Salt in the Neolithic of Central Europe: Production and Distribution

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Salz und Gold: die Rolle des Salzes im prähistorischen Europa Salt and Gold: The Role of Salt in Prehistoric Europe

1 Salz und Gold: die Rolle des Salzes im prähistorischen Europa

Akten der internationaler Fachtagung (Humboldt-Kolleg) in Provadia, Bulgarien 30 September – 4 October 2010

Herausgegeben von

Vassil Nikolov und Krum Bacvarov

Provadia • Veliko Tarnovo 2012 2 Salt and Gold: The Role of Salt in Prehistoric Europe

Proceedings of the International Symposium (Humboldt-Kolleg) in Provadia, Bulgaria 30 September – 4 October 2010

Edited by

Vassil Nikolov and Krum Bacvarov

Provadia • Veliko Tarnovo 2012 3 Gedruckt mit Unterstützung der Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung Bonn, Deutschland

Printed with the support of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Bonn, Germany

Sprachredaktion: Krum Bacvarov (Englisch), Tabea Malter (Deutsch), Gassia Artin (Französisch)

Grafikdesign: Elka Anastasova

ISBN 978-954-400-695-2

4 Inhalt / Contens

List of Contributors ...... 7

Vorwort der Herausgeber / Editorial ...... 9

Vassil Nikolov Salt, early complex society, urbanization: Provadia-Solnitsata (5500-4200 BC) ...... 11

Olivier Weller La production chalcolithique du sel à Provadia-Solnitsata : de la technologie céramique aux implications socio-économiques ...... 67

Hristo Etropolski Technology of salt extraction by means of a Late Neolithic furnace from Provadia-Solnitsata ...... 89

Margarita Lyuncheva Tell Provadia-Solnitsata: The late Neolithic Karanovo III-IV period in the West Black Sea Coast context ...... 93

Viktoria Petrova Tell Provadia-Solnitsata: the Middle Chalcolithic layer in the context of the cultural development of the Western Black Sea area ...... 103

Petar Leshtakov The late Chalcolithic at Provadia-Solnitsata in the context of the West Black Sea Coast ...... 109

Krum Bacvarov Saltmaking and boundaries: Within and Without at Provadia-Solnitsata ...... 119

Desislava Takorova Long distance contacts in later prehistory: ecological, economical and social implications ...... 123

Dan Monah L’approvisionnement en sel des tribus chalcolithiques sédentaires et des tribus des steppes du Nord de la Mer Noire ...... 127

Ion Sandu, Olivier Weller, Marius Alexianu Analyses archéométriques sur les moules à sel chalcolithiques de l’est de la Roumanie ...... 143

Marius Alexianu, Olivier Weller, Robin Brigand, Roxana-Gabriela Curca Ethnoarchäologische Forschungen zu den Salzwasserquellen der moldauischen Vorkarpaten, Rumänien ...... 155

Valeriu Cavruc, Antony Harding Prehistoric production and exchange of salt in the Carpathian-Danube Region ...... 173

5 Cristian Schuster, Ionut Tutulescu Zum Salz im Nordosten Olteniens (Rumänien) in der Vorgeschichte bis ins Mittelalter. Eine Einführung ...... 201

Nenad Tasic New evidence on salt use in the Neolithic of Southeast Europe ...... 213

Slavisa Peric Die neolithischen Siedlungen in der mittleren Morava-Ebene und die Slatina-Toponymie ...... 219

Thomas Saile Salt in the Neolithic of Central Europe: production and distribution ...... 225

Albrecht Jockenhövel Bronzezeitliche Sole in Mitteldeutschland: Gewinnung - Distribution - Symbolik ...... 239

Thomas Stöllner Prähistorischer Steinsalzbergbau - wirtschaftsarchäologische Betrachtung und neue Daten ...... 259

Martin Hees Die Bedeutung der vorgeschichtlichen Salzgewinnung in Südwestdeutschland ...... 277

Peter Attema, Luca Alessandri Salt production on the Tyrrhenian coast in South Lazio (Italy) during the Late Bronze Age: its significance for understanding contemporary society ...... 287

