Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Manjit Singh Dhooria

Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Manjit Singh Dhooria Department of Entomology Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, Punjab, India

ISBN 978-981-10-1592-2 ISBN 978-981-10-1594-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953350

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #22-06/08 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore My Wife: Rajinder Dhooria My Sons: 1. Ramanjot Dhooria: Reena, Sarah and Geet 2. Taranjot Dhooria: Saveena and Mannat Preface

Acarology, the study of and , is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects). Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both ter- restrial and aquatic). More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already described, and the number of undescribed species may reach about 20-fold as fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored. Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, vegetable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary , poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of honeybees. Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce. Some spe- cies of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases. Ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme disease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals. House-dust mite aller- gies and bite allergies are also common in many parts of the world. Our knowledge of biology, ecology and the importance of mites has largely expanded. At the same time, the actual and potential economic importance of these creatures continues to grow worldwide, and their success in colonizing the new regions makes them an ongoing quarantine threat in many parts of the world. There is a great necessity of an up-to-date compilation of basic and applied knowledge on mites and their proper management that is otherwise found scattered in a variety of languages and literature throughout the world. The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarol- ogy, historical account, acarine technology, morphology and anatomy of ; and feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water balance. The book includes a recent classification of subclass Acari, and illustra- tions are provided for the identification of 107 important families of Acari. The role of mites in breaking down soil organic matter and affecting the quality of water bodies is discussed in detail. Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed. The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/criminal investigations and the importance of accidental acarophagy are also discussed in detail. Transmission of plant diseases by mite vectors is

vii viii Preface thoroughly discussed. Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action (IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it are also discussed. Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops; mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pes- ticides are emphasized in different chapters. The role of different predaceous mites in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately dis- cussed. Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail. Different parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and medical point of view. At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to mitigate them. At the end, a glossary of important taxonomic and integrated pest management terms is provided which makes understanding the contents in a more suitable way creating great lust for knowing more and more about these creatures. I am grateful to the late Dr G.P. ChannaBasavanna and Dr S.K. Gupta, both ­distinguished acarologists from India, who encouraged me and lent their moral ­support for writing such a book on applied aspects. I also sincerely acknowledge Dr Uri Gerson of Israel and Dr K. Ramaraju of India, eminent acarologists, for their useful suggestions. The knowledge contained in the book may prove very useful for ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesti- cide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and ticks.

Ludhiana, India M.S. Dhooria About the Book

Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects). Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both ter- restrial and aquatic) including grassland soils. More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already described, but the number of undescribed species may reach up to 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored. Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, veg- etable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poul- try and pets; as pests of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of honeybees. Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce. Many species of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases; some species of ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme dis- ease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals. House-dust mite allergies and tick bite allergies are also common in many parts of the world. The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarol- ogy; historical account; acarine technology; morphology and anatomy of Acari; and feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water balance. Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed. The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/crimi- nal investigations, and the importance of accidental acarophagy are discussed in detail in different chapters. Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action (IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it are also discussed. Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops; mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pes- ticides are emphasized in different chapters. The role of different predaceous mites in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately dis- cussed. Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail.

ix x About the Book

Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and medical point of view. Many YouTube and other weblinks explain in an interesting way emphasizing the importance of salient information on these creatures and mea- sures to combat them. At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to mitigate them. Weblinks will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks. The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesti- cide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and ticks.

562-I Block, B.R.S. Nagar, M.S. Dhooria Ludhiana-141012, Punjab, India E-mail: [email protected] Contents

1 Acarology and Its Importance...... 1 Further Reading...... 7 2 Historical Account of Acarology...... 9 2.1 Developments Prior to 1850 AD...... 10 2.2 Progress During 1851–1950 AD...... 10 2.3 Developments Since 1951...... 11 2.4 OSU Acarology Development Programme...... 12 2.5 Acarological Societies...... 12 2.6 Journals in Acarology...... 16 2.7 Important Books Published...... 17 2.8 Conclusions...... 18 Further Reading...... 18 3 Acarine Technology...... 21 3.1 Collection...... 22 3.1.1 Plant-Associated Mites...... 22 3.1.2 Water Mites...... 23 3.1.3 Soil Mites...... 24 3.1.4 Parasitic Mites...... 25 3.1.5 Collection of Ticks...... 27 3.2 Preservation/Killing in a Medium...... 28 3.3 Preparation (Slide Mounting)...... 28 3.3.1 Preparation for Water Mites...... 29 3.3.2 Plant-Associated Mites...... 29 3.3.3 Preparation of Ticks for Study...... 30 3.3.4 Mounting Ticks on Glass Slides...... 31 3.3.5 Staining ...... 31 3.3.6 Slide Preparation Technique...... 31 3.4 Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy Studies (SEM)... 32 3.5 Preparation for Molecular Analysis Studies...... 33 3.6 Photomicrography of Mites...... 33

