the branch- http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 279 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles es/crown of trees or shrubs with throwable ob- or plastic bags) for dried products should be jects; climbing and shaking of tree or shrub promoted. To make preparation and preserva- branches to dislodge the fruits. tion of WSWFPs more diverse and popular, and to provide greater recognition to WSWFPs, a There were varied procedures of preparing cookbook for WSWFPs should be developed. In WSWFPs. For many leafy WSWFPs that are the cookbook, some of the preparation processes cooked, some preparation procedures including could be modified to appeal to the town/city sorting, wilting, washing, and cutting (chop- dwellers. Food fairs, cooking competitions and ping) of the plants into smaller pieces before cooking demonstrations should also be promot- cooking were common but the actual procedure ed. such as boiling, stir-frying, steaming or adding to other cooking foods, as well as cooking time Local people should be encouraged and fa- and needed ingredients (like rock salt, ghee, cilitated to take and display their wild harvests groundnut or sesame pastes) were dependent on in local agriculture shows and or exhibitions. each WSWFPs. Most WSWFPs eaten as snacks The exhibitors should be able to prepare were consumed without any special preparation WSWFPs to be served at such shows as well as procedures except in some few cases like in during civic or church events. Such activities Borassus aethiopum, where fruit pulps are either can potentially rekindle public interest in eaten immediately as snacks or mixed with wa- WSWFPs thus improving their market demands. ter and used to make porridge or local wine. Because food preparation and preservation process can either improve or decrease the nutri- Direct sun drying was the major preserva- tional value of food, there is need to investigate tion technique for the gathered and often stored the effects of different preparation and preserva- WSWFPs in the study locality. Other preservation processes documented in this study on the tion techniques included boiling/parboiling or blanching of the plant materials prior to sun dry- nutritional quality of WSWFPs. However, there are immense challenges in this direction, since ing; sprinkling hot chilli (Capsicum frutescens) most WSWFPs are often cooked in a mixture of powder or common salt (sodium chloride) to other foods or just added to other cooking foods. dried vegetables before storage; smoking in the There is a need for an investigation of anti- kitchen roof over fireplace; keeping in moist nutrient factors or toxic compounds that could cool place, and wrapping in fresh banana leaves. be present in some of the documented The shelf life of preserved or freshly har- WSWFPs. Some of these plants may contain vested WSWFPs was reported to vary from 2 lethal levels of toxic principles, and must there- days to about 12 months. Most fresh leafy fore, be correctly processed before consump- WSWFPs have shelf life of up to 5 days if spar- tion. So far in Uganda, little attempt has been ingly watered and kept in a cool place. Wild made in this direction. Therefore, attempts to fruits could be kept up to 10 days under special research in this aspect of WSWFPs would be conditions (e.g. wrappings in fresh banana quite rewarding. leaves). Most properly dried plant materials accompanied by proper storage requirements have a long shelf life of 4 to 12 months. References Agrodok. 1997. Preservation of Fruits and Veg- etables. Agrodok 3. Third revised edition. Recommendations Agromisa. Wageningen. Netherland. Policy intervention on the sustainability of Ajayi, O.A., Osifo, O.A. 1977. Home preserva- the local knowledge systems on WSWFPs in- tion of fruits and vegetables in Nigeria. cluding their harvesting, preparation and preser- Proceedings Nig Inst Food Tech, 1: 56-60. vation practices as well as shelf life is needed. Blanching vegetables for at least 2-3 minutes Azam-Ali, S., Judge, E., Fellows, P., Battcock, before sun drying as well as the use of suitable M. 2003. Small-scale food processing. A packages (e.g. air tight jars, plastic/glass bottles