Elisa Guerra-Doce, F. Javier Abarquero-Moras, Germán Delibes-de Castro, Jesús del Val-Recio, Ángel L. Palomino-Lázaro Salt production at the Villafáfila Lake Complex (Zamora, Spain) in prehistoric times ...... 300

Isabella Tsigarida Bereiche der zentralen Einflussnahme auf Salz im Römischen Reich am Beispiel der Provinz Dakien ...... 313

Valeri Yotov Bulgarian control over the Salt Road in Transylvania during the 9th century: The archaeological evidence ...... 323

Evgeny Golovinsky Das Kochsalz - Urgeschichte und Gegenwart einer bedeutenden Substanz ...... 333

Mariana Mitewa, Christo Kolev Sodium Chloride: food and poison ...... 341

Petia Penkova Salt as a medicine for gold ...... 345

Anna Coleva-Dimitrova Das Salz in der bulgarischen Mikrotoponymie ...... 349

6 V. Nikolov & K. Bacvarov (eds). Salz und Gold: die Rolle des Salzes im prähistorischen Europa / Salt and Gold: The Role of Salt in Prehistoric Europe. Provadia & Veliko Tarnovo, 2012, 225-238.

Salt in the Neolithic of Central Europe: production and distribution

Thomas Saile

Die Bekanntschaft mit dem Salz war der erste Schritt zu einer höheren Kultur. [The acquaintance with salt was the first step to a higher culture.] (H. Freydank 1929, 145)

Die Geschichte des Salzes ist die Geschichte des Ganges der Civilisation überhaupt. [The history of salt is the history of the progress of civilization.] (V. Hehn 1873, 73)

The common and daily presence of salt in our lives today has lessened our awareness of how valuable salt is. Things were different but a couple of centuries ago, when the possession of salterns was of tremendous importance to the mercantile economy of absolutist regimes. Wars were fought over salt; in 1611, for instance, a protracted conflict between the dukes of Bavaria and the archbishops of Salzburg over the right to exploit the saltworks at Berchtesgaden ended with the overthrow of Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau (1559-1617). Up to the middle of the 19th century, indeed, the economic importance of salt was comparable to that of crude oil in our present-day economy. Salt occurs naturally as rock-salt or in dissolved form as brine. According to legends, the discovery of saline springs frequently resulted from the intense observation of nature, as humans took note of places where animals went to lick salt, and became sensitive to the particular characteristics of the plant cover in the vicinity of salt springs. Two entirely different strategies were applied as salt winning techniques: evaporation of brine and mining of rock-salt. Producing salt from brine involves several steps: obtaining and preparing brine, cleaning and condensing it, refining and boiling it until the salt crystallizes, and finally preparing the salt for transportation. This article is concerned with the earliest stages in the development of such techniques in Central Europe during the Neolithic. The relevant archaeological evidence will be presented below in a chronological order, followed by some remarks on Neolithic salt trade. In general, the dating of prehistoric artifacts and structures connected to the exploitation, trade, and consumption of salt presents considerable difficulties, as chronologically sensitive material is rarely uncovered in close association with salt exploitation-related features. As we shall see below, the frequent appearance of rich archaeological finds in the surroundings of medieval and post-medieval saltworks cannot be considered as evidence of a corresponding prehistoric exploitation of salt; in practice, such correlations are often deceptive. Neither can isolated finds of salt-producing ceramics (briquetage) in settlements or graves serve as a clear-cut indication of salt production; these are evidence, at best, of salt trade. In Central European inland areas, the most common procedure of salt winning documented during the Neolithic is brine evaporation by means of briquetage. The forms of briquetage, generally divided into supporting elements (stands) and vessels, show great regional and chronological variation (fig. 1). Briquetage is mainly a coarsely tempered and thick-walled kind of ceramics that was fired 225 Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the development of briquetage forms in Central Europe. EN = Early Neolithic, MN = Middle Neolithic, LN = Late Neolithic, FN = Final Neolithic, EBA = Early Bronze Age, TBA = Tumulus Bronze Age, UC = Urnfield Culture, HA = Hallstatt, LT = La Tène, RIA = Roman Iron Age at low temperatures. Frequently the surface is reddish and treated carelessly. Such production-related ceramics are predominantly found in fragmentary condition. The earliest briquetage found so far dates to the middle of the fifth millennium cal. BC: In Galicja, southeastern 1 Poland, briquetage consists of wide-mouthed vessels and conical beakers (Jodłowski 1977, 89, fig. 7). D.W. Müller (1987; 1988: 91ff, fig. 1) has described dish-shaped briquetage vessels of the Bernburg culture (end of the fourth millennium cal. BC), the so-called “flat goblets with disk-shaped feet” from the site of Langer Berg in the Dölauer Heide near Halle on the Saale (Saxony-Anhalt).2 W. Matthias assumes an Early Bronze Age dating – i.e. the first half of the second millennium cal. BC – for troughs and oval pillars from Central Germany (Matthias 1961, 184ff; Matthias 1976; Riehm 1984, 177; Simon, K. 1985). The heydays of briquetage utilization are the Late Bronze Age and the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Both in Galicja and in Central Germany, the chronological sequence of briquetage forms is spectacularly interrupted by intervals during which no such ceramics appear. Possibly there was no salt production in these areas during such periods. Alternatively, one might imagine that during some periods regular household ceramics were used to process brine (Riehm 1962, 375) – a type of salt production that could hardly be confirmed archaeologically.

