doi: 10.5028/jatm.2012.04033912
A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications
Anahi Pereira da Costa1, Edson Cocchieri Botelho1,*, Michelle Leali Costa2, Nilson Eiji Narita3, José Ricardo Tarpani4
1 Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho– Guaratinguetá/SP – Brazil 2 Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço – São José dos Campos/SP, Brazil 3 EMBRAER– São José dos Campos/SP, Brazil 4 Universidade de São Paulo – São Carlos/SP, Brazil
Abstract: Reinforced thermoplastic structural detail parts and assemblies are being developed to be included in current aeronautic programs. Thermoplastic composite technology intends to achieve improved properties and low cost processes. Welding of detail parts permits to obtain assemblies with weight reduction and cost saving. Currently, joining composite materials is a matter of intense research because traditional joining technologies are not directly transfer- able to composite structures. Fusion bonding and the use of thermoplastic as hot melt adhesives offer an alternative to mechanical fastening and thermosetting adhesive bonding. Fusion bonding technology, which originated from the thermoplastic polymer industry, has gained a new interest with the introduction of thermoplastic matrix composites, which are currently regarded as candidate for primary aircraft structures. This paper reviewed the state of the art of the welding technologies devised to aerospace industry, including the ¿elds that Universidade Estadual Paulista -~lio de Mesquita Filho and Universidade de São Paulo are deeply involved. Keywords: Aircraft structural joint, Thermoplastic composite, Welding technology.
List of Symbols Tg Glass transition temperature
Tm Melting temperature Q Heat generation UNESP Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho I Electrical current USP Universidade de São Paulo R Ohmic resistance t Time IR Infrared INTRODUCTION ITA Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica LBW Laser Beam Welding &RQWLQXRXV¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWH P Pressure laminates have shown great promise as materials for current and PEEK Poly-etheretherketone IXWXUHDLUFUDIWFRPSRQHQWV:KHQFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHW¿EHU PES Poly-ethersulphone reinforced composite laminates, thermoplastic laminates are PPS Poly-phenylenesulphide HDVLHUWRSURFHVVDVWKH\GRQRWUHTXLUHFRPSOH[FKHPLFDOUHDF- PEI Poly-etherimide tion nor lengthy curing process, they are easily recycled and do T Temperature QRWQHHGUHIULJHUDWLRQIRUVWRUDJHGLVSOD\LQJSUDFWLFDOO\LQ¿QLWH VKHOIOLIH7KHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHVDOVRH[KLELWYHU\ORZOHYHORI Received: 05/07/12 Accepted: 03/08/12 moisture uptake, which means their mechanical properties are less DXWKRUIRUFRUUHVSRQGHQFH HERWHOKR#IHJXQHVSEU degraded under hot/wet conditions, not to mention their higher 'HSDUWDPHQWR GH 0DWHULDLV H 7HFQRORJLD)(*$Y $ULEHUWR GDPDJHWROHUDQFHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGJUHDWHUUHSDUDELOLW\SRWHQWLDO Pereira da Cunha, 333 Bairro Pedregulho / CEP:12.516-410 – DVFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHWWLQJPDWUL[ODPLQDWHV 1LQJet al., 2007; Guaratinguetá/SP – Brazil Sinmazçelik, 2006; Jayamol et al., 1998; Mallick, 1993).
J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 255 Costa, A.P. et al.
8QOLNH WKHUPRVHWWLQJ UHVLQV WKHUPRSODVWLFV PD\ EH VSRLOHUVVSHHGEUDNHVVODWVWRFLWHDIHZDSSOLFDWLRQV 'H)DULD UHPHOWHG DIWHU WKH\ DUH IRUPHG 7KH\ PD\ DOVR EH MRLQHG et al., 2011; Rezende et al., 2011; Chevali et al., 2010; Bates XVLQJVHYHUDOGLIIHUHQWDVVHPEOLQJSURFHVVHV-RLQLQJSOD\V et al., 2009; Arici, 2007; Espert et al., 2004; Lee et al., 1993). an important role in manufacturing of composite structures A wide range of high performance thermoplastic matrices in marine, automotive and aerospace industry. Mechanical LVDYDLODEOHQRZDGD\VZLWK3((.DQG336WKHPRVWZLGHO\ IDVWHQLQJDQGDGKHVLYHERQGLQJDUHZLGHO\XVHGWRDVVHPEOH studied and reported. Both of them are