ConContentstin uum Complete Inter na tion al Ency clo pe dia of Sexuality

• THE • CONTINUUM Complete International ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SEXUALITY

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https://kinseyinstitute.org/collections/archival/ccies.php RAYMOND J. NOONAN, PH.D., CCIES WEBSITE EDITOR

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Updated, with More Countries 2004

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The Con tin uum com plete in ter na tion al en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity / ed ited by Robert T. Francoeur ; Ray mond J. Noonan ; asso ci ate edi tors, Mar tha Cornog . . . [et al.]. p. cm. A com pletely up dated one-vol ume edi tion of the 4-vol ume In ter na tion al en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity (pub lished 1997-2001), cov er ing more than 60 countri es and places, 15 not previ ously include d. In cludes bib lio graph i cal ref er ences. ISBN 0-8264-1488-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Sex—En cyclo pe dias. 2. Sex cus toms—En cy clo pe dias. I. Title: Com plete in ter na tion al en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity. II. Francoeur, Robert T. III. Noonan, Raym ond J. IV. Cornog, Martha. V. Inter nati onal en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity. HQ21.I68 2003 306.7´03—dc21 2003006391 v

CROATIA...... 241 Aleksandar Štulhofer, Ph.D., Vlasta Hiršl-Heæej, M.D., M.A., Željko Mrkšiæ, Aleksandra Koraæ, Ph.D., Petra Contents Hoblaj, Ivanka Ivkanec, Maja Mamula, M.A., Hrvoje Tiljak, M.D., Ph.D., Gordana Buljan-Flander, Ph.D., HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA ....viii Sanja Sagasta, Gordan Bosanac, Ana Karloviæ, and Jadranka Mimica; Updates by the Authors FOREWORD ...... ix Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., A.C.S. CUBA...... 259 Mariela Castro Espín, B.Ed., M.Sc., and María PREFACE ...... xi Dolores Córdova Llorca, Ph.D., main authors and Timothy Perper, Ph.D. coordinators, with Alicia Gónzalez Hernández, Ph.D., Beatriz Castellanos Simons, Ph.D., Natividad AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MANY Guerrero Borrego, Ph.D., Gloria Ma. A. Torres Cueto, MEANINGS OF SEXOLOGICAL Ph.D., Eddy Abreu Guerra, Ph.D., Beatriz Torres KNOWLEDGE...... xiii Rodríguez, Ph.D., Caridad T. García Álvarez, M.Sc., Ira L. Reiss, Ph.D. Ada Alfonso Rodríguez, M.D., M.Sc., Maricel Rebollar Sánchez, M.Sc., Oscar Díaz Noriega, M.D., M.Sc., ARGENTINA...... 1 Jorge Renato Ibarra Guitart, Ph.D., Sonia Jiménez Sophia Kamenetzky, M.D.; Updates by S. Kamenetzky Berrios, Daimelis Monzón Wat, Jorge Peláez AUSTRALIA...... 27 Mendoza, M.D., Mayra Rodríguez Lauzerique, M.Sc., Ofelia Bravo Fernández, M.Sc., Lauren Bardisa Rosemary Coates, Ph.D.; Updates by R. Coates and Escurra, M.D., Miguel Sosa Marín, M.D., Rosaida Anthony Willmett, Ph.D. Ochoa Soto, M.D., and Leonardo Chacón Asusta AUSTRIA ...... 42 Dr. Rotraud A. Perner, L.L.D.; Translated and CYPRUS...... 279 Part 1: Greek Cyprus: George J. Georgiou, Ph.D., Redacted by Linda Kneucker; Updates by Linda with Alecos Modinos, B.Arch., A.R.I.B.A., Nathaniel Kneucker, Raoul Kneucker, and Martin Voracek, Papageorgiou, Laura Papantoniou, M.Sc., M.D., and Ph.D., M.Sc. Nicos Peristianis, Ph.D. (Hons.); Updates by G. J. BAHRAIN ...... 59 Georgiou and L. Papantoniou; Part 2: Turkish Cyprus: Julanne McCarthy, M.A., M.S.N.; Updates by Kemal Bolayýr, M.D., and Serin Kelâmi, B.Sc. (Hons.) the Editors CZECH REPUBLIC ...... 320 BOTSWANA ...... 89 Jaroslav Zvìøina, M.D.; Rewritten and updated by Godisang Mookodi, Oleosi Ntshebe, and the Author Ian Taylor, Ph.D. DENMARK ...... 329 BRAZIL...... 98 Christian Graugaard, M.D., Ph.D., with Lene Sérgio Luiz Gonçalves de Freitas, M.D., with Elí Falgaard Eplov, M.D., Ph.D., Annamaria Giraldi, Fernandes de Oliveira and Lourenço Stélio Rega, M.D., Ph.D., Ellids Kristensen, M.D., Else Munck, M.Th.; Updates and comments by Raymond J. M.D., Bo Møhl, clinical psychologist, Annette Noonan, Ph.D., and Dra. Sandra Almeida, and Fuglsang Owens, M.D., Ph.D., Hanne Risør, M.D., Luciane Raibin, M.S. and Gerd Winther, clinical sexologist BULGARIA...... 114 EGYPT ...... 345 Michail Alexandrov Okoliyski, Ph.D., and Petko Bahira Sherif, Ph.D.; Updates by B. Sherif and Velichkov, M.D. Hussein Ghanem, M.D. CANADA...... 126 ESTONIA ...... 359 Michael Barrett, Ph.D, Alan King, Ed.D., Joseph Elina Haavio-Mannila, Ph.D., Kai Haldre, M.D., Lévy, Ph.D., Eleanor Maticka-Tyndale, Ph.D., and Osmo Kontula, Ph.D. Alexander McKay, Ph.D., and Julie Fraser, Ph.D.; Rewritten and updated by the Authors FINLAND...... 381 Osmo Kontula, D.Soc.Sci., Ph.D., and Elina Haavio- CHINA...... 182 Mannila, Ph.D.; Updates by O. Kontula and E. Fang-fu Ruan, M.D., Ph.D., and M. P. Lau, M.D.; Haavio-Mannila Updates by F. Ruan and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D.; Comments by M. P. Lau FRANCE...... 412 Michel Meignant, Ph.D., chapter coordinator, with COLOMBIA...... 210 Pierre Dalens, M.D., Charles Gellman, M.D., Robert José Manuel Gonzáles, M.A., Rubén Ardila, Ph.D., Gellman, M.D., Claire Gellman-Barroux, Ph.D., Pedro Guerrero, M.D., Gloria Penagos, M.D., and Serge Ginger, Laurent Malterre, and France Bernardo Useche, Ph.D.; Translated by Claudia Paramelle; Translated by Genevieve Parent, M.A.; Rockmaker, M.S.W., and Luciane Raibin, M.S.; Redacted by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D.; Comment Updates by the Editors; Comment by Luciane by Timothy Perper, Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors Raibin, M.S. FRENCH POLYNESIA ...... 431 COSTA RICA...... 227 Anne Bolin, Ph.D.; Updates by A. Bolin and Anna Arroba, M.A. the Editors vi Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