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3.7 Packing and Shipping Mites...... 33 3.7.1 Specimens in Vials...... 33 3.7.2 Shipping Microscope Slides...... 34 3.7.3 Shipping Specimens...... 34 3.8 Working with Live Mites...... 34 3.9 Rearing Techniques...... 35 3.10 Sampling Methods...... 35 3.10.1 Direct Counting...... 35 3.10.2 Imprint Counting...... 36 3.10.3 Mite-Brushing Machine...... 36 3.10.4 Beating Foliage...... 36 3.10.5 Washing Technique...... 36 3.11 Acaricide Testing Techniques...... 36 3.11.1 Slide-Dip Method...... 37 3.11.2 Leaf-Dip Method...... 37 3.11.3 Residual Leaf Disc Assays...... 37 3.11.4 Ovolarvicide Tests...... 37 3.12 Conclusions...... 38 Further Reading...... 38 4 Morphology and Anatomy of Acari...... 41 4.1 External Morphology...... 42 4.1.1 Integument...... 42 4.1.2 Differences Between Hard Ticks and Soft Ticks...... 44 4.1.3 Body Divisions...... 45 4.1.4 Sensory Receptors...... 51 4.2 Internal Anatomy...... 55 4.2.1 Digestive System...... 55 4.2.2 Central Nervous System...... 56 4.2.3 Circulatory System...... 56 4.2.4 Excretion ...... 56 4.2.5 Respiratory System...... 57 4.2.6 Reproductive System...... 57 4.2.7 Musculature ...... 57 4.3 Conclusions...... 58 Further Reading...... 58 5 Classification of Subclass Acari...... 63 5.1 Superorder ...... 64 5.1.1 Order Opilioacarida...... 64 5.1.2 Order ...... 65 5.1.3 Order ...... 65 5.1.4 Order Ixodida...... 66 Contents xiii

5.2 Superorder ...... 67 5.2.1 Order ...... 68 5.2.2 Order ...... 68 5.3 Conclusions...... 70 Further Reading...... 70 6 Important Acarine Families...... 73 6.1 Superorder Parasitiformes...... 74 6.1.1 Order Holothyrida...... 74 6.1.2 Order Opilioacarida...... 74 6.1.3 Order Ixodida...... 75 6.1.4 Order Mesostigmata...... 80 6.2 Superorder Acariformes...... 96 6.2.1 Order Trombidiformes...... 96 6.3 Conclusions...... 156 Further Reading...... 157 7 Feeding, Development and Reproduction...... 161 7.1 Development...... 162 7.1.1 Eggs...... 162 7.1.2 Prelarva ...... 162 7.1.3 Larvae...... 163 7.1.4 Nymphs...... 163 7.1.5 Protonymph ...... 163 7.1.6 Deutonymphs ...... 164 7.1.7 Tritonymphs...... 164 7.1.8 Adults ...... 164 7.1.9 Life cycle...... 164 7.2 Feeding...... 166 7.2.1 Ticks...... 166 7.2.2 Phytophagous Mites...... 167 7.3 Reproduction...... 168 7.3.1 Mites ...... 168 7.3.2 Ticks...... 169 7.4 Tick Ecology...... 169 7.5 Water Balance...... 170 7.6 Diapause in Acari...... 171 7.6.1 Mites ...... 171 7.6.2 Ticks...... 171 7.7 Conclusions...... 172 Further Reading...... 172 8 Molecular Biology and Acarology...... 175 8.1 Phylogenetic Relationship...... 176 8.2 Species Diversity...... 177 8.3 Molecular Markers...... 178 xiv Contents

