Overview of the Cytoskeleton from an Evolutionary Perspective

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Thomas D. Pollard1 and Robert D. Goldman2

1Departments of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, and Cell Biology ,Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8103 2Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611 Correspondence: [email protected]

SUMMARY

Organisms in the three domains of life depend on protein polymers to form a cytoskeleton that helps to establish their shapes, maintain their mechanical integrity, divide, and, in many cases, move. Eukaryotes have the most complex cytoskeletons, comprising three cytoskeletal polymers—actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules—acted on by three families of motor proteins (myosin, kinesin, and dynein). Prokaryotes have polymers of proteins homologous to actin and tubulin but no motors, and a few bacteria have a protein related to intermediate filament proteins.

Outline

1 Introduction—Overview of cellular 4 Overview of the evolution of the cytoskeleton functions 5 Conclusion 2 Structures of the cytoskeletal polymers References 3 Assembly of cytoskeletal polymers

Editors: Thomas D. Pollard and Robert D. Goldman Additional Perspectives on The Cytoskeleton available at www.cshperspectives.org

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1 INTRODUCTION—OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR contrast, intermediate filaments do not serve as tracks for FUNCTIONS molecular motors (reviewed by Herrmann and Aebi 2016) but, rather, are transported by these motors. Microtubules Actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules are tracks for the motors dynein and kinesin that move form distinctive networks in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic membrane-bound vesicles, ribonucleoprotein particles, cells. The fibroblast in Figure 1 illustrates their distribu- and intermediate filaments over long distances through tions. Actin filaments concentrate around the periphery the crowded cytoplasm (see Barlan and Gelfand 2016 for of the cell in the cortex underlying the plasma membrane review). These movements are responsible for the charac- and in bundles called stress fibers anchored to plasma teristic distributions of the endoplasm reticulum, the Golgi membrane adhesions sites (reviewed by Svitkina 2016). apparatus, and other organelles in the cytoplasm. Micro- Intermediate filaments form a complex network, concen- tubules also form the scaffold of the axonemes of cilia and trated in the perinuclear region, from which filaments ra- flagella (for review, see Viswanadha et al. 2016) and the diate toward the cell surface, where they are anchored to mitotic apparatus (reviewed by McIntosh 2016). In both intercellular junctions called desmosomes and cell–extra- cases, kinesins and dyneins act on the microtubule scaffold cellular-matrix junctions called hemidesmosomes (for re- to bend axonemes or move chromosomes during mitosis. view, see Jones et al. 2016). Individual microtubules are Polymerization of actin filaments produces forces for cel- large enough to image by light microscopy. These long, stiff lular movements and membrane traffic. Actin filaments are polymers form a network radiating from the juxtanuclear also tracks for short-range movements of vesicles by myo- centrosome or microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) to sins (see review by Titus 2016) and cables forcontraction by the edge of the cell. myosin motors during locomotion, cytokinesis, and other All three cytoskeletal polymers serve as mechanical el- cell shape changes (Svitkina 2016). Intermediate filaments ements (reviewed by Pegoraro et al. 2016), and microtu- provide the mechanical support for the internal (noncor- bules and actin filaments provide tracks for molecular tical) cytoplasm and cell surface (Pegoraro et al. 2016), and motors (see Sweeney and Holzbaur 2016 for review). In also participate in shaping the cell and regulating signal transduction (for reviews, see Herrmann and Aebi 2016; Cheng and Eriksson 2016).