semi-crystalline poly- metals or composite components. However, there are mers, and crystallinity in high-performance polymers is quite disadvantages associated with these methods such as stress LPSRUWDQWDVLWKDVDVWURQJLQÀXHQFHRQWKHLUFKHPLFDODQG FRQFHQWUDWLRQLQGXFHGE\GULOOLQJKROHVLQPHFKDQLFDOIDVWHQ- mechanical properties. Crystallinity tends to increase stiffness LQJRUH[WHQVLYHVXUIDFHSUHSDUDWLRQGXULQJDGKHVLYHERQGLQJ and tensile strength while amorphous areas are more effective 1RZDGD\VMRLQLQJFDQEHDFKLHYHGXVLQJYDULRXVZHOGLQJ LQDEVRUELQJLPSDFWHQHUJ\7KHGHJUHHRIFU\VWDOOLQLW\LVGHWHU- PHWKRGVVXFKDVHOHFWULFUHVLVWDQFHXOWUDVRQLFYLEUDWLRQKRW PLQHGE\PDQ\IDFWRUVLQFOXGLQJWKHW\SHRISRO\PHUDQGWKH plate, electromagnetic induction, dielectric/microwave and IR SURFHVVLQJFRQGLWLRQV 1LQRet al., 2009; Mazur et al. 2008). ZHOGLQJ 0RX]DNLVet al., 2008; Botelho and Rezende, 2007; Today, joining thermoplastic composite structures Wang and Hahn, 2007; Jones, 1994; Loos et al., 1981). LV EHFRPLQJ LQFUHDVLQJO\ LPSRUWDQW VLQFH WKHUPRSODVWLF Researches involving welding in composites in Brazil were composite usage is rapidly replacing metallic and thermoset LQLWLDWHGLQE\)DFXOGDGHGH(QJHQKDULDGH*XDUDWLQJXHWi FRPSRVLWHFRXQWHUSDUWVWREHWWHUZLWKVWDQGW\SLFDOVWDWLFDQG RI81(63,7$DQG(VFRODGH(QJHQKDULDGH6mR&DUORVRI fatigue loads applied to aerospace vehicles. Many welding USP. The work started in these universities with cooperation WHFKQLTXHVKDYHEHHQGHYHORSHGWRMRLQWXQUHLQIRUFHGDQG RI(PSUHVD%UDVLOHLUDGH$HURQiXWLFD (0%5$(5DFURP\Q UHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUVEXWHDFKWHFKQLTXHKDVLWV in Portuguese) focused on the mechanical and thermal own advantages and pitfalls. FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIZHOGHGODPLQDWHVRI336 VHPLFU\VWDOOLQH PPS thermoplastic polymer) reinforced with continuous KLJKSHUIRUPDQFH¿EHUV1RZDGD\V81(63LVGHYHORSLQJ WELDING PROCESSES resistance welding technology whereas USP is advancing in IR lamp welding methodology. In choosing a structural engineered material for aerospace 7KLVSDSHUDLPHGWRH[DPLQHGLIIHUHQWZHOGLQJWHFK- application, an important consideration is how easy is to manu- niques for thermoplastic composite laminates devised facture, join, inspect, repair and replace it in service. One of the to structural aerospace applications, focusing on recent many advantages of thermoplastic over thermoset composites developments in this area. LQWKHVHFDVHVLVWKDWWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWULFHVFDQEHPHOWHGDQG reformed. In theory, using adequate temperature and P levels, a FRPSRVLWHODPLQDWHFDQEHUHVKDSHGLQGH¿QLWHO\ HIGH PERFORMANCE THERMOPLASTIC 0DQ\ QRYHO MRLQLQJ WHFKQLTXHV KDYH EHHQ SURSRVHG COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS developed and evaluated for thermoplastic applications in the ODVW\HDUV,QUHJDUGWRIXVLRQERQGLQJPHWKRGRORJLHVWKH\ The automotive industry has traditionally produced a wide FDQEHVXPPDUL]HGDVIROORZVLQ)LJ range of thermoplastic parts with the advantage of shorter SURFHVVLQJWLPHVDQGIXOO\DXWRPDWHGHTXLSPHQWV 5D\ Fusion bonding Botelho et al., 2005; Botelho et al., 2002; Botelho et al., 2001;
Todo et al., 2000). FƌiĐƟonĂů ŚĞĂƟng ůĞĐƚƌoŵĂgnĞƟĐ ŚĞĂƟng uůŬ ŚĞĂƟng dŚĞƌŵĂů ƚĞĐŚniƋuĞs ,QWKHODWH VJODVVDQGFDUERQUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLF ^Ɖin ǁĞůding /nduĐƟon ǁĞůding ,oƚ ŵĞůƚ ĂdŚĞsiǀĞs ,oƚ ƉůĂƚĞ ǁĞůding 3(,ODPLQDWHVZHUH¿UVWXVHGLQ)RNNHUMHWSODQH*XOIVWUHDP sibƌĂƟon ǁĞůding DiĐƌoǁĂǀĞ ǁĞůding uĂů ƌĞsin bonding ,oƚ gĂs ǁĞůding hůƚƌĂsoniĐ ǁĞůding iĞůĞĐƚƌiĐ ǁĞůding ZĂdiĂnƚ ǁĞůding * DQG * EXVLQHVV MHWV DQG$LUEXV %HOXJD WUDQVSRUW ZĞsisƚĂnĐĞ ǁĞůding
DLUFUDIWDVWKHUPRIRUPHGÀRRULQJSDQHOV &RVWDet al., 2010; /nĨƌĂƌĞd ǁĞůding Vieille et al., 2009; Young and Ye, 2005; Botelho et al., 2003). >ĂsĞƌ ǁĞůding More recently, thermoplastic composites have found utiliza- )LJXUH&ODVVL¿FDWLRQRISRWHQWLDOIXVLRQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVIRU WLRQLQODQGLQJJHDUGRRUVZLQJOHWVHOHYDWRUVDLOHURQVÀDSV WKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV $JHRUJHVet al., 2001).