8.4 Dispersal of Populations and Species...... 180 8.5 Development of Host Races and Species Link...... 180 8.6 Mite Associates...... 181 8.7 Molecular Identification of House Dust and Storage Mites...... 181 8.8 Genome Sequencing of Two-Spotted Spider Mite...... 182 8.9 Tick Genomics...... 182 8.10 Conclusions...... 183 Further Reading...... 184 9 Water Mites...... 187 9.1 Hydrachnidia Diversity...... 188 9.2 Feeding Habits...... 188 9.3 Habitat...... 189 9.4 Effect of Water Pollution...... 189 9.5 Potential as Indicators of Environmental Safety...... 190 9.6 Websites on Water Mites...... 190 9.6.1 Water Mites of North America...... 190 9.6.2 Hydracarina.Org ...... 191 9.6.3 Key to Families and Subfamilies of Water Mites (Hydracarina)...... 191 9.6.4 Acari1: European Water Mites Research...... 191 9.7 Life Cycle...... 191 9.8 Role of Water Mites in Food Chain...... 192 9.9 Biological Control of Insect Pests...... 193 9.9.1 Parasites...... 193 9.9.2 Parasites of Mosquitoes...... 193 9.9.3 Predators ...... 194 9.10 Predators of Water Mites...... 194 9.11 Conclusions...... 194 Further Reading...... 195 10 Soil Mites...... 197 10.1 Oribatid Diversity...... 198 10.2 Distribution...... 199 10.3 Life History and Development...... 200 10.4 Feeding Habits...... 200 10.5 Population Dynamics...... 201 10.6 Nematophagous Mites...... 201 10.7 Exposure to Predators...... 202 10.8 Effect of Drought/Burning...... 202 10.9 Intermediate Hosts of Tapeworms...... 202 10.10 Effect of Pesticides and Industrial Wastes...... 202 10.11 Effect of Fertilizers...... 203 10.12 Economic Importance of Oribatid Mites...... 203 10.13 Conclusions...... 204 Further Reading...... 205 Contents xv

11 Quarantine Acarology...... 207 11.1 Acari Dispersal...... 208 11.2 Quarantine Pests...... 209 11.3 Invasive Mites and Ticks...... 209 11.4 Phytophagous Mites...... 210 11.5 Bee Mites...... 211 11.6 Animal Parasitic Mites and Ticks...... 211 11.7 Quarantine Organizations...... 212 11.8 Internet Resources for Information on Pest...... 213 11.9 Other Internet Resources Providing Information on Mites...... 214 11.10 Pest Information/Fact Sheets/Field Guides...... 214 11.11 Conclusions...... 215 Further Reading...... 216 12 Mite Pests of Horticultural Crops...... 219 12.1 Fruits...... 220 12.1.1 Temperate Fruits...... 220 12.1.2 Tropical/Subtropical Fruits...... 232 12.2 Vegetables...... 248 12.2.1 Family Alliaceae...... 249 12.2.2 Family Convolvulaceae...... 250 12.2.3 Family Cruciferaceae...... 250 12.2.4 Family Cucurbitaceae...... 250 12.2.5 Family Leguminosae...... 253 12.2.6 Family Solanaceae...... 254 12.2.7 Family Malvaceae...... 259 12.2.8 Family Umbelliferae...... 260 12.2.9 Other Vegetables...... 261 12.3 Mite Pests of Floricultural Plants...... 263 12.3.1 Bulb Mites (Rhizoglyphus spp.)...... 264 12.3.2 Cyclamen Mites (Steneotarsonemus pallidus)...... 264 12.3.3 False Spider Mites (Brevipalpus spp.)...... 264 12.3.4 Lewis Mite (Eotetranychus lewisi)...... 265 12.3.5 Two-Spotted Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae)...... 265 12.3.6 Broad Mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus)...... 268 12.3.7 Erinose Mite (Aceria hibisci)...... 269 12.3.8 Aloe Gall Mite (Eriophyes aloinis)...... 269 12.3.9 Southern Red Mite (Oligonychus ilicis)...... 269 12.3.10 Jasmine Mite (Aceria jasmini)...... 270 12.3.11 Phyllocoptes fructiphilus...... 270 12.4 Conclusions...... 271 Further Reading...... 271 xvi Contents

