DOCSLIB.ORG

Females Manipulate Behavior of Caring Males Via Prenatal Maternal Effects

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Females Manipulate Behavior of Caring Males Via Prenatal Maternal Effects Females manipulate behavior of caring males via prenatal maternal effects Matthieu Paqueta,1 and Per T. Smisetha aInstitute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, United Kingdom Edited by Tom Tregenza, University of Exeter, Cornwall, Penryn, United Kingdom, and accepted by Editorial Board Member Douglas Futuyma May 11, 2017 (received for review December 1, 2016) In species with biparental care, there is sexual conflict as each (9–11), thereby providing a potential tool for manipulating the parent is under selection to minimize its personal effort by shifting behavior of caring males. For example, by producing smaller eggs, as much as possible of the workload over to the other parent. females could redirect the costs of parental care from the prenatal Most theoretical and empirical work on the resolution of this period, when they pay the full costs of egg production, toward the conflict has focused on strategies used by both parents, such as postnatal period, when the costs of rearing young are shared with negotiation. However, because females produce the eggs, this the male (9). Alternatively, females may deposit yolk androgens might afford females with an ability to manipulate male behavior that modulate offspring begging behavior in a way that alters the via maternal effects that alter offspring phenotypes. To test this male’s perception of offspring need, thereby increasing male hypothesis, we manipulated the prenatal conditions (i.e., presence contributions to care (9–11). Thus, if prenatal maternal effects or absence of the male), performed a cross-fostering experiment, influence the resolution of sexual conflict over care, this would and monitored the subsequent effects of prenatal conditions on introduce an asymmetry of power between the two sexes, with the Nicro- offspring and parental performance in the burying beetle female gaining the upper hand. phorus vespilloides . We found that offspring were smaller at At present, we lack conclusive evidence as to whether females hatching when females laid eggs in presence of a male, suggesting can use prenatal maternal effects to manipulate the behavior of that females invest less in eggs when expecting male assistance. caring males (12–16). A main reason for this is that it is difficult Furthermore, broods laid in the presence of a male gained more to demonstrate female manipulation, owing to several chal- weight during parental care, and they did so at the expense of lenges. First, females could manipulate males via several mech- male weight gain. Contrary to our expectations, males cared less anisms, including yolk androgens, other egg components, egg for broods laid in the presence of a male. Our results provide size, and egg coloration (4), and thus existing experimental de- experimental evidence that females can alter male behavior dur- ing breeding by adjusting maternal effects according to prenatal signs that focus on specific mechanisms risk targeting the wrong conditions. However, rather than increasing the male’s parental mechanism. Second, to demonstrate that prenatal maternal ef- effort, females appeared to suppress the male’s food consump- fects alter male behavior, it is essential to separate the effects of tion, thereby leaving more food for their brood. prenatal conditions from those of postnatal conditions. Third, there may be a limited time window for maternal manipulation, food consumption | manipulation | maternal effects | parental care | because maternal effects on offspring behavior often wane as – sexual conflict offspring develop (17 19). Fourth, in addition to sexual conflict over parental care, there may be sexual conflict over food con- n species where parents cooperate to care for their joint off- sumption from shared resources (20, 21). Finally, to demonstrate Ispring (as long as there is scope for divorce and/or remating following the partner’s death), there will be sexual conflict over Significance parental care, with each parent being under selection to mini- mize its own effort and shift as much as possible of the workload In biparental species, sexual conflict arises as each parent at- to its partner (1). Previous empirical and theoretical work has tempts to minimize its personal effort. Most work has focused focused mainly on three behavioral mechanisms that may me- on how this conflict is resolved through symmetrical decisions diate the resolution of this conflict (1, 2). First, incomplete between parents. We investigated whether