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 280 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles directory of equipment and methods. ITDG tion and use, 29-31 August 1995, ICRAF- Publishing. London. HQ, Nairobi, Kenya. Institute of Plant Ge- netics and Crop Plant Research, Beck, C.T. 1993. ‘Qualitative research: the Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Re- evaluation of its credibility’. Western Jour- sources Institute, Rome, Italy. nal of Nursing Research, 15 (2): 263-6. Beemer, H. 1939. Notes on the diet of the Swazi Henn, M., Weinstein, M., Foard N. 2006. A in the Protectorate. Bantu Studies, 13: 199- short introduction to social research, Lon- 236. don, Sage. Isaacs J (1987). Bushfood: Aboriginal food and Bittenbender, H.C., Barrett, R.P., Indire-Lavusa, herbal medicine. Weldons, McMahons B.M. 1984. Beans and cowpeas as leaf veg- Point, N.S.W. 256 pp. etables and grain legumes. Bean/Cowpea CRSP monograph no. 1. Bean/Cowpea Jackson, T.L. 1991. Pounding acorn: women's CRSP, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing. production as social and economic focus. In: Gero JM and Conkey WM (eds.). En- Byaruhanga, Y.B., Opedum, P.M. 2008. The gendering archaeology: women and prehis- impact of culture on food security in Ugan- tory. pp. 301-325. Blackwell, Cambridge, da. An academic essay on how a paternal USA. society and traditions impact on food security in Uganda. Global Knowledge, Issue Jones, S.M. 1963. A study of Swazi nutrition. No. 1: 55-59. Report of the Swaziiland nutrition survey 1961 -62 for the Swaziland administration. Chioffi, N., Mead, G. 1991. Keeping the har- Durban, South Africa: Institute for Social vest: preserving your fruits, vegetables and Research, University of Natal. herbs. Storey Publishing. Vermont. Kadzere, I., Watkins, C.B., Merwin, I.A., Corden, A., Sainsbury, R. 2006. Using verbatim Akinnifesi, F.K., Saka, J.D.K., Mhango, J. quotations in reporting qualitative social re- 2006. Harvesting and postharvest handling search: researchers’ views. ISBN: practices and characteristics of Uapaca 9781871713985. Social Policy Research kirkiana (Muell. Arg.) fruits: a survey of Unit, The University of York. roadside markets in Malawi. Agroforestry Dauthy, M.E. 1995. Fruit and Vegetable Pro- Systems, 68:133-142. cessing. FAO Agricultural Services Bulle- Katende, A., Ssegawa, P., Birnie, A., Holding, tin No.119. Food and Agriculture Organi- Ch., Tengas, B. 1999. Wild food plants and zation, Rome, Italy. mushrooms of Uganda. Regional Land Dietz, H.M. 1999. Opportunities and potential Management Unit (RELMA), SIDA, Tech- for processing of horticultural products by nical Handbook No 19, Nairobi. small entrepreneurs. Project 95.2254.1- Ken, F. 2007. Plants for a future- edible and 001.00, Promotion of horticulture, Malawi, useful plants for a healthier world, Perma- March/April, 1999, 34 pp. nent Publications, (2nd ed.). ISBN Eyzaguirre, P., Padulosi, S., Hodgkin, T. 1999. 9781856230117. IPGRI’s strategy for neglected and un- Kimiywe, J., Waudo, J., Mbithe, D., Maundu, derutilised species and the human dimen- D. 2007. Utilization and medicinal value of sions of agrobiodiversity. IPGRI, Rome, It- indigenous leafy vegetables consumed in aly. urban and peri-urban Nairobi. African Guarino, L (Ed). 1997. Traditional African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Vegetables: promoting the conservation Development, Vol. 7 (4). and use of underutilized and neglected Kitzinger, J., Barbour, R.S. 1999. Introduction: crops. 16 Proceedings of the IPGRI international workshop on genetic resources of the challenge and promise of focus groups. In: Developing focus group research: poli- traditional vegetables in Africa: conserva- http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 281 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles tics, theory and practice (eds.) Barbour RS Musinguzi, E., Kikafunda, J.K., Kiremire, B.T. & Kitzinger J. (pp. 1-20). London: Sage. 2006. Utilization of indigenous food plants in Uganda: a case study of southwestern Kwesiga, F., Akinnifesi, F., Ramadhani, T., Uganda. African Journal of Food Agricul- Kadzere, I., Saka, J. 2000. Domestication ture, Nutrition and Development, 6 (2):1- of indigenous fruit trees of the Miombo in 21. Southern Africa. In: Shumba EM, Lusepani E and Hangula R (eds) Domestication and Neuman, W.L. 1994. Social research methods: commercialization of indigenous fruit trees qualitative and quantitative approaches in the SADC. Region, Proceedings of a (2nd ed.). Boston; London: Allyn and Ba- SADC Tree Seed Centre Technical Meet- con. ing, Windhoek, Namibia. pp 8-24. Ogle, B.M., Grivetti, L.E. 1985. Legacy of the Lee, F.A. 1958. The blanching process. In: chameleon. Edible wild plants in the King- Mrak FM, Stework GF (eds) Advances in dom of Swaziland, Southern Africa: a cul- Food Research, pp. 62. Academic Press, tural, ecological, nutritional study. Part 2. New York. Demographics, species availability and die- tary use, analysis by ecological zone. Ecol- Long, A.F., Godfrey, M. 2004. An evaluation ogy of Food and Nutrition, 17: 1-30. tool to assess the quality of qualitative research studies. Int. J. Social Research Oladele, O.O., Aborisade, A.T. 2009. Influence Methodology, 7 (2): 181-196. of different drying methods and storage on the quality of Indian spinach (Basella rubra Lowe, B. 1943. Experimental cookery, from the L.). American Journal of Food Technology, chemical and physical standpoint. New 4(2): 66-70. York, London: J. Wiley; Chapman & Hall, pp 611. Osunde, Z.D., Musa-Makama, A.L. 2007. As- sessment of changes in nutritional values of Madge, C., 199). Collected food and domestic locally sun-dried vegetables. Assumption knowledge in the Gambia, West Africa. University Journal of Technology, 10 (4): Geographical Journal, 160 (3): 280-294. 