13 Mite Pests of Field Crops...... 275 13.1 Cereals...... 276 13.1.1 Barley (Hordeum vulgare; Poaceae)...... 276 13.1.2 Maize (Zea mays; Poaceae)...... 277 13.1.3 Rice (Oryza sativa; Poaceae)...... 278 13.1.4 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor; Gramineae)...... 278 13.1.5 Wheat (Triticum aestivum; Gramineae)...... 279 13.1.6 Oats (Avena sativa; Poaceae)...... 281 13.2 Pulses...... 282 13.2.1 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan; Fabaceae)...... 282 13.2.2 Cowpea (Vicia spp.)...... 284 13.2.3 Black gram (Vigna mungo)...... 285 13.2.4 Green gram (Vigna radiata)...... 285 13.2.5 Winter Pulses...... 286 13.3 Fibre Crops...... 286 13.3.1 Cotton (Gossypium spp.; Malvaceae)...... 287 13.3.2 Jute (Corchorus capsularis; Malvaceae)...... 288 13.3.3 Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea; Fabaceae)...... 289 13.4 Oilseed Crops...... 289 13.4.1 Soybeans (Glycine max; Fabaceae)...... 289 13.4.2 Canola (Brassica napus; Brassicaceae)...... 290 13.4.3 Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea; Leguminosae)...... 291 13.4.4 Castor Bean (Ricinus communis; Euphorbiaceae)...... 292 13.4.5 Sesame (Sesamum indicum; Pedaliaceae)...... 292 13.4.6 Safflower Carthamus ( tinctorius; Asteraceae)...... 294 13.4.7 Sunflower Helianthus ( annuus; Asteraceae)...... 294 13.4.8 Jatropha (Jatropha curcas; Euphorbiaceae)...... 294 13.5 Plantation Crops...... 294 13.5.1 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum; Poaceae)...... 294 13.5.2 Cassava (Manihot esculenta; Euphorbiaceae)...... 297 13.5.3 Tea (Camellia sinensis; Theaceae)...... 298 13.5.4 Cardamom (Elettaria sp.; Zingiberaceae)...... 300 13.5.5 Areca Nut (Areca catechu; Arecaceae)...... 300 13.5.6 Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis; Euphorbiaceae)...... 301 13.5.7 Cashew (Anacardium occidentale; Anacardiaceae)...... 301 13.6 Fodder Crops...... 301 13.6.1 Alfalfa or Lucerne (Medicago sativa; Fabaceae)...... 301 13.6.2 Rye Grass (Lolium sp.; Poaceae)...... 302 13.6.3 Vicia (Vicia spp.; Fabaceae)...... 302 13.6.4 Timothy (Phleum pratense; Poaceae)...... 303 13.7 Conclusions...... 303 Further Reading...... 304 Contents xvii

14 Mite Pests of Greenhouse Crops...... 307 14.1 Mite Pests in Greenhouses...... 308 14.1.1 Spider Mites...... 308 14.1.2 False Spider Mites...... 309 14.1.3 Tarsonemid Mites...... 310 14.1.4 Rust Mites...... 310 14.1.5 Bulb Mites...... 311 14.2 Biological Control of Mite Pests...... 311 14.2.1 Through Predatory Phytoseiid Mites...... 311 14.2.2 Through Predatory Insects...... 312 14.3 Management of Mite Pests in Greenhouses...... 313 14.4 Conclusions...... 314 Further Reading...... 314 15 Management of Mites Under Organic Farming...... 317 15.1 Management of Mites in Greenhouses...... 318 15.2 Management of Mites on Organic Crops...... 319 15.3 Cultural Control...... 320 15.4 Water Management...... 321 15.5 Good Farm Sanitation...... 321 15.6 Other Cultural Practices...... 321 15.7 Monitoring for Mite Pests and Their Natural Enemies...... 322 15.8 Biological Control...... 322 15.9 Microbiol Control...... 323 15.10 Chemical Control...... 323 15.11 Important Websites...... 324 15.12 Conclusions...... 325 Further Reading...... 326 16 Mite Transmission of Plant Diseases...... 327 16.1 Plant Viral Diseases Vectored by Eriophyid Mites...... 328 16.1.1 Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus (WSMV)...... 329 16.1.2 Wheat Spot Mosaic Virus (WSpMV)...... 330 16.1.3 Ryegrass Mosaic Virus (RgMV)...... 331 16.1.4 Agropyron Mosaic Virus (AMV)...... 331 16.1.5 Fig Mosaic Virus (FMV)...... 332 16.1.6 Peach Mosaic...... 332 16.1.7 Cherry Mottle Leaf Virus (CMLV)...... 332 16.1.8 Currant Reversion Disease...... 333 16.1.9 Pigeon Pea Sterility Mosaic Disease (PPSMV)...... 333 16.1.10 Rose Rosette Disease (RRD)...... 334 16.2 Plant Viral Diseases Vectored by False Spider Mites...... 334 16.2.1 Citrus Leprosis...... 335 16.2.2 Passion Fruit Green Spot Virus (PGSV)...... 335 16.2.3 Coffee Ring Spot Virus (CoRSV)...... 336 16.2.4 Orchid Fleck Virus (OFV)...... 336 xviii Contents