256 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications
6HYHQPDLQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDUHGHVFULEHGEHORZDFFRUG- automotive, aerospace, energy, medical and packaging. In ing the order they appear in the schematic provided in Fig. 1. particular, aerospace industry employs this methodology to MRLQWOLJKWZHLJKWWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHPDWHULDOV Ultrasonic welding DQGDQXPEHURIVWXGLHVKDYHEHHQFRQGXFWHGWR¿QGRSWLPXP parameters and process windows to produce high quality Ultrasonic welding is a process in which high frequen- ZHOGV 6LGGLTDQG*KDVVHPLHK .UJHUet al., 2004). FLHVDUHXVHG W\SLFDOIUHTXHQFLHVUDQJHIURPWRN+] /DSMRLQWVKHDUVWUHQJWKVRIRUGHURI03DKDYHEHHQ in order to induce molecular motion, thus creating friction, LQIRUPHG IRU 336FDUERQ ¿EHU ODPLQDWHV ERQGHG XOWUDVRQL- ZKLFKLVFRQYHUWHGWRKHDW7KHDELOLW\WRZHOGWZRRUPRUH FDOO\ .DJDQDQG1LFKROV 7KLVPHWKRGZDVDOVRXVHGE\ components using ultrasonic welding depends on material Lockheed-Georgia to weld together thermoplastic/graphite tape physical properties, frequency and amplitude of ultrasonic PDWHULDOIRUWKH&+HUFXOHVDLUFUDIW /HY\et al., 2008). ZDYHDQGMRLQWGHVLJQ7KLVMRLQLQJSURFHVVFDQEHDSSOLHG LQGLVWLQFWO\WRDPRUSKRXV ZHOGLQJWHPSHUDWXUHEHWZHHQWKH Induction welding
Tg and Tm DQGVHPLFU\VWDOOLQHSRO\PHUV ZHOGLQJRFFXUVDW WKHPHOWLQJSRLQW /HY\et al., 2008; Siddiq and Ghassemieh, Induction welding utilizes inductive heating for melting .UJHUet al. 2004; Ageorges and Ye, 2002). GRZQSRO\PHUPDWUL[LQWKHMRLQLQJ]RQH7KHFRPSRQHQWV Figure 2 presents a schematic of an ultrasonic welding WR EH ZHOGHG DUH VXEPLWWHG WR DQ DOWHUQDWLQJ HOHFWURPDJ- PDFKLQHXVLQJDSLH]RHOHFWULFWUDQVGXFHUE\ZKLFKWKHRVFLO- QHWLF¿HOG:KHQWKHUHDUHHOHFWULFDOO\FRQGXFWLYHORRSVLQ ODWLRQVDUHJHQHUDWHGE\DSSO\LQJHOHFWULFDOSRZHUDWKLJK WKHFRPSRQHQWHJGXHWRFDUERQ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHPHQWHGG\ frequency. All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of FXUUHQWVDUHLQGXFHGUHVXOWLQJLQHI¿FLHQWORFDOL]HGKHDWLQJ WKHVDPHEDVLFHOHPHQWV L DSUHVVWRSXWWKHWZRRUPRUH RIWKHODPLQDWH*ODVV¿EHUUHLQIRUFHPHQWVDUHHOHFWULFDOO\ SDUWVWREHDVVHPEOHGXQGHUP LL DQHVWRUDQYLOLQZKLFK QRQFRQGXFWLYHVRWKDWH[WULQVLFHOHFWURPRJQHWLFVXVFHSWRUV WKHSDUWVDUHSODFHGDQGDOORZLQJWKHKLJKIUHTXHQF\YLEUD- HJPHWDOJULGVKDYHWREHLQFRUSRUDWHGWRWKHFRPSRVLWHDUUD\ WLRQWREHDSSOLHG LLL DQXOWUDVRQLFVWDFNFRPSRVHGRID to convert the magnetic energy into thermal energy. In the WUDQVGXFHU LY DFRQYHUWHUWRFRQYHUWWKHHOHFWULFDOVLJQDO FDVHRIIHUURPDJQHWLFPDWHULDOVK\VWHUHVLVHIIHFWVFRQWULEXWH LQWRDPHFKDQLFDOYLEUDWLRQ Y ERRVWHUWRPRGLI\WKHDPSOL- IXUWKHUWRKHDWLQJ7KHKHDWLQJLVEDVHGRQWZRPHFKDQLVPV WXGHRIWKHXOWUDVRQLFYLEUDWLRQ YL DVRQRWURGHWRDSSO\ namely, the energy dissipation due to Joule heating and energy WKHPHFKDQLFDOYLEUDWLRQWRWKHSDUWVWREHZHOGHG YLL DQ dissipation due to magnetic hysteresis. The heat generation is ultrasonic generator to provide and control the ultrasonic GHVFULEHGE\(T .DJDQDQG1LFKROV, 2005): HQHUJ\ $JHRUJHVet al. .UJHUet al., 2004; Yousef- 2 pour et al., 2004; Siddiq and Ghassemieh, 2008; Levy et al., Q = I ǜ R ǜ t 2008; Ageorges and Ye, 2002). 