females can influ- compensation, or negotiation, occurs when each parent increases ence male decisions by altering the offspring’s phenotype via its level of care in response to a reduction in its partner’s con- the eggs. We manipulated the prenatal presence of the male, tribution, but such that it does not fully correspond to its part- performed a cross-fostering experiment, and monitored the ner’s reduction (3). Second, matching occurs when each parent subsequent effects on offspring and parent performance. Off- adjusts its level of care to its partner’s contribution by matching spring laid in presence of a male were smaller at hatching. In any increase or reduction in its partner’s contribution in the same addition, males lost more weight when with larvae laid in direction as its partner (4). Third, sealed bid models assume that presence of a male. Our results show that females can manip- each parent makes an initial fixed decision about how much care ulate male behavior, suggesting that prenatal maternal effects to provide irrespective of its partner’s decision (5). There is some can play an important role in the resolution of sexual conflict support for all three mechanisms from experimental studies on between parents. birds and other taxa (6–8); however, a meta-analysis of mate Author contributions: M.P. and P.T.S. designed research; M.P. performed research; M.P. removal and handicapping experiments on birds found the analyzed data; and M.P. and P.T.S. wrote the paper. greatest overall support for negotiation (2). The authors declare no conflict of interest. Our current understanding of the resolution of sexual conflict This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. T.T. is a guest editor invited by the Editorial suggest that males and females use the same behavioral strategies Board. for resolving conflict (e.g., negotiation) (9). However, given that Data deposition: The results from this paper are available through Dryad (doi:10.5061/ females produce the eggs, they might use their control over egg dryad.8424c). production as a mechanism for biasing conflict resolution in their 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: [email protected]. favor. In many species, females deposit hormones and/or nutrients This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10. into the eggs that alter the offspring’s behavior or development 1073/pnas.1619759114/-/DCSupplemental. 6800–6805 | PNAS | June 27, 2017 | vol. 114 | no. 26 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1619759114 Downloaded by guest on September 30, 2021 female manipulation, it is crucial to document fitness benefits to females and/or offspring and fitness costs to males (4). Here we report an experiment on the burying beetle Nicro- phorus vespilloides, an insect exhibiting facultative biparental care (22). This species is ideal for studying female manipulation of male behavior because it allows us to address all five chal- lenges listed above. First, we used a new experimental approach in which we targeted prenatal environmental conditions expec- ted to influence female decisions on maternal effects and then monitored downstream consequences for offspring size at hatch- ing, male and female care, and male, female, and offspring fitness (9). Here we targeted a prenatal environmental condition that is essential for female manipulation of males: the presence or ab- sence of the male during egg laying. Second, we conducted a cross-fostering experiment to separate prenatal and postnatal effects by giving each pair of beetles an experimental brood of newly hatched larvae derived from one of our two treatment groups. In one treatment, larvae derived from eggs laid when the male was present during egg laying, whereas in the other treat- ment, larvae derived from eggs laid when the male was absent during egg laying. Third, we recorded parental behaviors over 3 consecutive days, covering the full duration of parental care from hatching until nutritional independence (23). Fourth, we investigated sexual conflict over both parental care and food consumption from a resource shared by both parents and their Fig. 1. Maternal effect of the presence of the male before hatching on offspring (i.e., a small vertebrate carcass). To this end, we brood weight at hatching. Raw data and associated mean ± SE values are recorded the body mass of males and females before and after shown for brood weight of larvae laid in absence of a male (black open breeding. Finally, we monitored subsequent effects on post- circles; n = 30) and brood weight of larvae laid in presence of a male (red breeding survival of males and females as well as offspring filled circles; n = 