2 STRUCTURES OF THE CYTOSKELETAL POLYMERS The protein subunits of the three cytoskeletal polymers have strikingly different structures (Fig. 2). The flat actin molecule has a deep cleft to bind ATP (reviewed by Pollard 2016). The tubulin subunit is a dimer of homologous a- and b-subunits, each with a binding site for a guanine nucleotide on one end. GTP is bound at the stable interface between the two subunits and does not exchange with GTP in the cytoplasm (for review, see Goodson and Jonasson 2016). The exposed site on the b-subunit binds either GTP or GDP. The GTP bound to the b-subunit is hydrolyzed after assembly into a microtubule. After depolymerization, this GDP is exchanged for GTP.The main structural feature of intermediate filament proteins is a long, rod-shaped, a- helical, coiled coil flanked by additional residues at both 5 µm ends (Herrmann and Aebi 2016). These head and tail do- Figure 1. Fluorescence micrograph of a cultured fibroblast stained mains vary in size in the various isoforms. No nucleotides with fluorescent phalloidin (blue) and antibodies to microtubules are known to bind to intermediate filament proteins. (green) and intermediate filaments (red). Individual microtubules Each cytoskeletal polymer has a different arrangement are large enough to be resolved by light microscopy, but actin fila- of its protein subunits (Fig. 3). The subunits in actin filaments (blue) and intermediate filaments are too small and too dense- ments form a helix that can be described as two, parallel, ly packed to be resolved. In cells with desmosomes or hemidesmosomes, intermediate filaments extend to the periphery of the right-handed strands offset by half a subunit or as a short- cell and anchor these adhesive structures. (Courtesy of Harald Herr- pitch, left-handed helix with a single strand going from mann, University of Heidelberg, Germany.) each subunit to the next in the opposite strand. All of the

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AB Actin monomer Tubulin dimer

Plus end GDP Pointed end

C N

ATP GTP

α C N

Barbed end 2 nm N C C Keratin heterodimer (0.2x) Minus end

10 nm

K5 Head Tail

Coil 1 dimer Coil 2 dimer K14 L12 Tail Head

Figure 2. Structures of (A) an actin monomer, (B) a tubulin dimer, and (C) a keratin heterodimer. Ribbon diagrams compare the building blocks of the three cytoskeletal polymers. The scale of the keratin is 20% that of actin and tubulin to ﬁt this long molecule into the ﬁgure. (A,B, Reprinted from Pollard and Earnshaw 2008; C, reprinted from Herrmann and Aebi 2016.)

Actin filament

Pointed end Barbed end

Intermediate filament

Microtubule

+ –

Figure 3. Scale drawings of the actin filament, intermediate filament, and microtubule. The actin filament and microtubule models are based on reconstructions of cryo-electron micrographs. The model of the intermediate filament is based on measurements of mass per unit length and characterization of the oligomeric intermediates that anneal to form the filament. Actin filaments and microtubules are polar; the names of their ends are indicated. Intermediate filaments are not polar because they assemble from bipolar tetramers of helical polypeptides. The dark green represents zones where pairs of coiled coils overlap to make antiparallel tetramers. (The actin filament and microtubule are courtesy of Graham Johnson. The intermediate filament model is reprinted from Herrmann and Aebi 2016.)

