Improving Knowledge Development and Exchange Via Transformative Pictogram Design

2020 24th International Conference Information Visualisation (IV)

Visual Design Thinking for Public Education: Improving knowledge development and exchange via transformative pictogram design

1st Nana Wang 2nd Leah Burns

Sichuan University Aalto Univeristy China Finland 0000-0003-3902-7393 leah.burns@aalto.ﬁ

Abstract—How might the exchange and development of knowledge improve through a critical examination of pictogram- based methods of information visualization? In this article, we investigate the International System of TYpographic Picture Education(ISOTYPE), an inﬂuential model of pictorial diagram design theory and practice. Given ISOTYPE’s continuing impact on information design, we use it as a critical case study to assess the potential and limitations of pictorial diagrams(PD) for knowledge development and exchange. The goal of this study is not to evaluate artistic quality, style, or designer talent; rather, our focus is on analysis of the learning functions of pictograms and their potential for knowledge transmission and supporting reasoning behaviour among diverse audiences. We explore the different features of a pictogram, and how these features might support knowledge development through diagrammatic reasoning(DR). Three key questions are posed: 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of pictograms for promoting learning and reasoning behaviour versus more abstract or representational visual information design? 2. What are the criteria for choosing the visual characteristics of pictograms? 3. How can the visual characteristics of pictograms be evaluated and revised base on the goal of supporting learning and reasoning behaviour? Index Terms Fig. 1. ISOTYPE, Atlas, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft,1930, reproduced from —ISOTYPE; Pictorial diagram(PD); Public ed- Osterreichisches¨ Gesellschafts - und Wirtschaftsmuseum ucation; Informal learning; Knowledge visualization(KV); diagrammatic reasoning(DR)

I. INTRODUCTION ”chart junk” [7] in information Visualization(info VIS) [4] [6], The International System of TYpographic Picture Educa- due to these pictograms hide the exact statistic number, and tion(ISOTYPE) considered as one of the classic pictogram these decorations of varies seems invalid to do tell the viewers language systems and which aimed for the public education, anything new. [7] [8] originated from the interaction of Austrian socialist Otto In this article, we argue that the pictorial diagram (PD) Neurath’s educational ambitions with the context of social- has been underestimated and neglected their contribution to democratic Vienna in the 1920s [1] [2] [3]. ISOTYPE is public education area in the KV relevant researches. ISOTYPE considered as one of the pioneers for the modern visualization adopting pictorial diagrams represent complex concept are still method even decades later. Like shown in Fig.1, ISOTYPE worthy to dig in. Especially when more and more wicked adopted pictogram to exhibit knowledge from different do- problems [9] addressed need inter-professional collaboration mains based on quantitative information, pictograms play a key or that seek to support various forms of public education and role in their works. The core founders, Otto Neurath and Marie engagement. Like COVID-19, it is difﬁcult to get through the Neurath cooperated with German artist Gerd Arntz created epidemic without cooperation from the whole society. How- about 2000 pictograms as a “visual dictionary.” ever, just base on the line chart of infection cases update, like Otto Neurath strongly highlighted the primary responsibility shown in Fig.2, is impossible to gain a holistic view about the of ISOTYPE is for supporting learning. However, conversely, situation. What’s worse, the side effect even can provoke the ISOTYPE has been scrutinised, analysed and critiqued as turbulence and panic emotion, raise intense situation. Pictorial

978-1-7281-9134-8/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE 502 DOI 10.1109/IV51561.2020.00087 an informal learning environment [16], learning is intrinsically motivated and reﬂects the learning individuals themselves, like learning ability, educational background, preferences, as so on [15] [17]. In museums, there are different groups of visitors, and even within one group, such as a school group, one still needs to consider different levels of education. Uncertainties about learning ability, experience, and learning background cause a bottleneck in trying to provide an accurate learner portrait, and the learner-centred approach lacks proof and accuracy. Besides, museum pedagogy prefers to describe learning in the museum as free-choice learning [16], in terms of the learning process starts from they want to, rather than because they have to. For supporting learning behaviours, ISOTYPE Fig. 2. New COVID-19 cases reported by day and by Race/Ethnicity provides a countable and meaningful pictorial language to in the U.S,https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases- communicate. By counting and comparing the pictograms, in-us.html people without typical education background can grasp the answer of some wicked problems, some examples include the apparatus in a diagram not only provides an accessible way management of food systems, health care, and education. Ad- to approach complex concept but also leading an integrated dressing these concerns requires the construction of complex knowledge transmission process, rather than a simpliﬁcation adaptive systems [18]. of complex concepts in ways that limit possible responses.