Early Neolithic salt production? For the moment, all our evidence that salt was produced during the Early Neolithic in Central Europe is circumstantial, and the technological procedure by which salt was obtained during that time remains completely unknown; no briquetage appears to had been used as yet. Nevertheless, there is no lack of hypotheses. For instance, F. Geschwendt proposed that eight brine springs of Sülbeck in the Grubenhagen countryside of southern Lower Saxony (fig. 2) were already exploited during the Bandkeramik in the second half of the sixth millennium cal. BC; for a settlement with an earthwork of

1 In order to differentiate Polish Galicia from Spanish Galicia, the Polish spelling (Galicja) is used for the former and the Spanish spelling (Galicia) for the latter. 2 Some pieces of the material from Halle have been analyzed chemically (Müller 1988, 92). 226 Fig. 2. Places of possible Neolithic salt production in Central Europe. Evidence has been found so far at Halle on the Saale in Central Germany and at Barycz in Lesser Poland (cf. table 1)

Table 1 List of Neolithic salt sites mentioned in the text:

1 Artern 2 Auleben 3 Bad Nauheim 4 Barycz / Galicja / Lesser Poland 5 Beusterburg near Heyersum 6 Großobringen 7 Halle on the Saale / Dölauer Heide / Central Germany 8 Hallstatt / Salzkammergut / Upper Austria 9 Lons-le-Saunier / Franche-Comté 10 Northeim 11 Poiana Slatinei near Lunca 12 Salins-les-Bains / Franche-Comté 13 Salzderhelden 14 Schöningen 15 Schwäbisch Hall 11 Slatina Mare near Solca / Cacica / Bukovina 11 Slatina Veche near Cucuieţi 16 Sülbeck 17 Tuzla 18 Werl