Cite this article as Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018;10:a030288 3 Downloaded from http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/ on October 1, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press T.D. Pollard and R.D. Goldman asymmetric actin subunits are oriented in the same direction a microtubule. These differences in stiffness are apparent in along the polymer, and so the polymer is polar. The two the micrograph in Figure 1. ends of actin filaments are called “barbed” and “pointed” ends, names coming from the polarized arrowhead pattern 3 ASSEMBLY OF CYTOSKELETAL POLYMERS created when they are saturated with myosin (see Pollard 2016). Both ends can grow or shrink, but the barbed end All three cytoskeletal polymers assemble spontaneously grows faster than the pointed end. Most myosins move under physiological conditions. For microtubules and ac- toward the barbed end (see Sweeney and Holzbaur 2016). tin, nucleation of polymerization is unfavorable, and so Tubulin dimers associate end-to-end to form protofila- cells use regulatory proteins to specify when and where ments that run along the length of cylindrical microtu- new polymers form. Once started, actin filaments and mi- bules. a-subunits form lateral bonds with neighboring a- crotubules elongate at both ends by addition of ATP–actin subunits and b-subunits are next to b-subunits. The pro- monomers or GTP–tubulin dimers. The barbed ends of tofilaments are offset slightly from each other, making what actin filaments, and plus ends of microtubules, grow faster seems to be a helix. However, most cytoplasmic microtu- than the other ends. bules have 13 protofilaments, so the lattice of subunits has a The nucleotides bound to actin and tubulin impact seam in which a-subunits are next to b-subunits. The end their polymerization properties. These effects differ in of the microtubule with exposed b-subunits is called the magnitude but are conceptually similar for the two poly- plus end, and the other end is called the minus end (Fig. 3). mers in spite of having evolved independently. Dimers only associate or dissociate at the ends, generally ATP bound to actin is hydrolyzed rapidly to ADP dur- faster at plus ends than minus ends (Goodson and Jonasson ing polymerization, followed by slow dissociation of the 2016). Dyneins move toward the minus ends of microtu- g-phosphate. ADP–Pi actin is much like ATP–actin, but bules, and most kinesins move toward plus ends. ADP–actin dissociates faster from filaments than ATP–ac- The internal structure of intermediate filaments is not tin. Therefore, the crucial reaction is dissociation of phos- yet known, but they consist of subunits comprising four phate rather than ATP hydrolysis (see Pollard 2016 for polypeptides. These “tetramers” are formed from two di- details). meric molecules with their rod domains interacting side by Similarly, assembly of GTP–tubulin dimers into a mi- side with opposite polarity (Herrmann and Aebi 2016). crotubule promotes the hydrolysis of the GTP on the b- Owing to the opposite orientation of dimers within the subunit. Contacts with an a-subunit along a protofilament tetrameric subunits, mature intermediate filaments lack complete the active site for hydrolysis. After dissociation of the polarity inherent in the structure of actin and micro- the g-phosphate, GDP–tubulin dissociates very rapidly if tubules, which might explain why no motors are known to exposed on the end of a microtubule. However, a cap of move on intermediate filaments. GTP–tubulin subunits can stabilize the end. Loss of the The three cytoskeletal polymers have distinctive me- GTP cap destabilizes the end of a microtubule and results in chanical properties. Persistence length is the commonly rapid depolymerization by dissociation of short pieces of used measure of their stiffness. (Persistence length scales protofilaments. At steady state, many microtubules alter- with stiffness and, formally, is the distance in which the nate between phases of steady elongation and catastrophic correlations between the tangents to a polymer are lost.) disassembly—behavior called dynamic instability (see With a persistence length of .1000 mm, microtubules are Goodson and Jonasson 2016 for details). After a GDP– far stiffer than the other two polymers. If enlarged a mil- dimer dissociates from a microtubule, the GDP is ex- lionfold, a microtubule would have physical properties changed for GTP in the cytoplasm in preparation for similar to a 25-mm diameter tube of a stiff plastic such as another round of assembly. Plexiglas. In contrast, intermediate filaments are the most Intermediate filaments self-assemble into complex flexible of the three cytoskeletal polymers, with a persis- polymers under environments of physiological ionic con- tence length of 0.3–1.0 mm. They would feel like a braided, ditions and pH without a requirement for nucleotides such plastic rope 10 mm in diameter, if enlarged a millionfold. as GTP and ATP. The polymerization process is of a hier- Like a rope, they have great tensile strength, so they resist archical nature, beginning with the formation of tetramers. stretching in spite of being flexible. Because of their flexi- On average eight tetramers interact to form a unit-length bility, intermediate filaments show strain stiffening, where filament comprising 32 polypeptides. These unit-length they become very stiff after stretching beyond 3.5 times filaments interact end-to-end in series to form mature in- their resting length (see Pegoraro et al. 2016). Actin fila- termediate filaments, followed by a radial compaction. ments are as stiff as steel, but they are very thin, and so their There are eight tetramers in a cross section of the typical persistence length is 10 mm, 100 times more flexible than 10-nm diameter intermediate filament (Herrmann and