7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIXOWUDVRQLFZHOGLQJLVTXLWHH[WHQVLYH 7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQHVWDEOLVKHVWKDWKHDWLQJGHSHQGVRQ LQPDQ\LQGXVWULDOEUDQFKHVLQFOXGLQJHOHFWULFDOFRPSXWHU WLPH t RKPLFUHVLVWDQFH R), and the square of the induced HOHFWULFDOFXUUHQW I 7KHFXUUHQWLVLQGXFHGE\DQDOWHUQDW- LQJPDJQHWLF¿HOGVRLWWKHUHIRUHGHSHQGVRQWKHLQGXFWRU JHRPHWU\WKHFRLOFXUUHQWDQGWKHGLVWDQFHWRWKHPDWHULDO LQ WKHFDVHRIWKHPDWHULDOWREHZHOGHGLVQRWLQVLGHWKHFRLO DVGHSLFWHGLQ)LJ 0RVHUet al. .DJDQDQG1LFKROV 2005; Yousefpour et al., 2004; Stokes, 2003; Velthuis and Mitschang, 2003; Hou et al., 1999). .DJDQ DQG 1LFKROV UHIHU WR WKUHH FDWHJRULHV RI KHDWLQJVRXUFHVGXULQJLQGXFWLRQZHOGLQJRI¿EHUUHLQIRUFHG thermoplastic composites:
)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFRIDQXOWUDVRQLFZHOGLQJPDFKLQH J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 257 Costa, A.P. et al. GLHOHFWULFK\VWHUHVLVKHDWLQJ WKLQOD\HURIPDWUL[PDWHULDO FRPSRQHQWXVLQJWKHJUDSKLWH¿EHUVDVWKHFRQGXFWLQJHOHPHQW DWWKHERQGLQJOLQHVHSDUDWHV¿EHUVIURPWKHFRQVROLGDWHG 6WUXFWXUDOHOHPHQWVSURGXFHGE\WKLVPHWKRGFRPSDUHGIDYRU- laminates. A capacitor is then created and dielectric heat- DEO\WRWKRVHPDQXIDFWXUHVE\DXWRFODYHFRFRQVROLGDWLRQ ing occurs due to the movement of charge and rotation of 7KHH[DPSOHVDERYHVKRZWKDWLQGXFWLRQKHDWLQJFDQEH WKHPROHFXOHVEHWZHHQWKH¿EHUV 6WRNHV XVHGIRUZHOGLQJRIWKHUPRSODVWLF¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGFRPSRVLWHV FRQWDFW UHVLVWDQFH KHDWLQJ KHDWLQJ RFFXUV RQ ORFDWLRQV DQGDFFHSWDEOHERQGLQJSURSHUWLHVDUHREWDLQHG ZKHUH WKH ¿EHU¿EHU FRQWDFW LV KLJK FURVVRYHU SRLQWV LQWKHFDVHRIZRYHQIDEULFV 7KLVWKHRU\H[SODLQVZK\ Microwave welding VHYHUDOIDEULFW\SHVKDYHDGLIIHUHQWKHDWLQJJHQHUDWLRQ 9HOWKXLVDQG0LWVFKDQJ 7KH SRVVLELOLW\ RI XVLQJ PLFURZDYH WR ZHOG SDUWV KDV H[LVWHGVLQFHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHPDJQHWURQLQWKH V ,WVXVDJHLQWKHIUHTXHQF\UDQJHIURPWR*+]KDVEHHQ reported in the literature to weld thermoplastic composites .Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996). 0RVWWKHUPRSODVWLFGRQRWH[SHULHQFHDWHPSHUDWXUHULVH ZKHQLUUDGLDWHGE\PLFURZDYHV+RZHYHUWKHLQVHUWLRQRID PLFURZDYHVXVFHSWLEOHLPSODQWDWWKHMRLQWOLQHDOORZVORFDO KHDWLQJWRWDNHSODFH,IWKHMRLQWLVVXEMHFWHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\ to microwaves and an applied P melting of the surrounding SODVWLFUHVXOWVDQGDZHOGLVIRUPHG6XLWDEOHLPSODQWVLQFOXGH PHWDOVFDUERQRURQHRIDUDQJHRIFRQGXFWLQJSRO\PHUVEXW ZKLFKHYHULVVHOHFWHGEHFRPHVDFRQVXPDEOHLQWKHZHOGLQJ SURFHVV 258 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications dielectric loss factors using focused microwave energy OLWWOHDPRXQWRIPDWHULDODQGFDQEHDSSOLHGWRODUJHVWUXF- :LVHDQG)URPHQW $W\SLFDOVFKHPDWLFRIWKHVHW tures. Good thermal insulation and a correct amount of input up is shown in Fig. 4. Joint elements with low-to-medium energy can reduce the welding time and enhance weld qual- GLHOHFWULFORVVIDFWRUVUHTXLUHQRHOHFWURPDJQHWLFDEVRUEHQW LW\ $JHRUJHVDQG )LJXUH6FKHPDWLFVHWXSIRUUHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJSURFHVV $JHRUJHV and Ye, 2002). 7KHHOHFWULFDOFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHKHDWLQJHOHPHQW and the power circuit is critical to the resistance welding process. In order to introduce adequate current into the KHDWLQJHOHPHQWVHYHUDOZD\VKDYHEHHQXVHGLQFOXGLQJ )LJXUH6FKHPDWLF VHWXS IRU PLFURZDYH KHDWLQJ J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 259 Costa, A.P. et al. Hot plate welding WKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV 260 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications /%: KDV EHHQ HQYLVLRQHG DV D VXLWDEOH WHFKQLTXH IRU /%:WHFKQLTXHUDWKHUWKDQDOWHUQDWLYHWHFKQRORJLHV /DEHDV joining thin, as well as medium to thick thermoplastic et al., 2010). LBW allows joining thermoplastics, provided components used in the aeronautic sector. Moreover, size, WKDWRQHRIWKHPDWHULDOV WRSPDWHULDO LVWUDQVSDUHQWWRODVHU JHRPHWULFDO UHTXLUHPHQWV DQG VSHFL¿FDWLRQV RI DHURQDXWL- UDGLDWLRQDQGWKHRWKHU ERWWRPPDWHULDO LVDEVRUEHQWHQRXJK FDOSDUWVDUHFODLPHGWREHPRUHHDVLO\IXO¿OOHGE\DSSO\LQJ IRUWKHZHOGLQJWRWDNHSODFHRWKHUZLVHRQO\EXWWMRLQWVZLOOEH DOORZHGZKLFKLVQRWDQDWWUDFWLYHSRVVLELOLW\IRUFRQWLQXRXV ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGVWUXFWXUHV ,QWKH¿UVWDSSURDFKSDUWVWREHMRLQHGDUHEURXJKWLQWR GLUHFWFRQWDFWSULRUWRZHOGLQJ7KHODVHUEHDPLVWUDQVPLWWHG WKURXJKWKH¿UVWPDWHULDODQGLVWRWDOO\DEVRUEHGZLWKLQWKH VXUIDFHRIWKHDEVRUELQJPDWHULDO'LUHFWFRQWDFWEHWZHHQ ERWKSDUWVHQVXUHVKHDWLQJRIWKHWUDQVSDUHQWSDUWE\KHDW FRQGXFWLRQIURPWKHDEVRUELQJSDUW )LJ :HOGLQJRFFXUV XSRQPHOWLQJDQGIXVLRQRIERWKWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWHULDOVDW WKHLQWHUIDFH7KH/%:WHFKQRORJ\RIIHUVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RI joining separate parts ensuring full continuity of the resin Figure 7. Schematic of infrared lamp welding system conceived system without the addition of an adhesive system and avoid- to join thermoplastic laminates highlighting the infrared LQJDOVRULYHWLQVWDOODWLRQOHDGLQJWRDQXPEHURIVXEVWDQWLDO radiation source, polymer parts deployment and pressing advantages, such as cost savings, weight reduction, and SODWHV REMARKABLE CONCLUSIONS Figure 8. Typical thermomechanical cycle of the infrared welding )URPWKLVPDQXVFULSWLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWQRWRQO\RQH V\VWHP GHSLFWHG LQ )LJ Figure 9. Macromolecular interdiffusion mechanism occurring in EHWZHHQWZRFRQWDFWLQJSDUWVGXULQJWKHLQIUDUHGZHOGLQJ SURFHVVSRUWUD\HGLQ)LJVDQG J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 261 Costa, A.P. et al. DSSOLFDWLRQ GHSHQGLQJ RQ LWV VSHFL¿F UHTXLUHPHQWV )XVLRQ Ageorges, C. et al. ³$GYDQFHV LQ IXVLRQ ERQGLQJ ERQGLQJPHWKRGVSUHVHQWDKXJHSRWHQWLDOIRUYROXPHLQWHQVLYH WHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJ WKHUPRSODVWLF PDWUL[ FRPSRVLWHV D applications in which short processing cycles are necessary. UHYLHZ´&RPSRVLWHV 3DUW$9RO1RSS 7KHVHERQGLQJSURFHVVHVRIIHUDGGLWLRQDODGYDQWDJHVLQFOXGLQJ reduced surface preparation requirements, reprocessing, recy- Ageorges, C. et al.³([SHULPHQWDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKH FODELOLW\DQGLPSURYHGLQWHJULW\GXUDELOLW\$PRQJWKHYDULRXV UHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJIRUWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV3DUW WHFKQLTXHVRIWKLVFDWHJRU\WKHPRVWPDWXUHRQHVDUHXQGRXEW- , KHDWLQJHOHPHQWDQGKHDWWUDQVIHU´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG edly the ultrasonic, induction and the resistance welding. 