Gradua Te Research Series

Forced Relocation after the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 Forced Relocation after the Case study of vulnerable populations in three relocation settlements in Galle, Sri Lanka Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 by Nishara Fernando Case study of vulnerable populations in three relocation settlements in Galle, Sri Lanka Populations may be displaced mainly because of natural and technological disasters, large-scale development projects and conflicts. Various governments have used by Nishara Fernando voluntary and involuntary relocation of such displaced populations into new settlements. However, relocation needs careful planning as it builds new communities. Without this, relocated communities could become more vulnerable to poverty and chronic poverty situations, which could lead to relocation failures. This PhD dissertation investigates the impact of forced relocation on the livelihoods of residents who lived in the city of Galle, Southern Province of Sri Lanka, prior to the 2004 tsunami, who were forcibly relocated into new settlements situated far from Galle city because of the “buffer zone regulation” (no construction zone). This study also examines livelihood strategies (i.e., coping and enhancement) employed by forcibly relocated people against various stresses and risks emanating from forced relocation by adopting a socio-geographical approach. It further attempts to show how all these risks and stresses have increased social vulnerability, threatening the livelihood security of the relocated people in general and in some groups, in particular in three research locations. RESEARCH SERIES Finally, various findings of this research study will no doubt shed more light to form new policies on disaster-induced displacement and relocation processes. Nishara Fernando earned his PhD in Geography at the University of Bonn, Germany, while conducting his research within the structure of the United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS). GRADUATE GRADUATE PHD DISSERTATION Vol. 6 Fernando · Forced Relocation after the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 Fernando · Forced Relocation after the Indian Ocean Tsunami UNU-EHS ISBN: 978-3-939923-72-5 UN Campus e-ISBN: 978-3-939923-73-2 Hermann-Ehlers-Str. 10 ISSN: 2077-737X 53113 Bonn, Germany e-ISSN: 2077-7388 UNU-EHS Institute for Environment UNU-EHS and Human Security GRADUATE RESEARCH SERIES PHD DISSERTATIONS Publication Series of UNU-EHS Vol. 6 UNU-EHS Copyright UNU-EHS 2012 The views expressed in this ISBN: 978-3-939923-72-5 Hermann-Ehlers-Str. 10 Cover Photo: publication are those of the e-ISBN: 978-3-939923-73-2 53113 Bonn, Germany f9photos/Shutterstock.com author(s). Publication does ISSN: 2077-737X Tel.: + 49-228-815-0200 Cover Design: not imply endorsement by e-ISSN: 2077-7388 Fax: + 49-228-815-0299 Andrea Wendeler UNU-EHS or the United E-mail: [email protected] Layout: Ulrike Sklorz, Nations University of any Printed at Druckerei www.ehs.unu.edu Leppelt Grafik & Druck of the views expressed. Paffenholz, Bonn, Germany Copy Editor: WordLink December 2012 250 print run This dissertation was first published at http://hss.ulb.uni-bonn.de/2010/2073/2073.htm in May 2010. It was slightly revised for publication in the UNU-EHS Graduate Research Series. IV About the author Nishara Fernando holds a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology from University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, Postgraduate Diploma in Sociology from La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia and Master of Philosophy in Sociology from University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. From 2007 until 2010 he followed the Doctoral Nishara Fernando Programme at the Department of Geography of the University of Bonn under the scholarship of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). He was also a Resident Scholar at United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) during this period. His PhD research focuses on the impact of forced relocation on the livelihoods of residents who lived in Galle city, Southern Province of Sri Lanka, prior to the 2004 tsunami, who were later forcibly relocated into new settlements situated far from Galle city as a result of the “buffer zone regulation” (no construction zone). He further examines various livelihood strategies (i.e., coping and enhancement) employed against stresses and risks (i.e., income, housing, common infrastructure and fragmented relationship with the host community) emanating from forced relocation. Nishara Fernando is presently working as a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Forced Relocation after the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 Case study of vulnerable populations in three relocation settlements in Galle, Sri Lanka Nishara Fernando In cooperation with Acknowledgement VI