II. UNDERSTANDING THE VISUALIZATION OF PD IN THE C. PD and the advantages PUBLIC EDUCATION SETTING A. ISOTYPE as data-based knowledge representation method The linguistic turn in semiotics in the 1970s provided a instead of info VIS style new theoretical framework for the generation of meaning [19]. Pictogram is one of the most appealing keywords in existing This change also affected the study of knowledge transfer ISOTYPE researches, a collective agreement that the purpose in pedagogy [20]. The new theoretical trend highlights the of ISOTYPE is not to make data decorative [4] [5] [11]. function of interpretation by the receiver. It states that the However, majority researches still considered ISOTYPE as acquisition of knowledge is a dynamic process, emphasizing data-base info VIS style, in terms of their investigation focused the process of the receiver’s continuous logic construction, on the cognitive meanings of the pictogram, and examine the and application of knowledge or beliefs in the process of functionality of simplifying cognition [5] [10] [11] [12]. knowledge acquisition [21]. Info VIS reports the facts, While KV aims to transfer However, it is difficult for the public education agency to insights, experiences, and attitudes, which are invisible, in- evaluate the learning width and depth from a diverse audience. tangible, resistant to quantification, and difficult to externalise PD not only provide readable images but also by utilizing [13]. As the main founders of ISOTYPE, Neuraths considered visual attributes provide multiple levels of reasoning process ISOTYPE to be “more than sum of its pictograms”, by instead of a single target for all audience. Diagrammatic using their words, these pictograms just the “bricks” in ISO- reasoning (DR) is a reasoning method by using a diagram to TYPE(architecture), [1] . The most extraordinary contribution externalize the tacit logical procedures, ‘greatly facilitates the of ISOTYPE, is based on data, using pictograms to provide solution of problems of logic’ [22]. As visual inquire method, several learning possibilities, learn from the information (facts) pictogram plays the role in guiding in the DR process, bridges and discovery the knowledge(reasons). the invisible logic connections, visual connections undertake B. Informal learning setting and public education the semantic meanings in the reasoning process. ISOTYPE PDs, mainly work for externalizing logic connections by using Exhibitions and museums are appealing keywords when we visual apparatus, conducting reasoning and inquiring step by scope on ISOTYPE. The majority of diagrams came across step [23]. with audiences in the museum or other informal learning Moreover, for supporting learning behaviours, ISOTYPE settings, like a department store or park [3]. For example, PDs provides a countable and meaningful pictorial language the exhibition named Around Rembrandt, which ISOTYPE to communicate, by counting and comparing the pictograms, curated in 1935, held in department stores in Amsterdam, people without typical education background can grasp the Rotterdam, and Hague. By using PDs, exhibited all the relevant answer base on the diagrammatic framework, provide a more knowledge around Rembrandt, illustrated vivid pictures about accessible approach with the public to get in touch with typical artist real life back to the old time. Compare with school, in knowledge as they wished.