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Aebi 2016). This assembly mechanism allows intermediate separates plasmids during mitosis. Bacteriophages and filaments to incorporate subunits all along their lengths. plasmids also encode genes for approximately 30 different divergent actins, many of which participate in DNA segre- gation (Derman et al. 2009). Structures of a sample of these 4 OVERVIEW OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE proteins show that they share the basic actin fold, with ATP CYTOSKELETON bound in a central cleft, but vary in the architecture of their The actin and tubulin genes arose in the common ancestor surfaces (Ghoshdastider et al. 2015). Some of these pro- of life on Earth and each diverged in fascinating ways dur- karyotic actins assemble filaments with two strands of sub- ing the past three billion years. Today, the homologous units, similar to eukaryotic actin filaments, but others are proteins form different polymers with different functions quite different, including filaments comprising a single in contemporary prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The genes strand of subunits and another with two strands running for intermediate filaments arose in early eukaryotes and in opposite directions (Ghoshdastider et al. 2015). diversified by gene duplication and divergence, especially Eukaryotes inherited the gene encoding actin from an in animals during the past five hundred million years. archaeal cell related to contemporary Lokiarchaeota (Spang Genes for the proteins that regulate the assembly of et al. 2015). This organism is known from a nearly com- actin and tubulin seem to have arisen separately in pro- plete genome sequence obtained from a deep-sea environ- karyotes and eukaryotes because they are not homologous. mental sample, but the organism itself has not yet been Furthermore, eukaryotes evolved proteins with similar seen. Lokiarchaeota is related to the archaeal cell that gave functions in the actin and tubulin systems, including rise to eukaryotes, having in addition to actin a number of proteins that bind nonpolymerized subunits, nucleate other genes typical of eukaryotes but not found in other polymers, promote elongation, cap polymer ends, sever prokaryotes. polymers, stabilize polymers by lateral association, and During the divergence of eukaryotes from a common cross-link polymers. Remarkably, the genes for these ancestor, many species duplicated their actin genes, but proteins with parallel functions evolved independently, these actins are among the most conserved eukaryotic and so the genes for proteins with similar functions are genes and proteins, sharing similar sequences, molecular not homologous. structures, biochemical properties, and filament structures. In contrast, duplication and divergence of actin genes gave rise to eukaryotic actin-related proteins (Arps) with se- 4.1 Evolution of the Actin System quences and functions that diverged to become quite dif- Most contemporary organisms have genes for actin or ferent from those of actin. For example, Arp2 and Arp3 are closely related proteins (Gunning et al. 2015), and so the part of the Arp2/3 complex that nucleates actin filament common ancestor of life on Earth must have had an actin branches (Pollard 2016), whereas Arp1 forms a filament in gene about three billion years ago. This ancestral organism the dynactin complex (Barlan and Gelfand 2016; Sweeney and its primordial actin gene have disappeared, but con- and Holzbaur 2016). Furthermore, other Arp proteins are temporary actin genes provide some clues about its parts of nucleosome-remodeling complexes in the nucleus. evolution. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes use different strategies to A likely precursor to the actin gene encoded an ATP- deploy actins for physiological purposes. Eukaryotes have binding protein half as large as actin (one of the two do- single actins (yeast) or multiple closely related actins mains flanking the central cleft of actin). An early gene (plants, animals) that all form double-stranded filaments. duplication created a protein with two homologous do- Numerous regulatory proteins allow actin filaments to mains with an ATP-binding cleft in between (Fig. 2). Hexo- make many different structures for cellular motility, cyto- kinase has the same fold as actin and binds ATP in a cleft kinesis, membrane traffic, and cellular integrity (for re- between two homologous domains, and so this glycolytic views, see Glotzer 2016; Pollard 2016; Svitkina 2016). In enzyme likely shares a common ancestor with actin. contrast, prokaryotes used multiple specialized actins to Genes encoding actin are widespread in bacteria and make a range of structures and have relatively few proteins archaea, as well as their plasmids and bacteriophages. These that regulate these actins. genes and proteins were hard to identify as their sequences have diverged very far from the conserved actins in eukary- 4.2 Evolution of the Microtubule System otes. Bacteria have three broad families of actin genes, the FtsA, MreB, and ParM families, each encoding a diversity of The common ancestor of life on Earth had a gene for a proteins with distinct functions. FtsA participates in cell tubulin-like protein in addition to a gene for actin. It is division, MreB has a role in cell wall synthesis, and ParM not clear how the a- and b-tubulin genes arose in eukary-