16.3 Plant Viral Diseases Vectored by Spider Mites...... 336 16.4 Plant Fungal Diseases Vectored by Eriophyid Mites...... 337 16.4.1 Mango Malformation Disease (MMD)...... 337 16.5 Management of Mite-Vectored Plant Viral Diseases...... 337 16.6 Conclusions...... 338 Further Reading...... 338 17 Mite Pests of Mushrooms...... 341 17.1 Pest Mites...... 342 17.1.1 Tyrophagus spp...... 342 17.1.2 Tarsonemus myceliophagus...... 343 17.1.3 Red Pepper Mites (Pygmephorus spp.)...... 343 17.1.4 Other Mite Pests of Mushrooms...... 344 17.2 Predaceous Mites...... 344 17.3 Management of Mushroom Mite Pests...... 344 17.4 Chemical Control of Mites...... 345 17.5 Conclusions...... 345 Further Reading...... 346 18 Mite Problems of Stored Foods...... 349 18.1 Stored Product Mites...... 350 18.1.1 Pest Mites...... 350 18.1.2 Predaceous Mites...... 355 18.1.3 Parasitic Mite...... 356 18.1.4 Scavengers and Saprobes...... 356 18.2 Temperature/Humidity Relations...... 356 18.3 Detection of Mites...... 357 18.4 Allergy Due to Mites in Storages...... 357 18.5 Management of Mites in Storages...... 358 18.5.1 Stored Grains...... 358 18.5.2 Bulb Mites...... 359 18.5.3 Stored Packages in Groceries...... 360 18.6 Biological Control...... 361 18.7 Conclusions...... 361 Further Reading...... 361 19 Mites Predaceous on Pests of Agriculture...... 363 19.1 Insects...... 364 19.1.1 Order Diptera...... 364 19.1.2 Order Orthoptera...... 365 19.1.3 Order Hemiptera...... 366 19.1.4 Order Thysanoptera...... 369 19.1.5 Order Trichoptera...... 370 19.1.6 Order Thysanura...... 370 19.1.7 Order Collembola...... 370 19.1.8 Order Blattoidea...... 371 Contents xix

19.1.9 Order Coleoptera...... 371 19.1.10 Order Lepidoptera...... 373 19.1.11 Order Hymenoptera...... 374 19.2 On Snails and Slugs...... 374 19.3 On Symphylans...... 375 19.4 On Nematodes...... 376 19.5 Mite Associations on Earthworms...... 377 19.6 Conclusions...... 377 Further Reading...... 378 20 Biological Control of Phytophagous Mites...... 381 20.1 Biological Control of Phytophagous Mites...... 382 20.1.1 Predaceous Mites...... 382 20.1.2 Insects Predaceous on Mites...... 386 20.1.3 Microbial Control of Phytophagous Mites...... 388 20.1.4 Biological Control of Weeds by Phytophagous Mites.. 390 20.2 Conclusions...... 394 Further Reading...... 394 21 Pesticides...... 399 21.1 Mite Outbreaks...... 400 21.2 Resurgence...... 401 21.3 Development of Specific Acaricidal Compounds...... 401 21.4 Classification of Acaricides...... 402 21.4.1 Inorganic Acaricides...... 402 21.5 Synthetic Organic Acaricides...... 403 21.5.1 Acaricides Based on Their Chemistry...... 403 21.5.2 Acaricide Classification Based on Mode of Action...... 403 21.6 Development of Specific Acaricides...... 405 21.6.1 New Synthetic Acaricides...... 406 21.6.2 Natural Acaricides and Other Alternative Solutions..... 407 21.7 Role of Acaricides in IPM of Spider Mites...... 407 21.8 Acaricide Resistance...... 408 21.9 Management of Acaricide Resistance...... 409 21.10 Conclusions...... 409 Further Reading...... 410 22 Parasitic Mites on Honeybees...... 413 22.1 Parasitic Mites...... 414 22.1.1 Tracheal Mite (Acarapis woodi; Tarsonemidae)...... 414 22.1.2 Tropilaelaps clareae...... 417 22.1.3 Varroa jacobsoni...... 418 22.1.4 Varroa destructor...... 421 22.1.5 Other Mites Found on Bees...... 423 22.2 Conclusions...... 423 Further Reading...... 423 xx Contents