GERMANY ...... 450 NEPAL...... 714 Rudiger Lautmann, Ph.D., and Kurt Starke, Ph.D.; Elizabeth Schroeder, M.S.W. Updates by Jakob Pastoetter, Ph.D., and Hartmut A. G. Bosinski, Dr.med.habil., and the Editor NETHERLANDS...... 725 Jelto J. Drenth, Ph.D., and A. Koos Slob, Ph.D.; GHANA ...... 467 Updates by the Editors Augustine Ankomah, Ph.D.; Updates by Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. NIGERIA...... 752 Uwem Edimo Esiet, M.B., B.S., M.P.H., M.I.L.D., GREECE ...... 479 chapter coordinator, with Christine Olunfinke Adebajo, Dimosthenis Agrafiotis, Ph.D., Elli Ioannidi, Ph.D., Ph.D., R.N., H.D.H.A., Mairo Victoria Bello, Rakiya and Panagiota Mandi, M.Sc.; Rewritten and updated Booth, M.B.B.S., F.W.A.C.P., Imo I. Esiet, B.Sc, LL.B., in December 2002 by the Authors B.L., Nike Esiet, B.Sc., M.P.H. (Harvard), Foyin Oyebola, B.Sc., M.A., and Bilkisu Yusuf, B.Sc., M.A., HONG KONG...... 489 M.N.I.; Updates by Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. Emil Man-lun Ng, M.D., and Joyce L. C. Ma, Ph.D.; Updates by M. P. Lau, M.D., and Robert T. NORWAY ...... 781 Francoeur, Ph.D. Elsa Almås, Cand. Psychol., and Esben Esther Pirelli Benestad, M.D.; Updates by E. Almås and E. E. ICELAND...... 503 Pirelli Benestad Sóley S. Bender, R.N., B.S.N., M.S., Coordinator, with Sigrún Júliíusdóttir, Ph.D., Thorvaldur Kristinsson, OUTER SPACE and ANTARCTICA...... 795 Haraldur Briem, M.D., and Gudrún Jónsdóttir, Ph.D.; Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D.; Updates and new Updates by the Editors material by R. J. Noonan INDIA ...... 516 PAPUA NEW GUINEA...... 813 Jayaji Krishna Nath, M.D., and Vishwarath R. Nayar; Shirley Oliver-Miller; Comments by Edgar Updates by Karen Pechilis-Prentiss, Ph.D., Aparna Gregerson, Ph.D. Kadari, B.A., M.B.A., and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. PHILIPPINES...... 824 INDONESIA...... 533 Jose Florante J. Leyson, M.D.; Updates by Wimpie I. Pangkahila, M.D., Ph.D. (Part 1); Ramsey J. F. J. Leyson Elkholy, Ph.D. (cand.) (Part 2); Updates by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. POLAND ...... 846 Anna Sierzpowska-Ketner, M.D., Ph.D.; Updates by IRAN...... 554 the Editors Paula E. Drew, Ph.D.; Updates and comments by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D.; Comments by F. A. PORTUGAL...... 856 Sadeghpour Nuno Nodin, M.A., with Sara Moreira, and Ana Margarida Ourô, M.A.; Updates by N. Nodin IRELAND...... 569 Thomas Phelim Kelly, M.B.; Updates by Harry A. PUERTO RICO ...... 877 Walsh, Ed.D., and the Editors Luis Montesinos, Ph.D., and Juan Preciado, Ph.D.; Redacted and updated by Felix M. Velázquez-Soto, M.A., ISRAEL ...... 581 and Glorivee Rosario-Pérez, Ph.D., and Carmen Rios Ronny A. Shtarkshall, Ph.D., and Minah Zemach, Ph.D.; Updates by R. A. Shtarkshall and M. Zemach RUSSIA...... 888 Igor S. Kon, Ph.D.; Updates by I. S. Kon ITALY ...... 620 Bruno P. F. Wanrooij, Ph.D.; Updates by SOUTH AFRICA...... 909 B. P. F. Wanrooij Lionel John Nicholas, Ph.D., and Priscilla Sandra Daniels, M.S. (Part 1); Mervyn Bernard Hurwitz, M.D. JAPAN ...... 636 (Part 2); Updates by L. J. Nicholas, Ph.D. Yoshiro Hatano, Ph.D., and Tsuguo Shimazaki; Updates and comments by Yoshimi Kaji, M.A., SOUTH KOREA ...... 933 Timothy Perper, Ph.D., and Martha Cornog, M.S., Hyung-Ki Choi, M.D., Ph.D., and Huso Yi, Ph.D. (cand.), M.A., and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. with Ji-Kan Ryu, M.D., Koon Ho Rha, M.D., and Woong Hee Lee, M.D.; Redacted with additional information KENYA ...... 679 and updated as of March 2003 by Huso Yi, Ph.D. (cand.), Norbert Brockman, Ph.D.; Updates by Paul Mwangi with additional information by Yung-Chung Kim, Kariuki and Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. Ki-Nam Chin, Pilwha Chang, Whasoon Byun, and Jungim Hwang MEXICO ...... 692 Eusebio Rubio, Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors SPAIN ...... 960 Jose Antonio Nieto, Ph.D. (coordinator), with Jose MOROCCO ...... 703 Antonio Carrobles, Ph.D., Manuel Delgado Ruiz, Ph.D., Nadia Kadiri, M.D., and Abderrazak Moussaïd, M.D., Felix Lopez Sanchez, Ph.D., Virginia Maquieira D’Angelo, with Abdelkrim Tirraf, M.D., and Abdallah Jadid, M.D.; Ph.L.D., Josep-Vicent Marques, Ph.D., Bernardo Moreno Translated by Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D., and Dra. Jimenez, Ph.D., Raquel Osborne Verdugo, Ph.D., Carmela Sandra Almeida; Comments by Elaine Hatfield, Ph.D., Sanz Rueda, Ph.D., and Carmelo Vazquez Valverde, Ph.D.; and Richard Rapson, Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors Translated by Laura Berman, Ph.D., and Jose Nanin, Contents vii