Cite this article as Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018;10:a030288 5 Downloaded from http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/ on October 1, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press T.D. Pollard and R.D. Goldman otes. However, they were present in the very early eukary- A duplication of the lamin gene in metazoan species otes because microtubule-based axonemes have been a on the path to chordates created the first gene for a cyto- characteristic feature of single-celled eukaryotes for more plasmic intermediate filament protein. As the two genes than one billion years (Viswanadha et al. 2016). diverged during subsequent evolution, the nuclear locali- The tubulin gene in contemporary Archaea and bacte- zation sequence and the CAAX box—a carboxy-terminal ria encodes the protein FtsZ. This GTP-binding protein has prenylation site—were lost from the gene for the cytoplas- the same fold as tubulin, but the sequences of FtsZ and mic intermediate filament. Later deletions in early chor- tubulin have diverged nearly beyond recognition. Mono- dates removed the sequence for 42 residues in the rod mers of GTP–FtsZ assemble protofilaments rather than domain and the immunoglobulin domain from the inter- cylindrical microtubules, hydrolyze the bound GTP, and mediate protein gene. Later, during vertebrate evolution, disassemble. FtsZ polymers concentrate at the site of cell further rounds of gene duplication and divergence created division in prokaryotes, and FtsZ reconstituted in lipo- the contemporary families of genes for cytoplasmic inter- somes in vitro can constrict the lipids. However, the main mediate filament proteins (Herrmann and Aebi 2016). function of FtsZ is to organize the assembly of transmem- During this divergence, orthologs have been much more brane proteins that synthesize the cell wall in the furrow highly conserved than paralogs, suggesting that each type that divides the cell. Eukaryotes acquired genes for FtsZ of intermediate protein has unique functions. from the symbiotic bacteria that evolved into mitochondria Most prokaryotes lack genes for proteins related to in- and chloroplasts. Today, FtsZ contributes to the division of termediate filaments, with the exception of the a-proteo- chloroplasts, but not mitochondria, in most species. Few bacterium Caulobacter crescentus, which has a protein with prokaryotes have genes encoding true tubulins. However, a coiled-coil rod similar in some ways to intermediate fil- one group has genes for both a- and b-tubulin that they ament proteins. The bacterium depends on this crescentin seem to have acquired by lateral gene transfer from a protein for its curved shape, but the protein lacks several eukaryote. features that are important for the assembly of intermediate Genes for a- and b-tubulin are found in all eukaryotes filaments. Convergent evolution is possible, but given the and encode the subunits of microtubules. With the excep- isolated distribution of crescentin, Caulobacter might have tion of fungi and most plants, eukaryotes generally have acquired the gene encoding crescentin by lateral transfer genes for d-, 1-, z-, and h-tubulin, components of centrioles from a eukaryote. and basal bodies. The sequences of these genes are highly conserved so that .75% of amino acids are identical in the 4.4 Evolution of Motor Proteins tubulins of animals and plants. The ciliate Tetrahymena makes many different structures from single genes for a- Three families of motor proteins with ATPase activities and b-tubulin, whereas vertebrates have six to eight genes move on cytoskeletal polymers in eukaryotic organisms. for a- and b-tubulin that are expressed in different tissues. A large family of myosin proteins uses actin filaments as tracks. Another large family of kinesin proteins and a mod- est number of dynein proteins walk on microtubules 4.3 Evolution of the Intermediate Filament System (Sweeney and Holzbaur 2016). The genes for intermediate filament proteins are distribu- The common ancestor of the genes for myosin and ted much differently across the phylogenetic tree than the kinesin was a prokaryotic gene for a small nucleotide-bind- universal presence of genes for actins and tubulins. Lamin ing protein—probably a GTPase—which gave rise to con- genes are found in many metazoans (reviewed by Adam temporary GTPases, myosins, and kinesins. Dynein is a 2016) and diverse species on branches that arose from the member of the ancient AAA ATPase family. Although pre- common eukaryotic ancestor more than one billion years cursors of all three of these motor families originated in ago. However, genes for intermediate filament proteins prokaryotes, none of these motors have been detected in have not been identified in plants or fungi or in most pro- any contemporary prokaryote. karyotes. Therefore, the original gene for lamins likely arose The time of appearance of functional myosins and ki- before the common eukaryotic ancestor, but these lamin nesins during the evolution of eukaryotes is unclear. Phy- genes have apparently been lost multiple times during evo- logenetic analysis suggests that the first myosin appeared lution (Peter and Stick 2015). The features of the lamin before the last common ancestor of eukaryotes about 1 gene, including the introns, nuclear localization signals, billion years ago. It was a myosin-I, with a single head and a carboxy-terminal immunoglobulin domain have and short tail. A gene encoding myosin-Vappeared shortly generally been conserved within the metazoan radiation after the crown group of eukaryotes began to branch (Adam 2016). from the common ancestor. It gave rise to myosins VIII

