Journal of and Geothermal Research 155 (2006) 329–333 www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Short communication Abrupt climatic changes as triggering mechanisms of massive volcanic collapses

Lucia Capra

Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, CU Coyoacan, 04510, DF, Mexico Received 7 March 2006; received in revised form 31 March 2006; accepted 19 April 2006 Available online 5 June 2006

Abstract

Abrupt climate change can trigger volcanic collapses, phenomena that cause the destruction of the entire sector of a , including its summit. During the past 30 ka, major volcanic collapses occurred just after main glacial peaks that ended with rapid deglaciation. Glacial debuttressing, load discharge and fluid circulation coupled with the post-glacial increase of humidity and heavy rains can activate the failure of unstable edifices. Furthermore, significant global warming can be responsible for the collapse of ice-capped unstable volcanoes, an unpredictable hazard that in few minutes can bury inhabited areas. © 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: volcanic collapse; global warming

1. Introduction Wyk de Vries et al., 2001; Clavero et al., 2002). Several analogue experiments have been performed to demon- Although climate changes have been considered to be strate how faults can deform volcanoes that finally a triggering mechanism for large eruptions (Rampino et collapse (Van Wyk de Vries and Borgia, 1996; Lagmay et al., 1979; McGuire et al., 1997), they have not, so far, al., 2000; Acocella, 2005; Norini and Lagmay, 2005). been related to the collapse of volcanoes. Unstable This is probably a very common mechanism, but it is volcanoes, whatever the origin of their instability, can spatially localized and can occur in an indeterminate collapse from the same triggering mechanism (McGuire, period of time. In contrast, climatic changes can act 1996). Generally, the deposit originating from the widely, in a specific time span. For example, heavy rainy collapse can reflect the cause of the instability, but it is seasons characterized the last decade and were related to always difficult to determine the triggering mechanism. a change in climatic conditions due to global warming. When juvenile material ( fragments) are present Prolonged rains associated with hurricanes were the in the sequence originating from the collapse, it is cause of massive over large areas, such as obvious that magma was involved during the event, but Hurricane Mich that in 1998 devastated Central America when such features are not observable it is more difficult and promoted the flank collapse at Casita volcano in to determine why the volcano failed, and generally other Nicaragua, killing 2500 people (Scott et al., 2005). mechanisms such as volcano spreading were Here I suggest that most volcanic collapses in ice- involved (i.e. and volcanoes, Van capped volcanoes, which occurred after the main glacial peaks during the late and , were E-mail address: [email protected]. probably induced by global warming. The model here

0377-0273/$ - see front matter © 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.04.009 330 L. Capra / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 155 (2006) 329–333 presented is based on an extensive bibliographic hemisphere are documented by radiocarbon chronology investigation of all known cases of volcanic collapse on the Chilean Andean Piedmont, which shows glacial and their relations with the climatic conditions at the maxima at 13,900–14,890 (Oldest Dryas), 21,000, moment of the event. The main problem is the exact age 23,060 and 26,940 14C years BP. The last glaciation of the volcanic event, reported as an absolute date in ended with a massive collapse of ice lobes between 14 very few cases, whereas in other cases it is inferred and 13 ka 14C BP, which was also documented in both based on a stratigraphic correlation or geomorphic polar hemispheres (Lowell et al., 1995; Alley and Clark, observation and it is also generically defined. Despite 1999) and in the Huascaran tropical ice core from this uncertainty, the model presented gives an indication (Thompson et al., 2000). Although the Younger Dryas of how climatic changes can induce such phenomena. had a more regional effect, it was observed in southern This is a topic that should be thoroughly investigated to at 11,050 years BP, and penecontemporaneously prevent future hazards. in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Southern Alps of New Zealand at 10,500 14C years BP (Denton and Hendy, 2. Global climatic changes during 1994; Hughen et al., 2000). Similarly, the 7500 14C years BP glacial event (8200 calendar years ago, Alley The late Pleistocene and Holocene geological record et al., 1997) was recorded in the North Atlantic and in indicates that several volcanic collapses occurred in subtropical environments, such as Mexico (Vázquez- limited time spans at 1.4–1.3 ka BP, at 1.0–0.9 ka BP Selem and Heine, 2004). and at ∼0.8 ka BP (Fig. 1, Table 1). During this same Oxygen isotopic data for the Older and Younger period, several abrupt deglaciations were reported at Dryas from Greenland ice cores suggest that, whereas different latitudes and some of these can be correlated increasing glaciation occurred slowly, deglaciation between hemispheres (Lowell et al., 1995; Clapperton, preceded quickly (Alley et al., 1997; Alley and Clark, 1998). The ages of glaciations in the southern 1999). The rapid deglaciation is an important factor in