7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS± Process integration is a critical aspect of joining technol- ogy. Particular requirements of each joining techniques should Arici, A.A., 2007, “Effect of hygrothermal aging on poly- EHFROODWHGLQGHVLJQVFRGHVLQRUGHUWRLQWHJUDWHWKHVHUHTXLUH- HWKHULPLGHFRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG3ODVWLFVDQG ments at the very early stage of the design process. &RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS ,QVLGHRIWKLVFRQWH[WVLQFH81(63DQG863KDYHJHW involved in development and/or application of welding technolo- Balle, F. et al., 2009, “Ultrasonic metal welding of aluminium JLHVLQDHURVSDFH¿HOG(PSKDVLVRIWKHZRUNLQ81(63LVLQ VKHHWVWRFDUERQ¿EUHUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV´ the development of the resistance welding technology associated $GYDQFHG(QJLQHHULQJ0DWHULDO9RO1RSS ZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHRQWKHWKHUPDODQGPHFKDQL- cal properties of thermoplastic laminates, whereas USP is in Bates, P.J. et al. ³6KHDUVWUHQJWKDQGPHOWGRZQEHKDY- the forefront of IR lamp welding methodology and advanced LRU RI UHLQIRUFHG SRO\SURS\OHQH DVVHPEOLHV´ &RPSRVLWHV destructive and nondestructive characterization of the joints. 3DUW$9RO1RSS 0RVW RI WKH GDWD LQ WKLV SDSHU ZHUH REWDLQHG IURP WKH literature, since this manuscript is a state-of-the-art review. Botelho, E.C. et al., 2005 “Processing and hygrothermal effects Therefore, such data do not provide information for deals of RQYLVFRHODVWLFEHKDYLRURIJODVV¿EHUHSR[\FRPSRVLWHV´ UHSHDWDELOLW\RUUHSURGXFLELOLW\DQGWKH\DUHXVHIXORQO\IRU -RXUQDORI0DWHULDO6FLHQFH9RO1RSS an initial mapping of potential techniques over a wide range RIZHOGSURFHVVLQJFRQGLWLRQVDQGSDUDPHWHUVWREHXVHGLQ Botelho, E.C. et al.³0HFKDQLFDOEHKDYLRURIFDUERQ DHURVSDFH¿HOG ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGSRO\DPLGHFRPSRVLWHV´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFH DQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS Acknowledgements %RWHOKR (& DQG 5H]HQGH 0& ³'DPSLQJ EHKDY- 7KHDXWKRUVWKDQNIXOO\DFNQRZOHGJHWKH¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUW LRU RI K\JURWKHUPDOO\ FRQGLWLRQHG FDUERQ ILEHUHSR[\ from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo ODPLQDWHV´ -RXUQDO RI$SSOLHG 3RO\PHU 6FLHQFH9RO )$3(63 &RQVHOKR1DFLRQDOGH'HVHQYROYLPHQWR&LHQWt¿FR 1RSS± H7HFQROyJLFR &13T DQG&RRUGHQDomRGH$SHUIHLoRDPHQWR GH3HVVRDOGH1tYHO6XSHULRU &$3(6 Botelho, E.C. et al., 2002, “Study of polyamide 6/6 synthesis FDUULHGRXWE\LQWHUIDFLDOSRO\PHUL]DWLRQRQFDUERQ¿EHU´ 3RO\PHU,QWHUQDWLRQDO9RO1RSS REFERENCES Botelho, E.C. et al.³6\QWKHVLVRISRO\DPLGHE\ Ageorges, C., Ye, L., 2001, “Simulation of impulse resistance interfacial polycondensation with the simultaneous impregna- ZHOGLQJ IRU WKHUPRSODVWLF PDWUL[ FRPSRVLWHV´ $SSOLHG WLRQRIFDUERQ¿EHUV´0DFURPROHFXOHV9RO1RSS &RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS 3367-3375. $JHRUJHV & 262 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications Chen, Y.S. and Benatar, A., 1995, “Infrared welding of poly- Grewell, D. et al. ³5HODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ RSWL- SURS\OHQH´$QQXDO7HFKQLFDO&RQIHUHQFH6RFLHW\RI3ODVWLFV cal properties and optimized processing parameters for