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and XI in plants. Myosin-II appeared on the branch lead- ∗ Barlan K, Gelfand VI. 2016. Microtubule-based transport and distribu- ing to amoebas, fungi, and animals, in which it contributed tion, tethering, and organization of organelles. Cold Spring Harb Per- spect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a025817. to cytokinesis (Glotzer 2016) and, eventually, to the evolu- ∗ Cheng F, Eriksson JE. 2016. Intermediate filaments and the regulation of tion of muscle cells (reviewed by Sweeney and Hammers cell motility during regeneration and wound healing. Cold Spring Harb 2016). Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a022046. Derman AI, Becker EC, Truong BD, Fujioka A, Tucey TM, Erb ML, The last common eukaryotic ancestor had approxi- Patterson PC, Pogliano J. 2009. Phylogenetic analysis identifies mately 11 genes for kinesins. Over the past billion years, many uncharacterized actin-like proteins (Alps) in bacteria: Regulated the kinesin gene family has expanded by duplication and polymerization, dynamic instability and treadmilling in Alp7A. Mol divergence, so that eukaryotes now have 17 families of ki- Microbiol 73: 534–552. Ghoshdastider U, Jiang S, Popp D, Robinson RC. 2015. In search of the nesins, including multiple isoforms in many families. primordial actin filament. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112: 9150–9151. Some organisms have lost one or more of these ancient ∗ Glotzer M. 2016. Cytokinesis in metazoa and fungi. Cold Spring Harb kinesin genes over time. Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a022343. ∗ Dynein is the most ancient of the three motor proteins. Goodson HV, Jonasson EM. 2016. Microtubules and microtubule- associated proteins. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: 101101/ This is remarkable as it is the largest and most complicated cshperspect.a022608. of the three. The multiple genes required to make dynein Gunning PW,Ghoshdastider U, Whitaker S, Popp D, Robinson RC. 2015. were present in very early eukaryotes, which are believed to The evolution of compositionally and functionally distinct actin filaments. J Cell Sci 128: 2009–2019. have had motile axonemes. As for the kinesins and myosin, ∗ Herrmann H, Aebi U. 2016. Intermediate filaments: Structure and as- genes encoding dynein have been lost multiple times dur- sembly. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 8: a018242. ing evolution, so neither red algae nor flowering plants have ∗ Jones JCR, Kam CY,Harmon RM, Woychek AV,Hopkinson SB, Green KJ. dyneins or motile axonemes. 2016. Intermediate filaments and the plasma membrane. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a025866. ∗ McIntosh JR. 2016. Mitosis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 8: a023218. ∗ 5 CONCLUSION Pegoraro AF, Janmey J, Weitz DA. 2016. Mechanical properties of the cytoskeleton and cells. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: 101101/ The reviews in this collection explain the structures and cshperspect.a022038. Peter A, Stick R. 2015. Evolutionary aspects in intermediate filament functions of the cytoskeleton, starting with the proteins proteins. Curr Opin Cell Biol 32: 48–55. that comprise the three systems—actin filaments, interme- ∗ Pollard TD. 2016. Actin and actin-binding proteins. Cold Spring Harb diate filaments, and microtubules. Additional associated Perspect Biol 8: a018226. reviews, a subset of which is cited above, describe how cells Pollard TD, Earnshaw WC. 2008. Cell biology, 2nd ed. Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia. assemble these proteins into functional supramolecular Spang A, Saw JH, Jørgensen SL, Zaremba-Niedzwiedzka K, Martijn J, structures and how these assemblies give cells their me- Lind AE, van Eijk R, Schleper C, Guy L, Ettema TJ. 2015. Complex chanical integrity, contribute to adhesion to extracellular archaea that bridge the gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. molecules and other cells, transport materials inside cells, Nature 521: 173–179. ∗ Svitkina T. 2016. The actin cytoskeleton and actin-based motility. Cold move entire cells, move their cilia, separate chromosomes Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a018267. during mitosis, and divide cells in two during cytokinesis. ∗ Sweeney HL, Hammers DW.2016. Muscle contraction. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a023200. ∗ Sweeney HL, Holzbaur ELF. 2016. Motor proteins. Cold Spring Harb REFERENCES Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a021931. ∗ Titus MA. 2016. Myosin-driven intracellular transport. Cold Spring Harb ∗ Reference is also in this collection. Perspect Biol doi: 101101/cshperspect.a21972. ∗ Viswanadha R, Sale WS, Porter ME. 2016. Ciliary motility: Regulation of ∗ Adam SA. The nucleoskeleton. 2016. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: axonemal dynein motors. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol doi: 101101/ 101101/cshperspect.a023556. cshperspect.a018325.