Fig. 1. Diagram showing the main glacial advances and retreats for the northern and southern hemispheres (modified from Clapperton, 1998; Lowell et al., 1995). Black circles correspond to the volcanoes that suffered flank collapses during Pleistocene and Holocene time. See Table 1 for volcano identification. L. Capra / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 155 (2006) 329–333 331

Table 1 Ages of volcanic collapses during Pleistocene and Holocene. To avoid inconsistency into the bibliography, some cites refer to papers where data recompilation was done, in which it is possible to found more detailed references No. Volcano name Country Elev. a.s.l. Collapse age Reference (yr BP) 1⁎ Parinacota Chile 6350 13,500 Francis and Wells (1988) 1 Parinacota Chile 6353 7790 Clavero et al. (2002) 2 Chile 5860 14,000 Clavero and Sparks (2004) 3 Socompa Chile 6052 7200 Van Wyk de Vries et al. (2001) 4 Ollague Chile 5868 11,000 Feeley et al. (1993) 5 Chile/ 6000 Holocene/Pleistocene Siebert and Simkin (2002) 6 Planchón-Peteroa Chile 4107 11,000 Siebert and Simkin (2002) 7 San Pedro-Pellado Chile/Argentina 3621 Late Holocene Siebert and Simkin (2002) 8 Chile 2979 9700 Thiele et al. (1998) 9 Chile 3164 Holocene Siebert and Simkin (2002) 10 Chile 2003 Pleistocene/Holocene Siebert and Simkin (2002) 11 Irruputunco Chile/ 5165 Holocene Siebert and Simkin (2002) 12 Bolivia 5430 12,000 Siebert and Simkin (2002) 13 TungurahuaI Ecuador 5023 14,000 Siebert and Simkin (2002) 14 Mexico 5675 11,000–15,000 Carrasco-Nuñez et al. (1993) 15 Nevado de Colima Mexico 3850 18,500 Stoopes and Sheridan (1992) 16 Volcán de Colima Mexico 3600 9300 Capra et al. (2002) 17 Mexico 5426 23,000 Capra et al. (2002) 18 Jocotitlán Mexico 3900 9600 Siebe et al. (1992) 19 Nevado de Mexico 4680 28,000 Caballero and Capra (2004) 20 Mt St Helens USA 2549 18,000–20,000 Siebert and Simkin (2002) 21 Baker USA 3285 6800 Siebert and Simkin (2002) 22 Adams USA 3742 6000 Siebert and Simkin (2002) 23 Egmont New Zealand 2518 23,000 Alloway et al. (1986) 23 Egmont New Zealand 2518 12,000–14,000 Alloway et al. (1986) 23 Egmont New Zealand 2518 6570 Alloway et al. (1986) 24 Meru Africa 4565 7800 Siebert and Simkin (2002)