227 this culture is located in the immediate vicinity (Heege 1995; 1996), and “in the main spring a fragment of a stone adze [Schuhleistenkeil] and a flint blade were found” (Geschwendt 1958, 54).3 Similarly, W. Leidinger tried to argue that the Bandkeramik culture communities exploited the salt springs at Werl (Westphalia), which are located along the Hellweg, an ancient trading route linking the Rhineland to Central Germany and beyond. He concluded that an increased portion of calcium carbonate in soil samples taken from underneath Bandkeramik pits indicated “natural loam pans in which salt water was evaporated” (Leidinger 1983, 269; first proposed in Leidinger, Leidinger 1969, 10; see also Leidinger 1996, 189ff). However, there is no unequivocal contextual association between the briquetage finds and Neolithic assemblages at the site.4 The salt production-related finds referred to are instead typical of Iron Age salt processing in Westphalia (Leidinger 1991, 9-10; Leidinger 1996, 189ff; Mesch 1996, 116). Yet there are other indications that the salt springs at Werl may have played a role during the Bandkeramik after all. Along the eastern reaches of the Hellweg and in central Wetterau (Hesse), J. Kneipp was able to provide evidence that the saline springs of Werl and Bad Nauheim were situated on the fringes of certain overlapping of regional ceramic styles (Kneipp 1995, 4; Kneipp 1998, 160, figs. 53 and 54 a). At the same two sites, idiosyncrasies in the pattern of distribution of Bandkeramik- period Rijckholt flint – traded down the line from Limburg (The Netherlands) – were interpreted by A. Zimmermann (1995, 114) as suggesting “different conceptions about the rights of utilization (closed as opposed to free access)”. But more research is needed to ascertain whether such observations represent historically important mechanisms – for instance, boundaries between Bandkeramik groups – or whether the suggested correlations are merely the result of wishful thinking. F.-R. Herrmann (1976, 161) refers to the presence of “typical spring sinter already in pits of the Bandkeramik” at Bad Nauheim and considers it as possible evidence for Early Neolithic salt production. Inasmuch as five of the six major salt deposits between Rhine, Weser and Main are located in the vicinity of Early Neolithic settlements that were inhabited for long periods, and because particularly high-quality ceramics are found “almost exclusively” in the immediate neighborhood of salt resources, J. Kneipp considers it very probable that Central Europe’s first farmers produced salt at those places (Kneipp 1998, 53f, plates 6 8, 7 3, 8 5, 8, 10, Map 4, 160). Likewise, the large number of Bandkeramik settlements in the region of Schwäbisch Hall (Württemberg) has been hypothesized to be connected to salt production, although evidence of salt production at Schwäbisch Hall is documented only for later periods (Simon, T. 1995, 36, fig. 16). During the period of the Stroke-Ornamented Pottery Culture in the first half of the fifth millennium cal. BC, the concentration of Bohemian-manufactured marble armlets in Central Germany might be interpreted as circumstantial evidence that salt was already being produced at or around Halle on the Saale and traded to Bohemia (Zápotocká 1984, 95f; Lüning 1997, 25). More skepticism appears warranted with respect to hypotheses concerning Neolithic salt mining at Hallstatt (Salzkammergut, Upper Austria); an antler pickaxe found in 1838 in the Kaiser-Josef-Tunnel, as well as finds of Neolithic stone axes, flint and ceramics in the surroundings, in particular at the locality of Lahn (Hell 1926, 321f, fig. 1 1-5, 7, 340f; Hell 1933; Hell 1958; Hofmann, Morton 1928, 98f; Paret 1928, 9; Freydank 1929, 165; Klein 1949–1951, 317f; Pittioni 1954, 638; Morton 1959, 13ff, 51ff; Nenquin 1961, 51f, 58; Penninger 1981, 58; Barth, Lobisser 2002, 8; Kowarik, Reschreiter 2008), can hardly be interpreted as sufficient documentation of Neolithic salt exploitation (Mahr 1914, 16; Mahr 1925, 14f; Kyrle 1924, 424; Bayer 1929, 14f). Significantly, a distribution map of stone axes in Upper Austria does not reflect any unusual concentrations of stone axes within the Hallstatt region (Reitinger 1968, 126f, map supplement “Urgeschichte I”). The interpretation of a Neolithic pebble tool (Geröllkeule) from Widdershausen (Hesse) as a working implement for saltmaking is not very convincing either (Gensen et al. 1969-1970, 140). 3 The numerous additional prehistoric finds in the surroundings of the saline springs of Sülbeck and Salzderhelden as well as the nearby fortified hilltop site of Vogelsburg were interpreted by F. Geschwendt (Geschwendt 1951; Geschwendt 1954, 32f, fig. 18, 53ff, 125ff, fig. 5 11c, 63, 135ff, fig. 4 13, 22, 66-71; Geschwendt 1958, 54f, fig. 1; Geschwendt 1972, 23, 54, 65, 92) as connected to brine exploitation. 4 The 1993 excavation at this Late Bandkeramik settlement did not uncover any “features indicating salt exploitation already during this early date” (Trier 1993, 33; cf. Mesch 1994, 2f). 228 It might be useful to compare this scarce evidence to what southeast Europe has to offer. Saline springs in the eastern bend of the Carpathian Mountains may have been utilized since the beginning of the Neolithic; this possibility is, for instance, being debated with regard to the rich and highly intense spring of Slatina Mare near Solca in Bukovina, Romania, where briquetage has been found in a Cucuteni B context of the first half of the fourth millennium cal. BC (Nicola et al. 2007). As evidence for an even earlier use, scholars point to a securely dated stratum of material from the Criş culture (first half of the sixth millennium cal. BC) that allegedly also contained briquetage, which, however, “could not be fully investigated because of the heavy inflow of water from the salt spring” (Ursulescu 1977, 316). Even more uncertain is the interpretation of surface finds from the neighboring site of Cacica (Andronic 1989). The earliest signs of human presence at the salt spring of Slatina Veche near Cucuieţi belong to the Starčevo-Criş culture (Munteanu et al. 2007). Early saltmaking without the use of briquetage is supposed to have taken place at Poiana Slatinei near Lunca, where combustion remains in the vicinity of a salt spring have been dated to the first half of the sixth millennium cal. BC (Weller, Dumitroaia 2005; Weller et al. 2007). In addition, presumed briquetage finds from the surroundings of the rock-salt deposit at Tuzla in northeastern Bosnia have been assigned to the Vinča culture, which flourished during the second half of the sixth millennium cal. BC (Benac 1978). Close to the western Black Sea coast salt production started at Provadia-Solnitsata not far from Varna during the Karanovo III-IV period around 5300 cal. BC (Nikolov 2009 and Nikolov 2010).

