S124 JUAN C. CASTILLA AND MIRIAM FERNANDEZ Ecological Applications Special Issue Ecological Applications, 8(1) Supplement, 1998, pp. S124–S132 ᭧ 1998 by the Ecological Society of America SMALL-SCALE BENTHIC FISHERIES IN CHILE: ON CO-MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES JUAN C. CASTILLA AND MIRIAM FERNANDEZ Estacio´n Costera de Investigaciones Marinas, Las Cruces Facultad de Ciencias Biolo´gicas, Pontificia Universidad Cato´lica de Chile, Casilla 114-D, Santiago, Chile Abstract. We discuss the issues of sustainable use and management in the Chilean inshore benthic small-scale (artisanal) fisheries. The fishery benefits from two features that make it possible to overcome some of the problems of conventional management. These are: (1) major advances have been made in understanding relevant ecological processes, and (2) this knowledge has been institutionalized in the 1991 Chilean Fishing and Aqua- culture Law (FAL). FAL legalizes the use of community-owned shellfish grounds, so-called ‘‘Management and Exploitation Areas’’ (MEA); this practice is considered to confer quasi- property rights to fishers’ unions. Management plans for these areas have to be approved by the government. This co-management approach solves one of the major problem in many fisheries: overexploitation. In addition, the study of the MEAs could provide useful infor- mation, if they are considered as ‘‘replicates,’’ in evaluating the effect of human perturbation and different management regimes. We think that by using the different tools provided by the FAL on the spatial arrangement of the small-scale fishery and answering certain key ecological questions, the sustainable use of inshore benthic resources in Chile (e.g., gas- tropods, sea urchins, and algae) via an ecosystem approach can be achieved in the near future. Key words: Chile; co-management; community ownership; ecosystem approach; small-scale fish- ery; sustainable use; invertebrates. INTRODUCTION problems still remain unresolved, primarily because of the uncertainty associated with recruitment dynamics The problem of variation in catches and overex- (Hilborn and Walters 1992). However, little attention ploitation in marine fisheries began to receive scientific has been given to Lankester’s view on species inter- attention in the late 1800s (Huxley 1884, Lankester action and ecological processes governing ecosystem 1884), primarily due to the development of more ef- functioning (but see Hjort 1914, Burkenroad 1953, ficient fishing methods (Smith 1988). On the other Paine 1984). The lack of knowledge about these pro- hand, natural fluctuation in population abundance ap- pears to be the rule rather than the exception in marine cesses is a major constraint in understanding the effect fisheries. Hjort (1914) recognized this factor and iden- of fishing on population dynamics and ecosystem func- tified some of the causes of larval survival and dis- tioning (Lubchenco et al. 1991, Hilborn and Walters persal. Ever since, this topic has been an important 1992). Furthermore, there are other issues related to focus of study in fishery science (e.g., Ricker 1954, fisheries management that need to be considered: (1) Beverton and Holt 1957). Major difficulties in under- exploited populations are subjected to different histo- standing recruitment fluctuation arise because inter- ries of intentional human ‘‘perturbations’’ that interfere actions among species are unknown, and besides, most with long-term ecological processes and (2) those per- marine fish populations are open (Sinclair 1988) and turbations are the result of a combination of political, under variable exploitation rate. These arguments can social, and economic factors. Besides, (3) management be found in almost all major fisheries (e.g., halibut usually focuses on a single stock with no explicit in- (Hippolossus stenolepis): Thompson 1950, Burkenroad teraction between its predators, competitors, or other 1953; Peruvian anchovy (Engraulis ringens): Pauly and environmental variables. Tsukayama 1987; California sardine (Sardina sp.): Sa- In this paper we discuss some of these issues in the ville and Bailey 1980). In many cases, the underlying context of the small-scale (artisanal) Chilean fishery of invertebrates and the new co-management tool (joint management involving resource users and government; Manuscript received 20 February 1996; revised 15 Sep- Hanna 1994) known as Management and Exploitation tember 1996; accepted 15 October 1996; final version re- ceived 16 July 1997. For reprints of this Special Issue, see Areas (MEA) recently established in Chile (Castilla footnote 1, p. S1. 