determining the instability of a rock mass, as discussed glacial climax, but start immediately after it during a below. period of rapid retreat. For example, the collapses of: (i) Antuco volcano (Chile), Volcán de Colima and 3. Climatic effects as triggering mechanisms of Jocotitlán (Mexico) occurred after the Younger Dryas; volcanic collapses (ii) Taacapa (Chile) and Egmont (New Zealand) volcanoes occurred after the Oldest Dryas; and (iii) The 1980 Mount Saint Helens eruption is the best Mero (Africa), Parinacota and Socompa (Chile) took known example of an historic volcanic collapse, during place after the 8200 14C cal. years glacial event. Mount which the north flank of the volcano deformed after Egmont (New Zealand) represents the best example 3 months of cryptodome intrusion and failed after a because, based on absolute dating, it collapsed at least magnitude 5 . Since this event, witnessed by twice immediately after the glacial maximum (Alloway many volcanologists, this type of phenomenon was et al., 1986). recognized in the eruptive history of many volcanoes, Based upon these observations, it is here proposed either active or inactive (Siebert, 1984). Looking at the that the “globally synchronous” volcanic collapse geological record, during the late Pleistocene and events, which occurred just after glacial maxima, were Holocene, several volcanic collapses occurred in limited triggered by global warming rather than seismic events time spans, whereas there are periods without a trace of as previously suggested (Francis and Wells, 1988). any edifice failure. Fig. 1 illustrates major volcanic This model do not excludes the possibility that the collapses and the synchroneity of the maximum volcano was already unstable due to other factors, such glaciations during the late Pleistocene and Holocene in as magmatic intrusions into the volcanic edifice, the northern and southern hemispheres. It is clear from accumulation of pyroclastic deposits, sub-volcanic this diagram that volcanic collapses are absent during a basement spreading and progressive weakening by 332 L. Capra / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 155 (2006) 329–333 hydrothermal alteration. These latter factors are gener- References ally independent from the triggering mechanisms that produce collapse of the volcano, which commonly are Acocella, V., 2005. Modes of of volcanic cones: or prolonged heavy rains (McGuire, 1996). insights from analogue experiments. Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (B02205). During deglaciation, which generally occurs rapidly, Alley, R.B., Mayewski, P.A., Sowers, T., Stuiver, M., Taylor, K.C., water discharge from the increases, which, in Clark, P.U., 1997. Holocene climatic instability: a prominent, turn, increases the humidity and rainfall. In addition, widespread event 8200 years ago. Geology 25, 483–486. glacial debuttressing, load discharge and fluid circula- Alley, R.B., Clark, P.U., 1999. The deglaciation of the northern tion may also cause rock weakening and lost of hemisphere: a global perspective. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27, 149–182. cohesion. Finally, all these factors may accelerate and Alloway, B.D., Neall, V.E., Vucetich, C.G., 1986. Another prehistoric trigger the failure of an unstable ice-capped volcano. debris deposit recognized from ancestral Egmont By analyzing the information available for the volcano. International Volcanological Congress, New Zealand 2. volcanic collapses here reported, it is sometimes Caballero, L., Capra, L., 2004. Textural characteristics of the possible to obtain information about the origin of the 28,000 yr. BP debris avalanche deposit of volcano. IAVCEI—General Assembly 2004 “Volcanism and its instability, but it is quite impossible to define the Impact on Society”, Pucon, Chile, November 15th–19th. triggering mechanism. A key issue can be the Capra, L., Macias, J.L., Scott, K.M., Abrams, M., Garduño-Monroy, V. correspondence of the event with a climatic episode H., 2002. Debris avalanche and transformed from (as here proposed), which can be also extrapolated from collapses in the Trans-Mexican , Mexico—behavior, other indirect evidences such as paleoclimatic studies of and implication for hazard assessment. Journal of Volcanology and ∼ Geothermal Research 113, 81–110. the area. For example, the 28 ka Nevado de Toluca Carrasco-Nuñez, G., Vallance, J.W., Rose, W.I., 1993. A voluminous collapse of the eastern flank (point 19 in Fig. 1) can be avalancheinduced from Citlaltepetl volcano, Mexico: placed in a intraglacial stage, during humid condition, implications for hazard assessment. Journal of Volcanology and also based on paleoclimatic studies of the area that Geothermal Research 59, 35–46. reconstruct the climatic variations based on buried Clapperton, C.M., 1998. Late Quaternary fluctuations in the : testing the synchrony of global change. In: Owen, L.A. paleosols and pollen analysis on lacustrine sediments (Ed.), Glaciation. Quaternary Proceedings, vol. 6. John (Sedov et al., 2003; Vázquez-Selem and Heine, 2004; Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 65–73. Lozano-García et al., 2005). The occurrence of cohesive Clavero, J.E., Sparks, R.S.J., Huppert, H.E., 2002. Geological debris flows originating from the failure of a volcanic constraints on the emplacement mechanism of the Parinacota edifice can also reflect the climatic conditions, indicat- debris avalanche, northern Chile. Bulletin of Volcanology 64 (1), 40–54. ing important hydrothermal alteration and fluid circula- Clavero, J.E., Sparks, R.S.J., 2004. Evolution and volcanic hazards of tion from ice-melting at an ice-capped volcano, as Taapaca volcanic complex, central Andes of northern Chile. observed for example at the Pico de Orizaba volcano for Journal of the Geological Society (London) 161, 603–618. the Tetelzingo lahar (point 14 in Fig. 1, Carrasco-Nuñez Denton, G.H., Hendy, C., 1994. Younger Dryas ag advance of Franz et al., 1993). The 5600 volcanic collapse Josef glacier in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. Science 264, 1434–1437. also gave rise to the Osceola cohesive debris flow for Feeley, T.C., Davidson, J.P., Armendia, A., 1993. The volcanic and which a phreatomagmatic activity was proposed as the magmatic evolution of volcan Ollaue, a high-K, late Quaternary triggering mechanism (Vallance and Scott, 1997). This in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone. Journal of triggering mechanism does not exclude the hypothesis Volcanology and Geothermal Research 54, 221–245. here presented, since phreatomagmatic activity can be Francis, P.W., Wells, G.L., 1988. Landsat thematic mapper observation of debris avalanche deposits in central Andes. Bulletin of possible only if a significant amount of water is Volcanology 50, 258–278. circulating into the volcanic system. Hughen, K.A., Southon, J.R., Lehman, S.J., Overperck, J.T., 2000. Synchronous radiocarbon and climate shifts during the last 4. Conclusions deglaciation. Science 290, 1951–1954. Lagmay, A.M.F., van Wyk de Vries, B., Kerle, N., Pyle, D.M., 2000. Volcano instability induced by strike-slip faulting. Bulletin of The collapse of volcanic edifices represents a big Volcanology 62, 331–346. hazard in inhabited areas. Furthermore, collapses Lozano-García, S., Sosa-Najera, S., Sugiura, Y., Caballero, M., 2005. triggered by global warming will have no precursory 23,000 yr of vegetation history of the Upper Lerma, a tropical seismic activity, and should be considered in the present high-altitude basin in central Mexico. Quaternary Research 64, – period of rapid global warming. The model here presen- 70 82. Lowell, T.V., Heusser, C.J., Andersen, B.G., Moreno, P.I., Hauser, A., ted can be complemented with more detailed investiga- Heusser, L.E., Schluchter, C., Marchant, D.R., Denton, G.H., tion, focused on the identification of climatic conditions 1995. Interhemispheric correlation of late Pleistocene glacial that could have affected the stability of volcanoes. events. Science 269, 1541–1549. L. Capra / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 155 (2006) 329–333 333