Middle Neolithic salt production So far, thus, the earliest secure evidence for saltmaking in Central Europe is the above-mentioned Middle Neolithic briquetage from Galicja, where a salty Miocene formation at the northern edge of the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains presents conditions favorable to the development of saline springs (Bukowski 1986, 33ff, figs. 1-5; Bukowski 1988, 111ff, figs. 1-5). Features and finds from the site of Barycz can be assigned to the Pleszów group of the Lengyel culture, which developed in the mid-fifth millennium cal. BC (Kamieńska, Kozłowski 1970, 105ff, fig. 27 4, 8, 30; Kamieńska, Kozłowski 1990, 36f, fig. 3, pl. 14 3-5; Jodłowski 1971; Jodłowski 1975, 85, fig. 50a-b; Jodłowski 1977, 86ff, fig. 2, 7a-e; Jodłowski 1984, 159ff, fig. 3; Jodłowski 1988, 145f; Jażdżewski 1984, 141; Bukowski 1986, 44ff, figs. 7-9a-h; Bukowski 1988, 116ff, figs. 6-8 1; Machnik 1988, 146ff).5 J. Lichardus (1976, 147f, fig. 56) has argued that in Eastern Central Europe, the Tulpenbecher of the Michelsberg culture were connected to salt production as were some pointed base vessels of Lengyel type. However, after a critical evaluation of the evidence presented, it seems to be rather unlikely that they were used to produce standardized salt cakes (Formsalzbehälter) or even as salt containers. In the Jura mountains of Franche-Comté (France), a conspicuous concentration of fortified settlements at the turn of the fifth to the fourth millennium BC has been identified around two salt deposits that later on became important salterns, Salins-les-Bains and Lons-le-Saunier (Pétrequin et al. 2001, 38f, fig. 2). However, their relevance to the production and distribution of salt is still under debate.

Late Neolithic salt production The saline springs around Halle on the Saale, where salt production culminated during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age (fig. 3), were obviously used for the first time during the Late Neolithic. Moreover, in 1987, D.W. Müller (1987; 1988: 91ff, fig. 1) published information about remains of briquetage of the Bernburg culture from the site of Langer Berg in the Dölauer Heide to the west of Halle on the Saale.6 Neolithic earthworks are occasionally considered to be associated with salt, but clarification is lacking with regard to their possible function in obtaining and distributing this desirable product. For 5 Absolute dating documented in Breunig 1987, 154ff. M. Godłowska (1994, 35, 38, fig. 8) emphasizes that “the expansion of the settlement of Pleszów was connected with the production of salt from the saline springs at the opposite bank of the River Vistula.” 6 H. Behrens and E. Schröter (1980, 20) refer to fragments of briquetage within the settlement, formerly assumed to date to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Age (see also Müller, D. 1987, 144). 229 Fig. 3. Prehistoric topography of Halle on the Saale. Grey = Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age briquetage scatters. Dark grey dots = Early Iron Age cemeteries. Light grey = Slav settlement sites