Engineers, Vol.1, pp.1235-1238. WKURXJKWUDQVPLVVLRQ ODVHU ZHOGLQJ RI WKHUPRSODVWLFV´ Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol. 23, Chevali, V.S. et al., 2010, “Effect of environmental weathering 1RSS RQÀH[XUDOFUHHSEHKDYLRURIORQJ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPR- SODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV´3RO\PHU'HJUDGDWLRQDQG6WDELOLW\ 9RO Hou, M. et al. ³$QH[SHULPHQWDOVWXG\RIUHVLVWDQFH 1RSS ZHOGLQJRIFDUERQ¿EUHIDEULFUHLQIRUFHGSRO\HWKHULPLGH &) IDEULF3(, FRPSRVLWHPDWHULDO´$SSOLHG&RPSRVLWH0DWHUL- Chung-Yuan, W. et al.,1999, “Microwave welding of HDPE DOV9RO1RSS XVLQJLPSHGDQFHPDWFKLQJV\VWHP´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG 3ODVWLFVDQG&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS Jayamol, G. et al., 1998, “Effects of environment on the prop- erties of Low-density polyethylene composites reinforced &RVWD$3³(IHLWRGRFRQGLFLRQDPHQWRDPELHQWDOHP ZLWKSLQHDSSOHOHDI¿EUH´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRO- FRPSyVLWRVVROGDGRVGH336¿EUDVFRQWtQXDV´GLVVHUWDomR RJ\9RO1R SS GH PHVWUDGR 8QLYHUVLGDGH (VWDGXDO 3DXOLVWD 81(63 Guaratinguetá, SP. -RQHV)5 ³0RLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQDQRPDORXVHIIHFWV´ ,Q +DQGERRNRISRO\PHU¿EUHFRPSRVLWHV/RQJPDQ6FLHQ- Costa, A.P. et al.³,QÀXHQFHRIHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGL- WL¿FDQG7HFKQLFDO8.SS WLRQLQJRQWKHVKHDUEHKDYLRURISRO\ SKHQ\OHQHVXO¿GH JODVV ¿EHUFRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI$SSOLHG3RO\PHU6FLHQFH9RO .DJDQ9DQG%UD\5³)RUZDUGWREHWWHUXQGHUVWDQG- 1RSS ing of optical characterization and development of colored SRO\DPLGHVIRUWKHLQIUDUHGODVHUZHOGLQJ SDUW,HI¿FLHQF\ De Faria, M.C.M. et al.,, 2011, “The effect of the ocean water RISRO\DPLGHVIRULQIUDUHGZHOGLQJ´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG immersion and UV ageing on the dynamic mechanical proper- 3ODVWLFVDQG&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS WLHVRIWKH336JODVV¿EHUFRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG 3ODVWLFVDQG&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS .DJDQ9 DQG 1LFKROV 5- ³%HQH¿WV RI LQGXFWLRQ welding of reinforced thermoplastics in high performance Don, R.C. et al. ³([SHULPHQWDO FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ RI DSSOLFDWLRQV´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG3ODVWLFVDQG&RPSRVLWHV processing-performance relationships of resistance welded 9RO1RSS JUDSKLWHSRO\HWKHUHWKHUNHWRQH FRPSRVLWH MRLQWV´ 3RO\PHU (QJLQHHULQJ6FLHQFH9RO1R SS .UJHU6et al., 2004, “Ultrasonic welding of metal/compos- LWHMRLQWV´$GYDQFHG(QJLQHHULQJ0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS Espert, A. et al.³&RPSDULVRQRIZDWHUDEVRUSWLRQLQ 157-159. QDWXUDO FHOOXORVLF ¿EUHV IURP ZRRG DQG RQH\HDU FURSV LQ SRO\SURS\OHQHFRPSRVLWHVDQGLWVLQÀXHQFHRQWKHLUPHFKDQLFDO .X+6et al.³9DULDEOHIUHTXHQF\PLFURZDYH 9)0 SURSHUWLHV´&RPSRVLWHV3DUW$9RO1RSS processing facilities and application in processing thermo- SODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI0DWHULDOV3URFHVVLQJ Grewell, D. and Benatar, A., 2007, “Welding of plastics: 7HFKQRORJ\9RO 1RSS IXQGDPHQWDOVDQGQHZGHYHORSPHQWV´,QWHUQDWLRQDO3RO\PHU 3URFHVVLQJ9RO1RSS /DEHDV*1et al., 2010, “Optimization of laser transmis- sion welding process for thermoplastic composite parts using Grewell, D.A. et al., 2003, “Plastic and composite welding WKHUPRPHFKDQLFDOVLPXODWLRQ´-RXUQDORI&RPSRVLWH0DWH- KDQGERRN´9RO+DQVHU3XEOLVKHUV0XQLFKS ULDOV9RO1RSS J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 263 Costa, A.P. et al. /HH.