McGuire, W.J., Howarth, R.J., Firth, C.R., Solow, A.R., Pullen, A.D., Institution, Global Volcanism Program Digital Information Series. Saunders, S.J., Stewart, I.S., Vita-Finzi, C., 1997. Correlation GVP-3: http://www.volcano.si.edu/word/. between rate of sea-level change and frequency of explosive Stoopes, G.R., Sheridan, M.F., 1992. Giant debris from the volcanism in the Mediterranean. Nature 389, 473–476. Colima Volcanic Complex, Mexico: implication for long-runout McGuire, W.J., 1996. Volcano instability: a review of contemporary landslides (>100 km). Geology 20, 299–302. themes. In: McGuire, W.J., Jones, A.P., Neuberg, J. (Eds.), Volcano Thompson, L.G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Henderson, K.A., 2000. Ice- Instability on the Earth and other Planets. Geological Society core palaeoclimate records in tropical South America since the Special Publication, pp. 1–24. Last Glacial Maximum. Journal of Quaternary Science 15 (4), Norini, G., Lagmay, A.M.F., 2005. Deformed symmetrical volcanoes. 377–394. Geology 33, 605–608. Thiele, R., Moreno, H., Elgueta, S., Lahsen, A., Rebolledo, S., Petit- Rampino, M.R., Self, S., Fairbridge, R.W., 1979. Can rapid climatic Breuihl, M.E., 1998. Evolución geológico-geomorfológica cua- change cause volcanic eruption? Science 206 (4420), 826–829. ternaria del tramo superior del valle del río Laja. Revista Geológica Scott, K., Vallance, J., Kerle, M., Macías, J.L., Strauch, W., Devoli, G., de Chile 25, 229–253. 2005. Catastrophic precipitation-triggered lahar at Casita volcano, Vallance, J.V., Scott, K.M., 1997. The Osceola from Mount Nicaragua; occurrence, bulking and transformation. Earth Surface Rainier: sedimentological and hazard implication of a huge - Processes and Landforms 30, 59–79. rich debris flow. Geological Society of America Bulletin 109 (2), Sedov, S., Solleiro-Rebollero, E., Morales-Puentes, P., Arias-Herreia, 143–163. A., Vallejo Gomez, E., Jasso-Castañeda, C., 2003. and Van Wyk de Vries, B., Borgia, A., 1996. The role of basement in organic components of the buried paleosols of the Nevado de volcano deformation. In: McGuire, M.J., Jones, A.P., Neuberg, J. Toluca, central Mexico as indicator of paleoenvironments and soil (Eds.), Volcano Instability on the Earth and other Planets. evolution. Quaternary International 106–107, 169–184. Geological Society Special Publication, pp. 95–110. Siebe, C., Komorowski, J.C., Sheridan, M., 1992. Morphology and Van Wyk de Vries, B., Self, S., Francis, P.W., Keszthelyi, L., 2001. A emplacement of an unusual debris avalanche deposit at Jocotitlán gravitational spreading origin for the Socompa debris avalanche. volcano, Centra México. Bulletin of Volcanology 54, 573–589. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 105, 225–247. Siebert, L., 1984. Large volcanic debris avalanches: characteristics of Vázquez-Selem, L., Heine, H., 2004. Late Quaternary galciation in source areas, deposits and associated eruptions. Journal of Mexico. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary Volcanology and Geothermal Research 22, 163–197. Glaciations—Extent and Chronology, Part III. Elsevier B.V., Siebert, L., Simkin, T., 2002. Volcanoes of the word: an illustrated Holland, pp. 233–242. catalog of Holocene volcanoes and their eruption. Smithsonian