31). (Inset) Predicted mean ± SE values from the final model. growth and survival across different life stages. Each experimental brood comprised 20 larvae mixed from different donor pairs of the same prehatching treatment that were not the larvae’s foster Results parents. We weighed the 20 larvae together before placing them on the We found evidence for a prenatal maternal effect on offspring carcass as a measure of prenatal maternal investment. size at hatching owing to the presence or absence of the male during laying. Females that laid eggs in the presence of a male caring males by suppressing male food consumption from the partner produced larvae that were 3.4% lighter at hatching shared resource. compared with larvae from females who laid eggs in the absence We found no evidence that maternal effects influenced the of a male (estimated mean ± SE, 1.85 ± 0.826 mg; F = 5.02; 1,59 behavior of caring females.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Multiple Mating and Its Relationship to Alternative Modes of Gestation in Male-Pregnant Versus Female-Pregnant fish Species
    Multiple mating and its relationship to alternative modes of gestation in male-pregnant versus female-pregnant fish species John C. Avise1 and Jin-Xian Liu Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697 Contributed by John C. Avise, September 28, 2010 (sent for review August 20, 2010) We construct a verbal and graphical theory (the “fecundity-limitation within which he must incubate the embryos that he has sired with hypothesis”) about how constraints on the brooding space for em- one or more mates (14–17). This inversion from the familiar bryos probably truncate individual fecundity in male-pregnant and situation in female-pregnant animals apparently has translated in female-pregnant species in ways that should differentially influence some but not all syngnathid species into mating systems char- selection pressures for multiple mating by males or by females. We acterized by “sex-role reversal” (18, 19): a higher intensity of then review the empirical literature on genetically deduced rates of sexual selection on females than on males and an elaboration of fi multiple mating by the embryo-brooding parent in various fish spe- sexual secondary traits mostly in females. For one such pipe sh cies with three alternative categories of pregnancy: internal gesta- species, researchers also have documented that the sexual- tion by males, internal gestation by females, and external gestation selection gradient for females is steeper than that for males (20). More generally, fishes should be excellent subjects for as- (in nests) by males. Multiple mating by the brooding gender was fl common in all three forms of pregnancy.
    [Show full text]
  • Phylogenetic Perspectives in the Evolution of Parental Care in Ray-Finned Fishes
    Evolution, 59(7), 2005, pp. 1570±1578 PHYLOGENETIC PERSPECTIVES IN THE EVOLUTION OF PARENTAL CARE IN RAY-FINNED FISHES JUDITH E. MANK,1,2 DANIEL E. L. PROMISLOW,1 AND JOHN C. AVISE1 1Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602 2E-mail: [email protected] Abstract. Among major vertebrate groups, ray-®nned ®shes (Actinopterygii) collectively display a nearly unrivaled diversity of parental care activities. This fact, coupled with a growing body of phylogenetic data for Actinopterygii, makes these ®shes a logical model system for analyzing the evolutionary histories of alternative parental care modes and associated reproductive behaviors. From an extensive literature review, we constructed a supertree for ray-®nned ®shes and used its phylogenetic topology to investigate the evolution of several key reproductive states including type of parental care (maternal, paternal, or biparental), internal versus external fertilization, internal versus external gestation, nest construction behavior, and presence versus absence of sexual dichromatism (as an indicator of sexual selection). Using a comparative phylogenetic approach, we critically evaluate several hypotheses regarding evolutionary pathways toward parental care. Results from maximum parsimony reconstructions indicate that all forms of parental care, including paternal, biparental, and maternal (both external and internal to the female reproductive tract) have arisen repeatedly and independently during ray-®nned ®sh evolution. The most common evolutionary transitions were from external fertilization directly to paternal care and from external fertilization to maternal care via the intermediate step of internal fertilization. We also used maximum likelihood phylogenetic methods to test for statistical correlations and contingencies in the evolution of pairs of reproductive traits.