230 instance, according to B. Uhl, the Beusterburg in the northern part of the Hildesheim Forest (Lower Saxony), “is to be brought into close relation with the Heyersum saline spring” which is located nearby in a landscape rich with finds and ancient settlements (Uhl 1951, 4).7 Several fragments of briquetage from the Late Neolithic earthwork of Großobringen, located at the northern side of the Großer Ettersberg Mountain in Thuringia, possibly indicate local salt production during the Bernburg period and led D. Walter to the conclusion that “apparently saltmaking provided the basis for the obvious significance of that earthwork within the greater region” (Walter, D. 1991, 34, 54; cf. Müller, D. 1990, 278). Likewise, there are several salt springs in close vicinity to the earthworks at Northeim-Kiessee (Siegmund 1993, 20) and Salzderhelden-Kleiner Heldenberg, both situated in the southern part of Lower Saxony (Heege et al. 1990-1991, 86).8

Final Neolithic salt production The location of a barrow cemetery of the Corded Ware culture (mid-third millennium cal. BC) on the Solberg (“Salt Mountain”) in the immediate vicinity of a salt spring east of Auleben in Thuringia suggests that saltmaking was initiated at the southern edge of the Goldene Aue Plain during the Final Neolithic (Riehm 1954, 151f; Riehm 1960, 205f; von Brunn 1959, 111, n. 61; Nenquin 1961, 42, no. 2; Laux 1971, 157, n. 6; Walter, H.-H. 1986, 6; Emons, Walter 1988, 89f). In addition, burials of the Corded Ware culture “immediately west” of the brine spring at Artern in Thuringia are also considered as proving the existence of saltmaking at that place during the Final Neolithic (Riehm 1954, 151; Nenquin 1961, 41f, no. 1). Two fragments of ceramic cylinders (briquetage) from a pit “to be considered related to the ritual of the dead” of the Ammensleben group near Schöningen in Lower Saxony at the southeastern edge of the Elm Hills might be evidence for saltmaking in this ancient salt-producing region by people of the Schönfeld culture, which flourished around the mid-third millennium cal. BC (Thieme, Maier 1995, 155ff, fig. 155).