503 III. THE VALUE OF PD FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION Knowledge transmission and learning support both can be defined as the functions of KV. However, these synonyms reflect different design approaches: learner-oriented and sender- oriented processes. In KV, human-centeredness is seen in that communities of learners determining the meaning instead of the senders of the visualization [24], generally emphasising support learning [25] [26]. However, in public education contexts, the huge amount of learners and their diverse back- grounds lead to learners being uncertain of their analysis. It becomes difficult to apply a learner-centred approach. If consider this objective, then it is essential to inquire: how can an efficient knowledge representation method be promoted in public education? In public education approach, we have learnt from ISOTYPE, that instead of supporting the learning process passively, guiding the learning process positively perform much efficiently in the face of a diverse public. Fig. 3. The semantic analysis of pictogram [1] A. Transform different types of knowledge materials Majority of existing KV researches, generally focus a typical domain or targeted learners group, to solve specific reasoning possibilities of different types of visual representa- problem [27] [28] [29]. Three factors are taken into account: tion, shown the advantages of PD. This picture firstly appeared knowledge type, visualization motivation, and visual format. in ISOTYPE’s publication in 1930s, by Comparing different The knowledge type determines the type of knowledge that geometry elements, explain the advantages of pictograms for needs to be understood. Visualization motivation establishes a representing logic connections. Generally speaking, abductive framework from the learning goals that KV needs to achieve. reasoning is start from the answer to finding the reasons, The visual format is involved in the applying scenarios [13]. and the reasons can be organized in each pictogram by using In this article, we put our scope on informal learning envi- visual elements. Besides, every pictogram is arbitrary in each ronment, talk about diagram as medium. In face of different diagram, the visualization creators define the meaning of each domain and disciplines, KV not only visualizes the materials element. For example, the same hue in ISOTYPE represent directly but also transform the terminologies into common different in a different context, like red, represents typical sense. ISOTYPE PDs always involve the cooperation of sev- human race in some charts, but in another diagram, differs eral knowledge domains, The core of ISOTYPE’s creative the triumphant from the other side of the war. process is the “transformation department.” In their creative ISOTYPE PDs not only represent the simplification for process, scientists from different disciplines need to cooperate observation, but also by comparing and grouping features with the transformation department. The “transformers” serves of different pictograms, support different levels of abductive as the “communication bridge” between scientists and the reasoning behaviors. Pictograms plays as the unique access public. The advantage of “transformers” is that they know to a diagram, learners have to learn the pictogram and then exactly how to use the visual elements to represent the understand the diagram. Besides, pictograms consist of differ- argument base on the reasoning process. ent elements, they reveal the logic patterns. Again, learning in the museum or other informal learning environment need to B. DR and multiple visualization motivations cope with more challenges, like uncertainties from learners and Humans interpret what they perceive to develop an under- environment, pictograms was considered as readable images, standing of their lived reality and to determine how to act the diagram can even provide argument quickly ”at glance”, within it. This is a process of reasoning [30]. The reasoning is visual features play as guide role if the learners are interested one of the most basic forms of human thinking, reasoning in an on-going discovering. behaviour gather insight and experience through the mass phenomenon, support the decision making and finally change IV. TRANSFORMATIVE PICTOGRAM DESIGN their behaviours. However, the reasoning process is often con- Compare to geometric shapes or naturalistic illustrations, a ducted tacitly and privately, in terms of it will be impossible to transformative pictograms need to balance the visual memory communicate without image. DR mainly serve for externalize load and semantic possibilities. From KV practice perspective, the abductive reasoning process [22]. The abductive reasoning the more elements the designer adopted, the more meanings it process involves the visual analytic, seeking the simplest and can express. However, there is a trade-off: how to organize a most likely explanation from the observation, in terms of logic functional pictogram to achieve effective knowledge transfer connections are needed. As shown in Fig.3, which compare the in the public education setting?

504 Fig. 5. Reasoning process and logic hierarchy

so easy to analysis. Due to the most important patterns are invisible between the charts, We will try to transform these charts into PD for guiding a abductive reasoning process.