    [Show full text]
  • Female Brain Size and Parental Care in Carnivores (Mammal) JOHN L
    Proc. Natd. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 91, pp. 5495-5497, June 1994 Evolution Female brain size and parental care in carnivores (mammal) JOHN L. GITTLEMAN Department of Zoology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0810 Communicated by George C. Williams, February 24, 1994 (receivedfor review October 12, 1993) ABSTRACT Comparative studies indicate that species dif- 26) and African lions (27), a mother is assisted by multiple ferences in mammalian brain size relate to body size, ecology, males and/or females. Communal duties include similar and life-history traits. Previous analyses failed to show intra- parental behaviors as shown in biparental systems, except sexual or behavioral patterns ofbrain size in mammals. Across that communal nursing is an added feature occasionally the terrestrial Carnivora, I find to the contrary. Differences in shown in some species. A crucial difference is that in both female, but not male, brain size associate with a fundamental biparental and communal species, parental care by an adult ecological and evolutionary characteristic of female behavior. other than the mother confers significant reduction in time Other factors equal, females that provide the sole parental care and energy ofmaternal feeding, guarding, and den attendance have larger brains than those of biparental or communal (28-30). Of the three parental systems in carnivores, single species. For females, more parental investment accompanies female care reflects the most intensive behavioral and ener- larger brains. Future comparative studies of mammalian brain getic demands. size must recognize that some patterns arise independently in Thus, assuming that brain size is associated with increased the two sexes. information processing (1, 4-6, 31), it is predicted that females of species that care for young exclusively on their Among mammal species, brain weight reflects differences in own will have larger brains relative to their body weight than body size, ecology, and life histories (1).
    [Show full text]
  • Benefits and Costs of Parental Care (Ed NJR)
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Digital.CSIC Chapter 3: Benefits and costs of parental care (Ed NJR) Carlos Alonso‐Alvarez and Alberto Velando 3.1. Introduction In order to explain the huge variation in parental behaviour evolutionary biologists have traditionally used a cost‐benefit approach, which enables them to analyse behavioural traits in terms of the positive and negative effects on the transmission of parental genes to the next generation. Empirical evidence supports the presence of a number of different trade‐offs between the costs and benefits associated with parental care (Stearns 1992; Harshman and Zera 2007), although the mechanisms they are governed by are still the object of debate. In fact, Clutton‐Brock’s (1991) seminal book did not address the mechanistic bases of parental care and most work in this field has been conducted over the last 20 years. Research on mechanisms has revealed that to understand parental care behaviour we need to move away from traditional models based exclusively on currencies of energy/time. Nevertheless, despite repeated claims, the integration of proximate mechanisms into ultimate explanations is currently far from successful (e.g. Barnes and Partridge 2003; McNamara and Houston 2009). In this chapter, nonetheless, we aim to describe the most relevant advances in this field. In this chapter, we employ Clutton‐Brock’s (1991) definitions of the costs and benefits of parental care. Costs imply a reduction in the number of offspring other than those that are currently receiving care (i.e. parental investment, Trivers 1972), whereas benefits are increased fitness in the offspring currently being cared for.
    [Show full text]
  • Paternal Care and Brood Reduction in a Pipefish
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Göteborgs universitets publikationer - e-publicering och e-arkiv Paternal care and brood reduction in a pipefish Gry Sagebakken Institutionen för biologi och miljövetenskap Naturvetenskapliga fakulteten Akademisk avhandling för filosofie doktorsexamen i Ekologisk zoologi, som med tillstånd från Naturvetenskapliga fakulteten kommer att offentligt försvaras fredag den 23 november 2012 kl. 10.00 i Föreläsningssalen, Institutionen för biologi och miljövetenskap, Zoologihuset, Medicinaregatan 18A, Göteborg. ISBN: 978-91-628-8532-8 Paternal care and brood reduction in a pipefish Gry Sagebakken Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Section of Animal Ecology University of Gothenburg Box 463 SE-405 30 Gothenburg SWEDEN E-mail: [email protected] Copyright © Gry Sagebakken, 2012 Published papers in this dissertation are reprinted with kind permission from the publishers: Paper I – The Royal Society Publishing Paper II – Oxford University Press ISBN: 978-91-628-8532-8 Printed by Ale Tryckteam Göteborg, 2012 Gry Sagebakken, 2012. Paternal care and brood reduction in a pipefish Abstract From an evolutionary and adaptive perspective, the occurrence and extent of parental care in animals (investment in offspring beyond the genetic contribution) is expected to depend on an optimal (fitness-maximizing) balance of its costs and benefits. Males of the sex-role reversed broad- nosed pipefish, Syngnathus typhle, which care for eggs and embryos and may perform brood reduction, are particularly interesting in this respect. In this thesis, I explore paternal care in the broad-nosed pipefish with special focus on the causes and consequences of brood reduction.