Salt Trade The salt trade was “one of the great sources of communication between peoples” (Hahn, Thomsen 1928, 193); indeed, some authors consider the need of salt as the origin of trade altogether (Hehn 1873, 3f; Zycha 1918, 76; Riehm 1962, 360; Bloch 1963, 92f; Filip 1969, 1195, 1197; Emons, Walter 1984, 34; Kossack 1995, 42). The regular supply of this product – both desired and scarce due to the limited number of accessible deposits – required extensive and long-lasting communication network. It is generally believed that salt trade was embedded in the peaceful “exchange of useful objects” (Stjernquist 1985, 56). But in addition to its purely economic function of satisfying the “basic needs of ‘economic man’” (Renfrew 1993, 9), it comprised an important social aspect, as symbolic activities at periodic gatherings were needed to ensure the stability of the communication networks. In this sense, the discussion of prehistoric exchange must take into account such social categories as reciprocity and redistribution (Stjernquist 1985, 60ff). Irrespective of the specific type of exchange system, the value of salt increased considerably in proportion to the distance from its place of production. Even in prehistoric times, prices were determined to a lesser degree by the cost of production than by the cost of transport, particularly overland transport. There was more profit for the (intermediary) trader than for the producer (Adshead 1992, 20; Choroškevič et al. 1995, col. 1325; Danielewski 1995, 165; Thiemer-Sachse 1995, 150). It is extremely difficult to evaluate the evidence for salt trade in prehistory. Aside from a locus in Strabo (Geogr. III,5.11) mentioning Phoenicians who exchanged imported salt as well as bronze objects and ceramics for tin, lead and hides in the Kassiterides – probably meaning the coastal regions of Galicia in northwestern Spain or Cornwall (Britain) – there are hardly any written documents available 7 On the dating of the Beusterburg, see Heine 1981 and Leiber 1987, 29ff. On the saltern at Heyersum, which was exploited from 1592 to 1876, see Emons, Walter 1988, 125f. 8 Regarding a connection of Neolithic and later earthworks or fortifications with salt production in the vicinity of Marais Poitevin (dép. Vendée), see Weller 1996, 112 n. 4. The idea, proposed by O. Weller (1996, 113), of a causal connection between the salt trade, the prosperity of western European coastal regions, and the rise of the Megalithic Culture in those regions appears noteworthy. 231 (Freydank 1929, 164; Nenquin 1961, 146; Emons, Walter 1984, 49; Adshead 1992, 6).9 Furthermore, it is rarely possible to ascertain the geographical extent of the marketing systems of salt-producing places, some of which quite probably enjoyed, at least temporarily, a quasi-monopoly over the salt trade within the surrounding region. However, the dispersion of briquetage at sites where the natural geological and hydrological environment did not permit salt production might be interpreted as an indication of trade. Briquetage vessels reached such places presumably as containers of salt cakes. The place of origin of the briquetage can usually be determined, for each individual saltworks used briquetage vessels of identical form and size as standardized and easily accountable trading units. Finds of imported objects within a salt-producing region may also be interpreted as evidence for salt trading. It should be observed, however, that salt was often not a region’s only trading commodity; in the southeastern foothills of the Harz Mountains in Central Germany, for instance, copper mining is likely to have been at least as important as salt production throughout the prehistory. Moreover, the reconstruction of “salt routes” based on the distribution patterns of archaeological finds appears problematic, given that objects, especially prestige objects, cannot be assumed to have moved along a linear trajectory from their place of production to their final owners, but are likely to have been handed down via a multitude of relays before reaching their final context of deposition. In addition, the trading routes in question, which were generally predetermined by geographical conditions, were used for transportation not only of the much-desired salt but also of numerous other products. Consequently the relative extent of salt trading is hard to evaluate in each single case. The characteristic and extensive distribution of Neolithic Spondylus artifacts (Müller, J. 1997, 92, fig. 1) is of particular cultural-historical interest and has frequently been interpreted as evidence for Early Neolithic trading activities along the Danube. In the same vein, B. Gräslund considers Spondylus shells as imports from the eastern Mediterranean region, but he explains their occurrence primarily as incidental by-products of a systematic salt trade between the Central European Neolithic, where salt availability was supposedly poor, and the marine salt production places in the Mediterranean (Gräslund 1972-1973, 284ff, fig. 2; Lund Hansen 1977, 165). This remarkable hypothesis has remained largely unnoticed, and unfortunately it has not yet been verified. Future research along those lines should pay particular attention to the possibility of a relationship between Neolithic salt production in Romania, Galicja, and Central Germany and the postulated bipartite distribution zones of the Spondylus finds; for according to J. Müller (1997), the circulation of Spondylus from the Adriatic to the Western Balkans and Central Europe started earlier than in the bartering region comprising Eastern Bulgaria and the Lower Danube. The opposite direction of salt trading is also being debated. E. Bánffy (2004, 390f), for instance, suggests that salt from Westphalia and Central Germany was bartered for radiolarite (chert) from Szentgál in Transdanubia (Hungary) during the Early Neolithic. Even earlier, salt trade is supposed to have played an important part in the Starčevo-Körös-Criş culture, because the central area of this culture belongs to those regions of the Balkans where salt is scarce, necessitating imports from the salt-rich border regions (Tasić 2000). Two clusters in the distribution of Neolithic marble armlets – one in the region of the Late Stroke- Ornamented Pottery culture of central and northwestern Bohemia on the upper Elbe and its tributaries, the other in the area of the Rössen culture of Central Germany on the middle Elbe and Saale Rivers – has made M. Zápotocká (1984, 73, figs. 6, 9-10) to search for an explanation of this conspicuous find distribution, especially since conical drill cores, which are evidence for the production of such objects, were found only in the region of Kolín. Petrographic analysis indicates that the marble for these armlets originated from the Neolithic quarries at Bíly kámen (“White Stone”) near the town of Sázava, as well as from other deposits of crystalline limestones and dolomites within the basin of the Sázava River (Zápotocká 1984, 85ff). The armlets were probably manufactured in the vicinity of the quarries and may have been exported to Central Germany via the Kulmer Steig (Waldhauser 1990, 93f; Simon, Hauswald 1995, 72, 98). M. Zápotocká considers the salt produced around Halle on the Saale as a likely exchange product for the marble armlets of the Bohemian Stroke-Ornamented Pottery culture (Zápotocká 1984,