A. Reasoning process and logic hierarchy

For pursuing an ideal reasoning process, a framework is needed, in terms of structure the logical connections is the ﬁrst step. The materials should be synthesized as the main argument and proofs which sound the argument. In a KV diagram, only can explain one argument, all the proofs from Fig. 4. On-line propaganda spending and the web page engagement in different political parties [31] different perspective and level should be argument-oriented. It is worthy to notice that DR can provide several levels of proofs for abductive reasoning, different levels of reasoning procedure consist a logic hierarchy. As mentioned previously, in the public education setting, Back to this example, according to the materials, the main the ideal knowledge transmission is a continuous abductive argument is: Party B spent the most on online advertisement process, in terms of the construct of pictorial diagrams should than any other party, in return, they got more public engage- base on logic, not only tell the answer but also tell the ment than others. After a deep analysis of the data, there are reason(why). two types of entities which strongly explain the argument, There is no speciﬁc record in all ISOTYPE’s materials, Party B and the rest parties. Besides, the data provide the about the criterion for creating the pictogram. However, based connections on the investment and engagement of three types on the investigation their works, creating a transformative pic- of pages, which can reveal the potential logic connections togram, should start from building a concrete logic framework, beneath the argument—the investment and the engagement. following with visual representation process for externalizing Above all, the secondary abductive proof can be: The B party invisible logic connections. To make the description more released most of their advertisement on the party’s main page, readable, we will illustrate one chart news, shown in Fig.4. they got more engagements from the public. as an example. This chart news [31] analysis the fact that Base on the analysis of statistic data, and the description of political parties spend propaganda budget on social media to the argument, a logic hierarchy can be sketched. Like shown get their public engagement. The main argument of this news in Fig.5, the reasoning process leading by comparison, from is: because of Party B spent more budget on social media top to below, from left to right. Two-dimensional coordinates propaganda, brought them highly public engagement in return. provide two types of logic correlations under the hierarchy. They provide the data of the spending of online propaganda The horizontal comparison externalizes the different variables budget in different parties and the public engagement on but from the same logic level; the vertical comparison repre- their social media pages. However, according to the chart, the sents the same types of variables group but from a different connections between the engagement and AD spending is not logic layer. The following process focuses on transforming the structure and correlation into visual language.

505 Fig. 6. Reasoning process and logic hierarchy

B. Transforming logic hierarchy into visual sequence Generally speaking, the visual representation working for simplifying the complexity in the logic hierarchy, what’s more, externalize the invisible logic connections, guide the reasoning process. For visualizing the logic hierarchy tree, these visual elements need to consider as reasoning aids for guiding the inquiring process. Different from other creative visualization processes, consider artistic elements as basic visual materials, Fig. 7. Define the legend diagrammatic reasoning focus on using the visual sequences guiding reasoning process. Layout, aesthetic attributes, and grouping. For avoiding extra visual working memory cause the legend, which undertake semantic function, represent the misunderstanding, beware of adding any unnecessary extra logic hierarchy. Generally speaking, the primary glance of elements. In this case, two logic levels need to be externalized the diagram should reveal the main argument, second help according to the logic hierarchy, in terms of two types of to analysis the first proof...as so on. aesthetic attributes are needed, represents the different types The primary correlation in the argument defines the coor- of “web pages’ engagement” and “web pages’ spending”. dinates of the diagram, in terms of determining the layout of The coordinate and the artistic attributes combine, which the diagram. The aesthetic attributes work as labels for distin- externalize the complex correlations of different parties, dif- guishing or grouping variables, provide a more complicated ferent web pages and public engagement. During the whole correlation. As we described above, the topic is about the cor- reasoning process, the learners only conclude and abduct to the relation between “spending on social media” and “engagement potential reason by themselves through continuous inquiring. of the public.” According to the reasoning hierarchy shown in Fig.5, all the reasoning processes towards the “spending” C. Defining the legend and diagram revision and “engagement,” which provide the two coordinates of the Different from other number-based charts, PD not only diagram. The data materials from “B Party” and the rest of provides a readable image, which is more friendly in the public the parties” work as proofs to show the correlations in this education environment. On the other hand, it also constraint diagram, the semantic function of the position elements in the the interpretation, avoid misunderstanding. This mandatory coordinate refers to ( Spending* Engagement), which show in comes from the pre-define the meaning of the variables and Fig.6. the interpretation rule, which determines the way that the As mentioned previously, the logic hierarchy tree, consist learner approaches the diagram. Base on the coordinates and of two dimensions of connections. From the horizontal dimen- the aesthetic attributes, the legend (label, scale, and rule) are sion, refers a same logic level, in terms of visual attribute factors that can define and optimize the diagram from learning help to gather the data from the same group or provide and reasoning support perspective. As shown in Fig.7, the comparisons from the same logic level. The vertical dimension reasoning hierarchy and synthesis with the coordinates, two means one type of variables but from different logic levels, types of pictograms: the Spending, and the Engagement can in terms of another type of visual attribute is needed for

506 considered as a functional reasoning tool. Base on the logic hierarchy, transform the logic connections into visual sequences, ﬁnally by deﬁning the ways of the compose of the elements, guiding the learner from a most important level to understand the topic.