    [Show full text]
  • The Relation to Risky Sexual Behaviors and Relationship Style in Emerging Adults Nicole M
    Eastern Michigan University DigitalCommons@EMU Senior Honors Theses Honors College 2013 Parental Care, Control, and Communication About Sex: The Relation to Risky Sexual Behaviors and Relationship Style in Emerging Adults Nicole M. Richards Follow this and additional works at: http://commons.emich.edu/honors Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Richards, Nicole M., "Parental Care, Control, and Communication About Sex: The Relation to Risky Sexual Behaviors and Relationship Style in Emerging Adults" (2013). Senior Honors Theses. 345. http://commons.emich.edu/honors/345 This Open Access Senior Honors Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors College at DigitalCommons@EMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Senior Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@EMU. For more information, please contact lib- [email protected]. Parental Care, Control, and Communication About Sex: The Relation to Risky Sexual Behaviors and Relationship Style in Emerging Adults Abstract The er lationship between a parent and child is one of the longest and most influential relationships in an individual's life. Among many child outcomes, prior research suggests that parents have the ability to influence their children's sexual decisions. Parent-child communication about sex and the climate of the parent -child relationship may be important predictors of later sexual behavior and attitudes. Therefore, the purpose of the present study wa~ to examine the relationship between parental care and control, parent communication about sex and current sexual behavior and attitudes in a sample of emerging adults ages 18-28. Results show that an adult who grew up with more caring and less controlling parents and who talked about sex with their parent were most likely to have better quality relationships and to a limited extent, engage in safer sexual behaviors.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter Seven Evolution of Parental Care in Frogs
    Chapter Seven McDiarmid, R. W. 1978. Evolutd/Dn of parental care in frogs. Pp. 127-147, In The development of behavior: comparative and evolutionary Evolution of Parental aspects (G. M. Burghardt and M. Bekoff, eds.), Garland Care in Frogs STPM Press, New York,. 429 pp. ROYW. MCDIARMID Department of Biology University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 The implications of increased reproductive effort and parental investment and the manner in which such activities influence the evolution of life history strategies have received considerable attention in recent Uterature (Williams, 1966; Trivers, 1972; Wilson, 1975; Dawkinsand CarUsle, 1976; Stearns, 1976; Maynard Smith, 1977). Most of the supportive data for hypotheses regarding these phenomena come from detailed studies of the reproductive ecology and behavior of social insects, birds, and mammals (reviewed in Wilson, 1976; Thornhill, 1976), although some studies have focused on other groups (e.g., Wilbur, 1977). Salthe and Mecham (1974) summarized the available Uterature on amphibian reproductive patterns and commented on the complexity of the situation in frogs as compared to that of salamanders and caecilians. While some of the complexity of frog reproductive patterns certainly is attributable to the overall diversity of the group, it reflects in part the inadequacy of available information. With the exception of Crump's work (1974), no detailed studies of the reproductive ecology of complex frogtommunities (those which are most likely to contain species with some form of parental care, e.g., tropical forest communities) from which general patterns can be drawn exist. Instead, we must deal with a woefully inadequate literature of anecdotal and often conflicting data about a group of organisms that probably exhibits the greatest ai'ray of reproductive modes found in any vertebrate class.