9 For the maritime tin trading routes in antiquity generally, see Timpe 1989, 308, 320f, 323ff. 232 95f).10 This region – not only the present urban area of Halle on the Saale, but also its wider compass – is known for numerous brine springs and the location of saline plants (Matthias 1961, 195f, fig. 28f), and it appears possible that several places produced salt at various scales during that time. A similar interpretation is being discussed with respect to the Lengyel culture in western Lesser Poland during the fifth millennium cal. BC. Even though until now the export of salt out of the Vistula River basin cannot be documented, it appears likely that salt served as an equivalent for raw materials such as jasper, radiolarite, and obsidian that were imported from the “ulterior Carpathian region” (Jodłowski 1984, 161). By contrast to such imports, local Jurassic flint and chocolate flint from the northern margins of the Świętokrzyskie (“Holy Cross”) Mountains are amply represented in raw-material assemblages at contemporaneous sites in Lesser Poland (Kaczanowska 1985, 73ff, especially map 4).

Summary and perspective The high value of salt in prehistoric Central Europe was based on its value as a physiological and nutritional necessity and its numerous possibilities of application. With regard to the methods of obtaining salt, evaporation of salt from inland sources originated earlier than rock salt mining, which in turn preceded the rise of sea-salt extraction on the coasts of the North Sea and the English Channel. The earliest evidence of salt evaporation is documented in western Galicja (Barycz) during the Middle Neolithic (Lengyel culture) and in Central Germany (Halle) in the later Neolithic (Bernburg culture). During the Early Bronze Age, the salt-producing region along the middle reaches of the Saale River around Halle became increasingly prominent, and at the latest during the Urnfield culture rock-salt mining was initiated at Hallstatt around the 12th century cal. BC. A general expansion of salt production can be noticed in Central Europe during the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, when salt production started in Lorraine and the coastal areas. Aside from these areas, the major Central European salt production places of the La Tène period were Dürrnberg, Bad Nauheim and Schwäbisch Hall. In the wake of Roman expansion, the Central European salt production and exchange system collapsed to a large extent, with the apparent exception of Schwäbisch Hall and some coastal places. After the Migration Period (4th–7th centuries AD), the slow and gradual recovery of the Central European salt industry provided the basis for a production and trading system that continued into Early Modern times. Salt-producing places frequently developed into centers of economic power, diversified craft activities, and long-distance trade; the rich grave furnishings in the Eastern Alpine mining centers of Hallstatt and Dürrnberg highlight the crucial role of the mine workers as creators as well as beneficiaries of this prosperity. So far, hard evidence for prehistoric salt trade is available only in singular cases. Nevertheless are there circumstantial indications that, e.g., Bohemia was engaged in with Central Germany and the Eastern Alpine region; the foothills of the Alps in southern Germany also appear to have been “salted” by the alpine salt mines, whereas Schwäbisch Hall played a prominent role in southwestern Germany. In the coastal regions of Britain as well as on the continent, salt trade with the interior can be established. Ethnographic analogies (cf. review in Saile 2000, 190ff) can broaden our horizons and enable us to achieve a better understanding of prehistoric exchange by illuminating, among other things, an immense variety of possibilities for obtaining and distributing salt. The emphasis in future research should be directed towards a comparative, interregional and border-crossing evaluation of Central European salt-producing places, based on currently available information. This is the only feasible avenue toward a better appraisal of the importance of the individual salt places, promising to give due consideration of their specific local particularities at the same time as providing insight into their economic cycles and answering deceptively simple questions about their duration, scale of production, and quality of finds. One may hope that such a reappraisal, especially when additionally informed by an ethnoarchaeological perspective, will produce further knowledge concerning the technical aspects of salt production. Once this comprehensive review is completed, it should be followed up by new, issue-driven research excavations. 10 According to W. Matthias (1961, 122), briquetage fragments from the Rössen cemetery, where 16 of the total number of 55 armlets belonging to the ornaments of women and children were found, are not to be connected with the Neolithic graves; but this statement should be revisited in the light of Zápotocká’s research. 233 References

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