+et al. ³&U\VWDOOL]DWLRQEHKDYLRURISRO\SKHQ- 3UDEKDNDUDQ5et al., 2006, “Contour laser - laser-transmission \OHQHVXO¿GH 336 DQG336FDUERQ¿EHUFRPSRVLWHV (IIHFW ZHOGLQJRIJODVVUHLQIRUFHGQ\ORQ´-RXUQDORI7KHUPRSODVWLF RIFXUH´3RO\PHU%XOOHWLQ9RO1RSS &RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9RO 1RSS Levy, A. et al., 2008, “Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic Ray, B.C., 2006, “Temperature effect during humid ageing FRPSRVLWHV PRGHOLQJRIWKHSURFHVV´,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI RQ LQWHUIDFHV RI JODVV DQG FDUERQ ¿EHUV UHLQIRUFHG HSR[\ 0DWHULDO)RUPLQJ9RO 1RSS FRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI&ROORLGDQG,QWHUIDFH6FLHQFH9RO 1RSS Loos, A.C. et al. ³0RLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQRISRO\HVWHU( JODVVFRPSRVLWHV´LQ 6SULQJHU*6HGLWRU(QYLURQPHQWDO Rezende, M.C. et al., 2011, “Compósitos estruturais – tecno- HIIHFWV RQ FRPSRVLWH PDWHULDOV 7HFKQRPLF 3XEOLVKLQJ ORJLDHSUiWLFD´(GLWRUD$UW/LEHU6mR3DXOR%UDVLO &RPSDQ\1HZ 1LQR*)et al. ³7KHUPDO1',RIUHVLVWDQFHZHOGHG 6WRNHV9.³([SHULPHQWVRQWKHLQGXFWLRQZHOGLQJRI FRPSRVLWHVWUXFWXUHV´&RPSRVLWHV 3DUW%9RO1R WKHUPRSODVWLFV´3RO\PHU(QJLQHHULQJDQG6FLHQFH9RO pp. 237-248. 1R SS Potente, H. et al., 1993, “Comparative investigation into the Swartz, H.D. and Swartz, J.L., 1989, “Focused infrared melt ZHOGLQJRIJODVV¿EUHUHLQIRUFHG3(6´-RXUQDORI7KHUPR- IXVLRQ DQRWKHURSWLRQIRUZHOGLQJWKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV´ SODVWLF&RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS SME Technical Paper: Joining Composites. EM89-175-16. 264 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications Todo, M. et al., 2000, “Strain-rate dependence of the tensile Wise, R.J. and Froment, I.D., 2001, “Microwave welding of IUDFWXUH EHKDYLRXU RI ZRYHQFORWK UHLQIRUFHG SRO\DPLGH WKHUPRSODVWLFV´-RXUQDORI0DWHULDOV6FLHQFH9RO1R FRPSRVLWHV´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO pp. 5935-5954. 1RSS ;LDR;5et al.,1992, “Processing and modelling of resis- Velthuis, R. and Mitschang, P., 2003, “Induction welding WDQFHZHOGLQJRI$3&FRPSRVLWH´-RXUQDORI&RPSRVLWH WHFKQRORJ\MRLQLQJ¿EUHUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUV 0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS FRPSRVLWHV IRUDHURVSDFHDSSOLFDWLRQV´0HFKDQLFDO(QJL- QHHULQJ3DSHUV9RO1RSS Yang, F.and Pitchumani, R., 2002a, “Healing of thermoplastic SRO\PHUVDWDQLQWHUIDFHXQGHUQRQLVRWKHUPDOFRQGLWLRQV´ Vieille, B. et al. ³,QÀXHQFH RI WHPSHUDWXUH RQ WKH 0DFURPROHFXOHV9RO1RSS EHKDYLRURIFDUERQ¿EHUIDEULFVUHLQIRUFHG336ODPLQDWHV´ 0DWHULDOV 6FLHQFH DQG (QJLQHHULQJ$ 9RO 1R :DQJ;et al., 2006, “FEM investigation of the temperature ¿HOGRIHQHUJ\GLUHFWRUGXULQJXOWUDVRQLFZHOGLQJRI3((. FRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI7KHUPRSODVWLF&RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV 9RO 1RSS J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 265