    [Show full text]
  • Noise During Mouthbrooding Impairs Maternal Care Behaviors and Juvenile Development and Alters Brain Transcriptomes in the African Cichlid Fish Astatotilapia Burtoni
    Received: 12 May 2020 Revised: 6 August 2020 Accepted: 7 August 2020 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12692 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Noise during mouthbrooding impairs maternal care behaviors and juvenile development and alters brain transcriptomes in the African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni Julie M. Butler1,2 | Karen P. Maruska1 1Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana Abstract 2Stanford University, Biology Department, Anthropogenic noise has increased underwater ambient sound levels in the range in Stanford, California which most fishes detect and produce acoustic signals. Although the impacts of Correspondence increased background noise on fish development have been studied in a variety of Julie M. Butler, Biology Department, Stanford species, there is a paucity of information on how noise affects parental care. University, 371 Jane Stanford Way, Gilbert 304, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA. Mouthbrooding is an energetically costly form of parental care in which the brooding Email: [email protected] fish carries developing larvae in the buccal cavity for the duration of development. In Funding information the African cichlid Astatotilapia burtoni, females carry their brood for 2 weeks dur- American Society of Ichthyologists and ing which time they do not eat. To test the hypothesis that increased background Herpetologists; Louisiana Board of Regents, Grant/Award Numbers: Graduate Research noise impacts maternal care behaviors and brood development, we exposed brooding Fellowship, LEQSF(2019-20)-RD-A-11; Society females to a 3-h period of excess noise (140 dB) played through an underwater for Integrative and Comparative Biology (SICB); Raney Award from ASIH; Society for speaker. Over half of noise-exposed brooding females cannibalized or pre-maturely Integrative and Comparative Biology GIAR; released their brood, but 90% of control females exhibited normal brooding behav- Animal Behavior Society; Sigma Xi; National Science Foundation, Grant/Award Numbers: iors.
    [Show full text]
  • The Evolution of Parental Care
    Volume 80, No. 1 THE QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY March 2005 THE EVOLUTION OF PARENTAL CARE Mart R. Gross Department of Zoology, University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G5 Canada e-mail: [email protected] abstract Our understanding of parental care behavior can be significantly advanced through the applica- tion of Williams’s Principle, which states that reproduction has not only a benefit but also a cost to lifetime fitness. My laboratory has formalized Williams’s Principle into the relative value theorem and found that its application to fishes, the taxa with the most diverse patterns of parental care, can help to explain which sex provides care and how much. In fishes, it is often the male that provides parental care, not because the male obtains greater benefits from this care, but probably because he pays fewer costs. Fish dynamically adjust their investment into parental care according to the number of offspring in their brood, past investment, genetic relatedness, and alternative mating opportunities, all of which affect the value of current offspring relative to potential future offspring. These results may also help us understand the joy and the challenges of parental care in humans. costs of reproduction, and a refinement of Introduction Lack’s principle” (1966b). His explicit rec- ARENTAL CARE is an excellent exam- ognition of the cost of reproduction and P ple of a behavior that would seem to ben- gene-based fitness helped lay a foundation efit the species. It promotes the survival and for current life history theory (e.g., Stearns well-being of the next generation at a cost to 1992; Roff 2002).
    [Show full text]
  • Reproduction: the Origins of Sex
    Biology Reproduction: The origins of sex Organisms reproduce in all sorts of weird and wonderful ways and scientists have just discovered that a type of fish that existed over 360 million years ago was the first to to have sexual intercourse, like many animals, including humans, still do. In this lesson you will investigate the following: • What is reproduction? • What are the different types of reproduction? • What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of these types of reproduction? So, let’s produce some answers! This is a print version of an interactive online lesson. To sign up for the real thing or for curriculum details about the lesson go to www.cosmosforschools.com Introduction: Reproduction (P1) Scientists have discovered the origins of sexual intercourse through studying fossils of armour-plated fish called antiarch placoderms that became extinct some 360 million years ago. The fish, which gave rise to all current vertebrates with jaws, including humans, were the first animals to develop specific male and female genitalia. Before the placoderms all reproduction was through external fertilisation, in which sperm and eggs are expelled into the water to unite – the way many modern fish do. But the scientists found evidence the placoderms changed all this. They discovered structures in the fossils that they interpret as bony "claspers" — male organs that penetrate the female and deliver sperm. They say the placoderms would have had sex side by side. But the discovery that the animals had penetrative sex is perhaps less surprising than the fact that the bony fishes that follow placoderms in the evolutionary tree show no evidence for internal fertilisation.