V. C ONCLUSION In this article, we use ISOTYPE as study case to try to figure out the extra value of pictograms. From the knowledge transmission and reasoning support perspective, and discovered the methods and procedures critical for creating ISOTYPE pictorial diagrams. Our initial exploration, considerate pictorial diagrams as knowledge transformation materials, provide a continuous abductive reasoning process, in return tackle with diverse learning capacities and motivation. Furthermore, the second exploration is from a abductive validity perspective, for achiev- ing the lasting change of learning, synthesis the procedures which can present knowledge, in ways that support learning (what) and reasoning (why) is. To sum up, ISOTYPE appeared in about one hundred years ago, the logic representation method and the knowledge transmission and reasoning support approach still are not out- dated. it is worthy to reflect in our modern context of public education. By using this article as a beginning, there still have lots of interesting topics worthy to dig in, like the way to aiding other reasoning processes, for example, the deductive or inductive reasoning process. Besides, from the reasoning- Fig. 8. Diagram revision support perspective, discovering the semantic possibilities of new media, like VR, AR as so on, how they can serve for knowledge representation. be created; combined with three types of web pages, 6 different pictograms are needed. Besides, the color attributes serve as REFERENCES the label that represents two types of parties. Therefore, two [1] Neurath, Otto. International picture language: The first rules of isotype. types of semantic meaning should be defined in legend, the Basic English Publ., 1936. [2] Neurath, Marie. ”Isotype.” Instructional science (1974): 127-150. label of each aesthetic attributes should be defined as well. [3] Neurath, Marie, and Robin Kinross. The transformer: principles of In PD, every pictogram represents a certain number, while making Isotype charts. Hyphen, 2009. the criterion for choosing the scale, is aiming observation. In [4] Burke, Christopher, Eric Kindel, and Sue Walker. Isotype: Design and contexts 1925–1971. Hyphen Press, 2013. this case, for perceiving information and making conclusion [5] Haroz, Steve, Robert Kosara, and Steven L. Franconeri. ”Isotype easier, per “engagement pictogram” represent 0.2 million en- visualization: Working memory, performance, and engagement with gagement, the “spending pictogram” represent 10,000£ each. pictographs.” Proceedings of the 33rd annual ACM conference on human factors in computing systems. 2015. Besides, the revision involves cooperation and visual im- [6] Dalbello, Marija. ”Mathematics for” Just Plain Folks”: The Viennese provement. Firstly, the KV process always involves cross- Tradition of Visualization of Quantitative Information and its Verbal discipline cooperation with different professionals, it provides Forms, 1899-1914 (graphics accompanying presentation).” (2006). [7] Tufte, Edward R. The visual display of quantitative information. Vol. 2. tangible materials for both visualization transformer and the Cheshire, CT: Graphics press, 2001. academics to discuss the KV whether to represent the original [8] Few, Stephen, and Perceptual Edge. ”The chartjunk debate.” Visual idea correctly. The first evaluation examines all the data Business Intelligence Newsletter, no. June (2011): 1-11. [9] Buchanan, Richard. ”Wicked problems in design thinking.” Design materials that have been transformed into the diagram, no loss issues 8.2 (1992): 5-21. or hides during the visual representation; secondly, considerate [10] M. A. Borkin et al., ”What Makes a Visualization Memorable?,” in IEEE whether or not the visual inquiry sequences guide an ideal Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 2306-2315, Dec. 2013, doi: 10.1109/TVCG.2013.234. reasoning sequence, like the final diagram show in Fig.8, ap- [11] Schreder, Gunther,¨ et al. ”Rediscovering Isotype from a cognitive parently the coordinate has been representing the comparison perspective.” International Conference on Theory and Application of between The B Party and the rest, however, by revising the Diagrams. Springer, Cham, 2018. [12] Burgio, Valeria; Moretti, Matteo. 2017. ”Infographics as Images: Mean- layout and color scheme, makes this diagram much easier ingfulness beyond Information.” Proceedings 1, no. 9: 891. to observe. Only the visual inquiry sequence can precisely [13] Eppler, Martin J. ”Knowledge Visualization–Towards a New Discipline guide the reasoning sequence, and then the diagrams can be and its Fields of Application.” (2004).

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