1994). We use the example of an artisanal fisher Union S124 February 1998 SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES, CHILE S125 FIG. 1. Chilean small-scale fishery landing (1960–1995) of the muricid gastropod ‘‘loco’’ Concholepas concholepas and export revenues in U.S. dollars. Different phases of the fishery are shown. Circled asterisks indicate Total Allowable Catch. Partially taken from Castilla 1996a. in central Chile, Caleta el Quisco (33Њ23Ј S; 71Њ42Ј W), not immune to overexploitation and, moreover, there where we have worked for ϳ8yr. are rights conflicts over portions of the ocean ‘‘used’’ by the industrial and artisanal fleets. The landings of SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES:THE CHILEAN EXPERIENCE the industrial fleet in Chile, Ͼ6 ϫ 109 kg/yr largely Although large-scale fisheries have generated most overpasses artisanal landings, of ϳ1.5 ϫ 108 kg/yr. of the attention in fishery biology, small-scale fisheries Nevertheless, in many coastal areas of developing are also very important. Particularly in developing countries, the small-scale artisanal sector provides the countries, a large group of finfish and shellfisheries are bulk of the domestic day-to-day food, and moreover, operated at a small scale as defined by Bermudez and the fished species (e.g., shellfishes and algae) have el- Aguero (1989): (1) fisheries operating with ‘‘open- evated market values as compared to products extracted boats’’ of Ͻ50 g ϫ 103 kg such as engine-powered by the industrial fleet. In Chile, Ͼ60 species of shellfish (inboard, outboard) boats, or rowboats; and (2) fisheries and algae (e.g., muricid gastropods, keyhole limpets, based on diving operations or even on hand-picking bivalves, sea urchins, barnacles, ascidians, bull-kelp, procedures at the shores (food gathering subsistence and Gracilaria spp.) are regularly exploited exclusively activities). Aguero (1992) estimated that in Latin by the small-scale fishery sector and external markets America there were ϳ106 people directly engaged in are exerting increasing pressures on these resources fishing activities, and ϳ90% of them belonged to small- (Bustamante and Castilla 1987, Castilla 1995). scale fisheries. The majority of the resources available The pattern of exploitation of these resources and to this sector are pelagic or benthic species restricted the socioeconomic and legal ripple effects produced by to inshore coastal areas, and in many cases endemic these external pressures is apparent in the fishery of species with restricted geographical distributions or the Chilean muricid gastropod loco, Concholepas con- unique to the area (e.g., Bustamante and Castilla 1987). cholepas Bruguie`re. The loco is the single most eco- These authors pointed out that the artisanal fishery in nomically important shellfish in Chile (Castilla 1996a) Chile plays crucial economic and social roles because and the most studied invertebrate species in the country many of the benthic resources (e.g., shellfishes and (Castilla 1988). During the past 35 yr the commercial algae) show elevated export revenues when compared exploitation of locos (the commercial fishery is done to those from the large-scale fishery sector (Castilla exclusively by divers) has shown five contrasting phas- 1996a). es (Fig. 1). The first phase (1960–1975) was charac- Resources targeted by the small-scale fisheries are terized by landings ranging between 2 ϫ 106 and 6 ϫ S126 JUAN C. CASTILLA AND MIRIAM FERNANDEZ Ecological Applications Special Issue 106 kg that were used for domestic consumption (the centralization and protected areas is one of the future domestic consumption—sustainable phase in Fig. 1). goals of marine fisheries management. The main dif- Between 1976 and 1980–1981, landings abruptly in- ferences between the Chilean MEA–TAC co-manage- creased due to high demand from the Asian market, ment scheme and the Individual Transferable Quotas reaching a peak of 2.48 ϫ 106 kg in 1980 (export (ITQ) system were discussed by Castilla 1996a.In phase—unsustainable in Fig. 1). Thereafter, from 1982 summary, ITQs, when used as the only tool to solve through 1988, landings decreased, probably due to small-scale management problems within traditional overexploitation (overexploitation phase in Fig. 1) re- fishery societies, can create ‘‘virtual communities.’’ sulting in the implementation of a complex series of ITQs are quasi-property rights which, if not used prop- management steps. Although illegal extractions oc- erly by the recipients, can destroy traditional fishery curred, between 1989 and 1992 the fishery was offi- societies (Pauly, in press). On the other hand, the cially closed (total closure phase). Since in Chile the MEA–TAC scheme is deeply rooted into the small- loco can represent up to 50% of the small-scale shellfish scale fishery communities and cannot be transferred. export revenues (e.g., $64 000 000/yr in U.S. currency; The two main elements considered by the Chilean Castilla 1996a), the Chilean shellfish exportation rate