    [Show full text]
  • Reproduction in Fishes Semelparity — Spawn Once Why? I
    I. Lifetime spawning frequency Reproduction in Fishes Semelparity — spawn once Why? I. Lifetime spawning frequency Iteroparity — spawn multiple times II. Spawning cycles semelparous iteroparous III. Modes of spawning IV. Sex change and mating systems II. Spawning cycles III. Modes of reproduction • semelparous — annual (or multiples thereof) • oviparity — egg laying • iteroparous — annual, lunar, daily; & cycles within cycles • ovoviviparity — livebearing, no maternal nourishment daily • viviparity — livebearing with maternal nourishment monthly yearly Tradeoff: number vs. size of eggs/offspring Oviparity • external fertilization — gametes shed into water Number of offspring (eggs or young) and degree of parental care - most common mode Species Relative Egg or Mean # of Eggs Degree of Offspring Size or Offspring Parental Care - ancestral condition Mola mola very small 28,000,000 none, free floating pelagic eggs - simple cod very small 9,000,000 haddock very small 2,000,000 - small, but numerous eggs sturgeon medium 200,000 eggs buried, no • internal fertilization — eggs fertilized internally, but other care salmon medium 5,000 later released into water sculpin medium 140 - uncommon stickleback medium 60 high medaka medium 30 - many elasmobranchs sand shark very large 1-2 extreme: uterus w/ cannibalism - often very large eggs in cases 1 Internal Fertilization in Oviparous species Ovoviviparity • internal fertilization — eggs fertilized internally & hatch internally, but no direct maternal nourishment advantage - young are generally larger and more advanced disadvantages - low dispersal of offspring - few offspring produced - if mother dies while pregnant, offspring die, too examples: - most sharks and rays - coelacanth - rockfishes copulation: white tip reef sharks Viviparity • internal fertilization & direct maternal nourishment - ovarian fluids - placenta (some sharks) advantage - young are very large and advanced disadvantages - same as for ovoviviparity - energetic cost to mother 2 Internal Fertilization: males have an intromittent organ 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Adult Sex Ratio Influences Mate Choice in Darwin's Finches
    Adult sex ratio influences mate choice in Darwin’s finches Peter R. Granta,1 and B. Rosemary Granta aDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544 Contributed by Peter R. Grant, April 30, 2019 (sent for review March 5, 2019; reviewed by Steven R. Beissinger and Tamás Székely) The adult sex ratio (ASR) is an important property of populations. needed to validate inferences of the comparative phylogenetic Comparative phylogenetic analyses have shown that unequal sex analyses of populations within species, yet they are rare for two ratios are associated with the frequency of changing mates, reasons. First, it has been difficult to obtain accurate estimates of extrapair mating (EPM), mating system and parental care, sex- male and female numbers, and to pinpoint the time in the life specific survival, and population dynamics. Comparative demo- cycle at which sex differential survival originates, even in bird graphic analyses are needed to validate the inferences, and to populations, which are the best studied taxonomic group (13, 16– identify the causes and consequences of sex ratio inequalities in 18). Second, research on contemporary populations has been changing environments. We tested expected consequences of hampered by a relative lack of variation within and between ’ biased sex ratios in two species of Darwin s finches in the Galápagos, populations of the same species (9). Few populations have been where annual variation in rainfall, food supply, and survival is studied long enough to establish whether ASRs are stable pronounced. Environmental perturbations cause sex ratios to be- through time or whether they change, either gradually and sys- come strongly male-biased, and when this happens, females have tematically or in a fluctuating manner (7, 13, 17, 19); whether increased opportunities to choose high-quality males.
    [Show full text]