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Overview of the Cytoskeleton from an Evolutionary Perspective

Thomas D. Pollard and Robert D. Goldman

Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018; doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a030288

Subject Collection The Cytoskeleton

Microtubules and Microtubule-Associated Overview of the Cytoskeleton from an Proteins Evolutionary Perspective Holly V. Goodson and Erin M. Jonasson Thomas D. Pollard and Robert D. Goldman Motor Proteins Types I and II Keratin Intermediate Filaments H. Lee Sweeney and Erika L.F. Holzbaur Justin T. Jacob, Pierre A. Coulombe, Raymond Kwan, et al. Myosin-Driven Intracellular Transport Muscle Contraction Margaret A. Titus H. Lee Sweeney and David W. Hammers The Actin Cytoskeleton and Actin-Based Motility Type III Intermediate Filaments Desmin, Glial Tatyana Svitkina Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP), Vimentin, and Peripherin Elly M. Hol and Yassemi Capetanaki Mechanical Properties of the Cytoskeleton and Cytokinesis in Metazoa and Fungi Cells Michael Glotzer Adrian F. Pegoraro, Paul Janmey and David A. Weitz Intermediate Filaments and the Regulation of Cell Ciliary Motility: Regulation of Axonemal Dynein Motility during Regeneration and Wound Healing Motors Fang Cheng and John E. Eriksson Rasagnya Viswanadha, Winfield S. Sale and Mary E. Porter Intermediate Filaments and the Plasma Membrane Actin-Based Adhesion Modules Mediate Cell Jonathan C.R. Jones, Chen Yuan Kam, Robert M. Interactions with the Extracellular Matrix and Harmon, et al. Neighboring Cells Alexia I. Bachir, Alan Rick Horwitz, W. James Nelson, et al. Intracellular Motility of Intermediate Filaments Microtubule-Based Transport and the Distribution, Rudolf E. Leube, Marcin Moch and Reinhard Tethering, and Organization of Organelles Windoffer Kari Barlan and Vladimir I. Gelfand For additional articles in this collection, see http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/cgi/collection/

For additional articles in this collection, see http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/cgi/collection/