248-253. Manoko, M.L., van der Weerden, G.M. 2004. Rai, N.D., Uhl, C.F. 2004. Forest product use, Solanum villosum Mill. Record from conservation and livelihoods: the case of Protabase. Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, Uppage fruit harvest in the Western Ghats, O.A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of India. Conservation and Society, 2: 289- Tropical Africa/Ressources végétales de 313. l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Nether- lands. < Robbins, A.M.J., Irimeicu, M.I., Calderon, R. http://database.prota.org/search.htm>. Ac- 1981. Recolección de semillas forestales. cessed 10 October 2009. Pub. Misc. No. 2, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Forestales, Siguatepeque, Hondu- Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M. 1994. Qualitative ras. data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rubaihayo, E.B., Hart, T., Kakonge, E., Kaaya, A., Kawongolo, J., Kabeere, F., Mugisha, Mithöfer, D. 2004. Economics of indigenous J., Tumwiine, J., Rubaihayo, P. 2003. De- fruit tree crops in Zimbabwe. PhD Thesis, velopment of mechanisms for sustainable Department of Economics and Business production and utilisation of indigenous Administration, University of Hannover. vegetables and management of their genetic Hannover, Germany. diversity in Uganda. Unpublished report. Moss, H. 1988. Under-exploited food plants in Faculty of Agriculture, Makerere Universi- Botswana. Unpublished report for Veld ty Kampala. Products Research, Gaborone.

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected] 282 Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants Harvesting, preparation and preservation of wild edibles Saka, J.D.K., Mwendo-Phiri, E., Akinnifesi, Sharma, R. 2005. Diet management guide. Dia- F.K. 2002. Community processing and nu- mond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. ISBN: tritive value of some miombo indigenous 8128810855., Navin Shahdara, Delhi. fruits in central and southern Malawi. In: Singh, R.N., Roy, S.K. 1984. The Bael- cultiva- Kwesiga F, Ayuk E and Agumya A (eds) tion and processing. Indian Agricultural Proceedings of the 14th Southern Africa Research Institute (IARI), India. Regional Review and Planning Workshop, 3-7 September 2001, Harare, Zimbabwe, pp Stein, W.I., Slabaugh, P.E., Plummer, A.P. 165 -169. ICRAF Regional Office, Harare, 1974. Harvesting, processing and storage of Zimbabwe. fruits and seeds. In: Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agriculture handbook Saka, J.D.K., Swai, R., Mkonda, A., no. 450. USDA, Washington D.C. Schomburg, A., Kwesiga, F., Akinnifesi, F.K. 2004. Processing and utilisation of in- Strauss, A., Corbin, J. 1990. Basics of qualita- digenous fruits of the miombo in southern tive research: grounded theory procedures Africa. Proceedings of regional agroforest- and techniques. Sage Publications. ry conference on agroforestry impacts on Tabuti, J.R.S., Dhillion., S.S., Lye, K.A., 2004. livelihooods in southern Africa: putting re- The status of wild food plants in Bulamogi search into practice. pp 343-352. World County, Uganda. International Journal of Agroforestry Centre: Nairobi, Kenya Food Sciences and Nutrition 55 (6): 485- Sandelowski, M. 2007. Focus on qualitative 498. methods. The use of quotes in qualitative Wahlqvist, M (Ed.). 2002. Food and nutrition. research. Research in Nursing and Health, Australia and New Zealand (2nd ed.). Pp 17 (6): 479-482. 624, Crows Nest: Allen and Unwin, Syd- Schomburg, A., Mhango, J., Akinnifesi, F.K. ney. 2002. Marketing of masuku (Uapaca Wang, S.L. 1999. Vegetable products In: Ang kirkiana) and masawo (Ziziphus CYW, Liu KS and Huang YW (eds). Asian mauritiana) fruits and their potential for foods: science and technology, pp 320-323. processing by rural communities in south- Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster PA. ern Malawi. In: Kwesiga F, Ayuk E and Agumya A (eds) Proceedings of the 14th Zimmerman, M.L. 1991. Arctostaphylos man- Southern Africa regional review and plan- zanita In: Fire effects information system. ning workshop, 3-7 September 2001, pp U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 169 -176. ICRAF Regional Office, Harare, Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Zimbabwe. Fire Sciences Laboratory. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ (ac- cessed 2007, April 30).

http://www.openaccessscience.com Agea et al. [email protected]