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T Delft Hydraulic and Offshore Engineering Division Delft University of Technology Ctwa43oo Coastal Engineering Volume I

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T Delft Hydraulic and Offshore Engineering Division Delft University of Technology Ctwa43oo Coastal Engineering Volume I CTwa4300 Coastal Engineering Volume Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences Subfaculty of Civil Engineering T Delft Hydraulic and Offshore Engineering Division Delft University of Technology cTwa43oo Coastal Engineering Volume I Prof.ir. K. d'Angremond Ir. C.M.G. Somers 310222 cTwa43oo Coastal Engineering Volume I Prof.ir. K. d'Angremond Ir. C.M.G. Somers 310222 Contents List of Figxires List of Tables List of Symbols Preface 2 1 Introduction 3 1.1 The coast 3 1.2 Coastal engineering 4 1.3 Structure of these lecture notes 5 2 The natural subsystem 6 2.1 Introduction 6 2.1.1 Dynamics of a coast 6 2.1.2 Genesis of the universe, earth, ocean, and atmosphere 7 2.1.3 Sea level change 12 2.2 Geology 13 2.2.1 Geologic time and definitions 13 2.2.2 Plate tectonics: the changing map of the earth 14 2.2.3 Tectonic classification of coasts 18 2.3 Climatology 23 2.3.1 Introduction 23 2.3.2 Meteorological system 23 2.3.3 From meteorology to climatology 24 2.3.4 The hydrological cycle 25 2.3.5 Solar radiation and temperature distributions 27 2.3.6 Atmospheric circulation and wind 31 2.4 Oceanography 35 2.4.1 Introduction 35 2.4.2 Variable density 36 2.4.3 Geostrophic currents 38 2.4.4 The tide 40 2.4.5 Seiches 46 2.4.6 Short waves 47 2.4.7 Wind wave statistics 56 2.4.8 Storm surges 69 2.4.9 Tsunamis 60 2.5 Morphology 62 2.5.1 Introduction 62 2.5.2 Surf zone processes 63 2.5.3 Sediment transport 64 2.5.4 Coastline changes 68 3 Coastal formations 70 3.1 Introduction 70 3.2 Transgressive coasts 73 3.2.1 Definition 73 3.2.2 Estuaries 73 3.2.3 Tidal flats 78 3.2.4 Lagoons 78 3.2.5 Beaches 80 3.2.6 Dunes 81 3.2.7 Barriers 82 3.2.8 Tidal inlets 85 3.3 Prograding coasts 86 3.3.1 Introduction 86 3.3.2 Classification of deltas 86 3.3.3 Young or old? 87 3.3.4 Delta shape 89 3.3.5 Human interest 94 3.4 Ecology-dominated coastal features 96 3.4.1 Salt marshes 96 3.4.2 Mangrove swamps 98 3.4.3 Coral reefs 99 3.5 Rocky coasts 104 3.5.1 Origin of rocky coasts 104 3.5.2 Rock erosion 105 4 Coast and culture Ill 4.1 Introduction Ill 4.2 Description of the socio-economic subsystem 112 4.2.1 Boundaries of the socio-economic subsystem 112 4.2.2 Structure of social and economic life 112 4.2.3 The necessity of management 113 4.3 Coastal Zone Management 116 4.3.1 Introduction 116 4.3.2 History of Coastal Zone Management 119 4.3.3 Pohcy analysis and its function 119 4.3.4 Management tools and strategies 121 4.3.5 Description of management practice 122 4.3.6 Where is the coastal engineer? 124 4.4 Global changes 126 4.4.1 The world doesn't stay still 126 4.4.2 Human-induced climate change 127 4.4.3 Global sea-level rise 127 4.4.4 Integrated Coastal Zone Management 130 5 The Netherlands, one specific coastal zone 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Genesis of the Dutch coast 133 5.2.1 Geological time schedule 133 5.2.2 Geological overview 136 5.2.3 Sediment balance 143 5.3 Dutch coastal engineering history 145 5.3.1 Old times 145 5.3.2 Modem times 151 5.3.3 Human influence on morphology 154 5.4 Nature of the Dutch coast nowadays 156 5.4.1 Types of coast 156 5.4.2 Wadden coast 158 5.4.3 Delta coast 158 5.4.4 Dutch coast 159 5.5 Social and economic environment of the coast in the Netherlands 161 5.5.1 Functions 161 5.5.2 Politics, interest groups 162 5.5.3 Economy 163 5.5.4 Infrastructure 164 5.5.5 Flexibility 166 6 Pollution and density problems 171 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 Pollution 171 6.2.1 Types of pollution 171 6.2.2 Control measures 173 6.2.3 Density currents in harbors 174 6.3 Tidal inlets and estuaries 185 6.3.1 Introduction 185 6.3.2 Tidal inlets 185 6.3.3 Tidal curves in a river 187 6.3.4 Density problems 187 6.3.5 Tidal river morphology 192 7 Practical problems and common methods how to solve them 199 7.1 Introduction I99 7.2 Design under wave load conditions 200 7.2.1 Introduction 200 7.2.2 Wave data 200 7.2.3 Wave load and optimum design techniques 201 7.3 Breakwaters 205 7.4 Shore protection 207 7.4.1 Introduction 207 7.4.2 Groynes 209 7.4.3 Dune protection 211 7.4.4 Bad solutions 213 7.4.5 Artificial by-passing and beach nourishment 214 7.4.6 Coast-line dynamics 215 7.5 Harbors and dredging 219 7.5.1 History 219 7.5.2 Soil type 220 7.5.3 Harbor dredging 221 7.5.4 Pipeline into trench 225 7.5.5 Artificial land winning 227 7.5.6 Polluted soil dredging 227 7.6 Map reading 230 List of Figures Figure 2.1 Major factors influencing coastal environments (Martinez and Harbaugh [1993]) 5 Figure 2.2 Model of the gravitational collapse theory of the origin of the solar system (Ingmanson and Wallace [1985]) 10 Figure 2.3 Planetary orbits around the Sun (Spectrum Atlas [1973]) 11 Figure 2.4 Geologic tune scale (Spectrum Atlas [1973]) 13 Figure 2.5 Continental landmasses during the early Triassic Period (Davis [1994]).... 