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Structure and Morphology Micro-‐Level Morphology

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Structure and Morphology Micro-‐Level Morphology Chapter 2 Majority of illustraons in this presentaon are from Biological Psychology 4th edi3on (© Sinuer Publicaons) Structure and Morphology 1. To understand behavior, as it relates to many processes in the brain, it is important to study the structure or morphology of the brain. 2. We can study the structure of brain at the micro level, looking at small units like neurons, dendrites and receptors etc. or at the macro level, looking at the regions, areas, and nuclei and/or study the brain. 2 Micro-Level Morphology 1. To study the morphology of brain at the micro level tools and techniques had to be developed. One such development was the inven3on of the op3cal microscope (Leeuwenhoek, 17th century). 2. More recent developments include electron microscope with increased magnificaon. 3 1 Micro-Level Morphology 3. Looking at he brain meant cung the brain, staining it, and make them worthy of the microscope. Many different staining methods have developed. 4 Camillo Golgi 1. Golgi developed the silver method to stain the nerve 3ssue. 2. Believed that neurons connected in a (1737-1798 AD) “syncium”, by blending. This theory was called re3cular theory of neurons. 5 Ramón y Cajal 1. Cajal also used the silver method to stain the brain, but 2. Believed that neurons were separate and communicated through gaps (1852-1934) (synapse). This came to be known as the neuron doctrine. 6 2 Cells in Brain 7 Neurons There are 100 billion neurons in the human brain. Packed with 10 3mes more glial cells. Each neuron is divided into three parts; dendrites, cell body and axon. 8 Histology 1. How do we know the parts of a neuron? Or what are the shapes and sizes of different neurons in the brain? 2. To answer these ques3ons neuroanatomists use histological methods to stain neurons and assess their different shapes and sizes. 9 3 Immunocytochemistry Staining processes have improved to include use of labeled an3bodies to stain targeted proteins in the brain. GAP-43 staining in the re3na 10 Shapes of Neurons There are at least 200 different shapes of neurons in the brain. Some shapes are more symmetrical than others. 11 Sizes of Neurons Neurons can be small in length and size. Length of neurons can be a few microns to many meters long. Similarly, small neurons can be Small Granule Large Pyramidal 10µm wide and Neuron Neuron large 100µm. 12 4 Neuronal Processes All neurons tend to grow branches or processes. One kind of these process are called dendrites and the other axons. 13 Funcons of Neurons Monopolar neurons serve as bridge between neurons and other receptor-neuron cells. Bipolar neurons carry messages from sense organs and mul3polar neurons to muscles and viscera. 14 How are neurons connected? One neurons connects to another via processes, however there is a gap between these processes called synapse. 15 5 Electron Microscopy Electron microscopes provide us with details of morphological structure of the synapse, and release of neurotransmihers in the synap3c clei. 16 Chemical Transport Most chemicals in the neurons are synthesized and recycled from and to the nucleus of the cell, they need to be transported to the synap3c sites. 17 Glial Cells Glial cells in the brain are non-communicave cells and engage in other func3ons, some of which are listed below: 1. Provide scaffolding to neurons 2. Provide nutri3on to neurons 3. Myelinate (insulate) neurons 4. Guide neuronal development 5. Make blood-brain barrier (BBB) 6. Phagocytosis (eat microorganisms & dead neurons) 18 6 Arstrocytes Provide support and Nutri3on to neurons in the and extracellular environment members.tripod.com Astrocytes in the cortex 19 Oligodendrocytes & Schwann Cells Myelinate neurons in the central and the peripheral nervous system. 20 Radial Glia Guiding neurons to their laminar des3naons. 21 7 Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) Glial cells (endothelial cells) erect a barrier between blood vessels and the brain. 22 Microglia Microglia eat away of microorganisms that enter the brain and scavenging dead neurons a process called phagocytosis. www.microglia.net 23 Macro-Level Morphology 1. Understanding the brain as an organ of that in3mately controls behaviors neuroscien3sts from 16th century onwards used ablaon methods in the brain. 2. Ablaon of the brain involves removing or destroying (lesions) areas of the brain as it effects behavior. 3. This method is s3ll used to localize behavioral func3on with its advantages and disadvantages. 24 8 Brain Regions Flourens conducted many brain ablaon experiments and found that cerebellum played an important role in coordinated movements. upload.wikimedia.org upload.wikimedia.org Pierre Flourens (1774-1867) Cerebellum 25 Systems & Divisions 26 Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Somac Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves Process sensory informaon and Sympathe3c Nervous System controls the voluntary muscle movements Parasympathe3c Nervous System Controls the viscera (organs) 27 9 Cranial Nerves Mnemonic: On Old Olympic Towering Tops A Famous Vocal German Viewed Some Hops 28 Spinal Nerves There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves connec3ng a number of 3ssues and organs in the body. A 8 Cervical Nerves B 12 Thoracic Nerves C 5 Lumbar Nerves D 5 Sacral Nerves E 1 Coccygeal Nerve 29 Autonomic Nervous System 1. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of PNS that controls automac, involuntary func3ons. It is divided into two divisions viz., sympathe3c and parasympathe3c. 2. Sympathe3c division generally energizes bodily func3ons when the individual experiences arousal or stress. It therefore uses fight-or-flight response to emergency situaons etc. 3. Parasympathe3c division counters sympathe3c division’s to keep a balance. Rest and digest. 30 10 Autonomic Nervous System 31 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain (Procencephalon) (Mesencephalon) (Rhombencephalon) Cerebrum Thalamus Medulla Pons Cerebellum (Telencephalon) (Diencephalon) Superior Inferior Colliculus Colliculus Isocortex Basal Limbic Ganglia System Re3cular Ac3vaon System 32 Orientaon of Nervous System To orient ourselves about the nervous system in 3D, we need to understand three planes in which brain can be sec3oned. 33 11 Development of Nervous System 34 Telencephalon (Cerebrum) Telencephalon or cerebrum or the neo-cortex can be divided into four lobes, with specific func3ons. 35 Frontal Lobe The frontal lobe contains the motor strip, and represents the body map (homunculus). 36 12 Parietal Lobe The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory strip, and represents the body map (homunculus). 37 Occipital Lobe The occipital lobe houses visual areas in the brain. It contains 30 some areas that process visual informaon. journalofcosmology.com 38 Temporal Lobe The temporal lobe houses sensory func3ons as hearing, taste, and smell. Also in this area are memory func3ons and nuclei for emo3ons. en.wikipedia.org Temporal Lobe 39 13 Medial Cerebrum If you cut the cerebral hemispheres in the middle, a set of new structures come in view. Many of these perform arrays of different func3ons. 40 Basal Ganglia Contains four nuclei; caudate, globus pallidus, amygdala, and substan3a nigra. Involved with motor control. 41 Limbic System Contains four nuclei; Olfactory bulb (smell), hippocampus and fornix (memory), cingulate gyrus (aen3on, emo3on). 42 14 Diencephalon Thalamus, a way staon for all incoming and out going nerves to and from the cortex. Hypothalamus, Regulates vital func3ons like temperature, hunger, sex, and hormones. 43 Midbrain Superior Colliculus, (#2, vision), Inferior Colliculus, (#3, audi3on). Substan3a Nigra (#5, Parkinson disease, schizophrenia). Re3cular Formaon (Red area, arousal, sleep, temperature). www.med.umich.edu 44 Hindbrain Pons, (#3, sensory and motor cranial nerves, audi3on). Medulla Oblogata, (#4, cranial nerves XI & XII, breathing and heart beat). Cerebellum (#2, fine and coordinated motor movement). www.med.umich.edu 45 15 Cerebellum Cerebellum is a less convoluted structure with two hemispheres. Composed of molecular, Purkinje cell and granule cell layers. Granule cell layer forms parallel fibers for coordinated movements. en.wikipedia.org 46 Layers of the Cerebrum Cerebrum compared to cerebellum contain six layers. Some layer receive inputs while others send outputs. 47 Ventricles Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) runs through the ventricles, absorbing shock and providing important minerals and electrolytes for the brain. 48 16 Meninges and BBB Large volumes of blood (20%) swaddle the brain and provide nourishment. Meninges consist of dura mater, pia mater and arachnoid space. Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) keeps bacteria and other toxic agents outside the brain. 49 Techniques to Image the Brain 50 Computerized Axial Tomography Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT) Scan is a brain imaging procedure that takes many X-rays of the brain and reconstructs a 3D image. 51 17 Magne3c Resonance Imaging Magne3c Resonance Imaging (MRI) make cells in the brain vibrate. They give off signals which are interpreted by a computer and turned into very detailed images of (slices) of the brain. 52 Positron Emission Tomography Positron Emission Tomography (PET) involves the acquisi3on of physiologic images (brain) based on the detec3on of positrons. Positrons are par3cles emihed from a radioac3ve substance administered to the paent. 53 fMRI Scans Func3onal Magne3c Resonance Imaging (fMRI) visualizes brain func3on, by changes in chemical composi3on of brain areas or changes in the flow of fluids (blood) that occur over 3me. 54 18 Cogni3ve Neuroscience Expt. 55 Op3cal Imaging & TMS Op3cal imaging uses near infrared light to measure responses by the cortex. Transcranial Magne3c S3mulaon (TMS) s3mulates the brain of an alert subject mapped by op3cal imaging. 56 Event-related Poten3al Event-related poten3als measures the brain's electrical ac3vity as it responds to impinging s3muli (events). Excellent temporal resolu3on (faster response) compared to PET or fMRI. 57 19 .
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