23 Medical and Veterinary Acarology...... 425 23.1 Mites...... 426 23.1.1 Chicken Mite (Dermanyssus gallinae; Dermanyssidae)...... 426 23.1.2 Northern Fowl Mite (Ornithonyssus sylviarum; Macronyssidae)...... 427 23.1.3 Tropical Rat Mite (Ornithonyssus bacoti; Macronyssidae)...... 427 23.1.4 House Mouse Mite (Liponyssoides sanguineus; Dermanyssidae)...... 427 23.1.5 Grain Mites (Glycyphagus domesticus; Acaridae)...... 428 23.1.6 Straw Itch Mites ( ventricosus; Pyemotidae)...... 428 23.1.7 Chiggers (Eutrombicula alfredugesi; )...... 429 23.1.8 Burrowing Mites...... 429 23.1.9 Non-Burrowing Mites...... 432 23.1.10 Pneumonyssus caninum; Halarachnidae...... 433 23.1.11 Snake Mite (Ophionyssus natricis; Macronyssidae)...... 433 23.1.12 House Dust Mites...... 434 23.1.13 Other Important Mites...... 435 23.2 Ticks...... 435 23.3 Conclusions...... 437 Further Reading...... 438 24 Forensic Acarology...... 441 24.1 Decomposition of Cadaver...... 442 24.2 Decomposition Stages of Corpse...... 443 24.3 and Decomposing Body...... 444 24.4 Megnin and Forensic Acarology...... 444 24.5 Mite Diversity Found on Carcases...... 444 24.6 Role of Freshwater Mites...... 446 24.7 Conclusions...... 446 Further Reading...... 447 25 Accidental Acarophagy...... 449 25.1 Plant-Associated Mites...... 450 25.2 Stored Food...... 451 25.2.1 Stored Wheat Flour...... 451 25.2.2 Prophylactic Measures...... 452 25.3 Dried Fruits...... 453 25.4 Mushrooms...... 454 25.5 Soil Mites...... 454 Contents xxi

25.6 Cheese...... 455 25.7 Meat (Including Cured Fish)...... 456 25.8 Conclusions...... 456 Further Reading...... 457 26 Glossary ...... 461 Further Reading...... 470 About the Author

Dr M.S. Dhooria was born in 1946 and did his B.Sc. in Agriculture in 1967, and M.Sc. in Entomology in 1969 from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab), India. In 1980, did Ph. D in Entomology from Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi (India). He was awarded Junior Research Fellowship in M.Sc., and Senior Research Fellowship in Ph. D studies by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. He has more than 36 years of experience in teaching, research and extension in the field of Entomology. He did research work on: biology, ecology, and management of phytophagous mites. Taught ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course at post graduate level for many years. Published more than 125 research publications in different national and inter- nationally reputed journals. Contributed some book chapters and a booklet on Citrus Mites as a special publication of ICAR. Attended several national and international level workshops on different aspects of insects and mites. He is also a life fellow of Entomological Society of India, New Delhi; Indian Society for the Advancement of Insect Science, Ludhiana; and Acarological Society of India (ASI), Bangalore. Remained as Vice President of ASI for two terms. Friendship Forum of India, New Delhi, awarded him the Certificate of Honour and Gold Medal for his lifetime achievements in Entomology.

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