15 Figure 2.6 Continental drift (Wegener [1924]) 15 Figure 2.7 Movements of the crust plates (Spectrum Atias [1973]) 16 Figure 2.8 Movement in the asthenosphere (Tarbuck and Lutgens [1993]) 17 Figure 2.9 Formation of leading and trailing edge coasts (from Inman and Nordstrom, [1971]) 18 Figure 2.10 The coast near Antofagasta, Chile (Davis [1994]) 19 Figure 2.11 Coarse gravel beach along a high-relief coast on the Sea of Cortez, Mexico (Davis [1994]) 20 Figure 2.12 Namibian desert along the coast of southwest Africa (Davis [1994]) 20 Figure 2.13 Coast near the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil (Davis [1994]) 21 Figure 2.14 The hydrological cycle (Harvey [1976]) 25 Figure 2.15 Saturation vapour pressure as a function of temperature (Harvey [1976]) ... 26 Figure 2.16 Distribution of radiation intensity with wave length for a black body, surface temperature 6000 K, representing the sun (Harvey [1976]) 27 Figure 2.17 Reduction of solar radiation intensity as it is transmitted through the atmosphere (Harvey [1976]) 28 Figure 2.18 Long-term mean values of incoming, short wave radiation and long wave, outgoing radiation for the earth atmosphere system, averaged over zones of latitude (Harvey [1976]) 29 Figure 2.19 Air temperatures reduced to sea level in January and July, after Barry and Chorley (1971) 30 Figure 2.20 Convection cell circulation on a non-rotating uniform earth 31 Figure 2.21 Shnple Three-Cell Convection 31 Figure 2.22 Schematic representation of zonal pressure belts and wind systems near the earth's surface (Harvey [1976]) 32 Figure 2.23 Continental shelf 35 Figure 2.24 The system of OTEC (Delta Marine Consultants) 37 Figure 2.25 Global geostrophic current pattern (Stowe [1987]) 38 Figure 2.26 Deviation of projectile path due to Coriolis Effect 39 Figure 2.27 Rotating Earth-Moon system (van Urk and de Ronde [1980]) 40 Figure 2.28 Equilibrium moon tide (van Urk and de Ronde [1980]) 41 Figure 2.29 Daily inequality of the lunar tide (van Urk and de Ronde [1980]) 41 Figure 2.30 Spring and neap tide (van Urk and de Ronde [1980]) 42 Figure 2.31 Amphidromic system/tidal wave on the North Sea (RWS, TRl [1989]) .... 43 Figure 2.32 Tidal bore on the Petitcodiac River, New Brunswick (Stowe [1987] 44 Figure 2.33 Standing wave in a closed body of water 46 Figure 2.34 Standing wave in a semi-closed body of water 47 Figure 2.35 Sinusoidal wave form 48 Figure 2.36 Orbital movement in short waves (linear theory) 49 Figure 2.37 Wave refraction 50 Figure 2.38 Waves approaching embayment and spreading into its shape due to refraction (Davis [1994]) 51 Figure 2.39 Various types of breakers may develop in the surf zone, each caused by a different combination of wave type and nearshore slope 54 Figure 2.40 Standing wave for = 1.0 (a) and reflection on slopes (b) 55 Figure 2.41 Wave diffraction 56 Figure 2.42 Different wave patterns forming a complicated sea surface (Davis [1994) . 57 Figure 2.43 Irregular surface elevation resulting from waves 57 Figure 2.44 Rayleigh distribution of wave height in a given wave field 58 Figure 2.45 Wave energy spectrum and characteristic wave heights for a given wave field 58 Figure 2.46 WeibuU distribution for the B.^^^ at a specific North Sea site 59 Figure 2.47 The situation after the tsunami that struck near Minehaha, Japan 61 Figure 2.48 The morphological subsystem 62 Figure 2.49 Longshore current velocity profile 63 Figure 2.50 Circulation cell, rip currents 64 Figure 2.51 Circulation cell 64 Figure 2.52 Longshore and cross shore transport 65 Figure 2.53 Causes of a positive longshore-transport gradient 66 Figure 2.54 Sediment concentrations as a function of time (99 individual records) 67 Figure 3.1 Coastal forms for prograding and transgressive coasts (from Boyd et al [1992]) 70 Figure 3.2 Ternary shoreline classification diagram (Boyd et al, 1992, and Dalrymple et al, 1992) 71 Figure 3.3 Stratification in an estuary: density variations and velocity profiles 74 Figure 3.6 Time-averaged sediment transport paths 77 Figure 3.5 Schematic definition of estuary according to Dalrymple, Zaitlin and Boyd (1992) 77 Figure 3.4 Plan view of distribution of energy and physical processes in estuaries ...
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