Acknowledgement This PhD dissertation is the product of my empirical work conducted in three forced relocation settlements in the Akmeemana Divisional Secretariat, Galle District, Sri Lanka, and it would not have been possible without the cooperation of the people residing in the Cinnamon Garden, Katupolwaththa and Tea Garden settlements who facilitated the completion of the fieldwork. Words alone cannot express my appreciation for the information and the hospitality I received from new settlers, Grama Niladari Officers and Divisional Secretariat Officials. I am grateful to Deep- thi Prasadini and Sarath Ravindranath who are graduates of the Faculty of Arts, University of Colombo, for helping me in administering the household interview schedules. This study would have been impossible without their untiring effort and commitment. I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, Professor Hans-Georg Bohle, Institute of Geography, University of Bonn, for his guidance and advice for the completion of this task. It would not have been possible to complete this task without his deep concern and valuable comments. I owe a special thank you to Dr. Jörn Birkmann (Academic Officer, United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security, Bonn) for his valuable comments, suggestions, deep concern and his encouragement for the completion of this task. I am thankful to the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for granting me a PhD scholarship to study at the University of Bonn. In addition, I am thankful to the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, for giving me financial assistance to con- duct my fieldwork in Galle and granting study leave for the successful completion of my studies. My deepest gratitude goes to Alison Wiltshire and Chaithri Ranatunge for their English editing. I appreciate their valuable time and expertise. I would like to thank Susanne Krings, Denis Chang-Seng, Tuvan Vo Van, Neysa Jacqueline Setiadi, Ishan Rakitha, Nadeeka Piumali and Marc Stal for their assistance during different stages of the research process and close friendship during my stay in Bonn, Germany. Lastly, I extend my sincere gratitude to my wife, Apsara Kodisnghe, and my two daughters, Anuki Fernando and Agrani Fernando, for helping me in a multitude of ways to bring this work to a completion. VII Foreword Foreword The Indian Ocean tsunami that struck the South Asian countries in 2004 devas- tated coastal belts of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, India and the Maldives caused major human losses and new challenges in coping with disasters, as well as in analysing and conceptualizing displacement. Apart from the huge losses that the affected people had to pay, they were further subjected to devastation by various policies and strategies put in place by respective governments in countries such as Sri Lanka. In this study Dr. Fernando explores the various consequences of forced relocation because of the tsunami on the livelihoods of a group of residents who lived in the city of Galle located in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka. Through the government’s introduction of the “buffer zone regulation” or no construction zone (100 metres in the south and 200 metres in the north and the east) people were relocated into new settlements situated further away from Galle city, in which they had lived for many years. For most of the relocated households, Galle city and the coastal area was the hub of their livelihood activities, such as employment activities and education. In this context, Dr. Fernando analyses displacement and relocation processes through the lens of vulnerability and livelihood research as the theoretical back- ground. His empirical research encompasses both qualitative and quantitative data gathered between September 2006 and March 2008 in three large resettlements (more than 50 housing units) 8–12 kilometres from Galle city. This study becomes unique since it captures the issues and shocks pertaining to forced relocation almost after two years of the tsunami. Dr. Fernando found that even after a lapse of two years the resettled households were dealing with stresses because of uncertainty, both economic and social. Although the relocated have adapted alternative livelihood strategies and could reduce their exposure to tsunamis, most of them have been grappling with a number of stresses and even violated the “buffer zone regulation” by moving back to the buffer zone, which was subsequently reduced in most areas according to the setback standards deter- mined by the Department of Coast Conservation. This detailed study sheds light on how relocation modifies vulnerability after disasters. In this respect, the research can also guide us to formulate future policies on displacement and relocation induced by natural disaster and, therefore,

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