M.A.; Updates by Laura Berman, Ph.D., Jose Nanin, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA...... 1127 M.A., and the Editors David L. Weis, Ph.D., and Patricia Barthalow Koch, Ph.D., editors and contributors, with other SRI LANKA ...... 972 contributions by Diane Baker, M.A.; Ph.D.; Sandy Victor C. de Munck, Ph.D.; Comments by Patricia Bargainnier, Ed.D.; Sarah C. Conklin, Ph.D.; Martha Weerakoon, Ph.D. Cornog, M.A., M.S.; Richard Cross, M.D.; Marilyn SWEDEN...... 984 Fithian, Ph.D.; Jeannie Forrest, M.A.; Andrew D. Jan E. Trost, Ph.D., with Mai-Briht Bergstrom-Walan, Forsythe, M.S.; Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., A.C.S.; Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors Barbara Garris, M.A.; Patricia Goodson, Ph.D.; William E. Hartmann, Ph.D.; Robert O. Hawkins, Jr., SWITZERLAND ...... 995 Ph.D.; Linda L. Hendrixson, Ph.D.; Barrie J. Highby, Prof. Johannes Bitzer, M.D., Ph.D., Judith Adler, Ph.D., Ph.D.; Ariadne (Ari) Kane, Ed.D.; Sharon E. King, Prof. Dr. Udo Rauschfleisch Ph.D., Sibil Tschudin, M.S.Ed.; Robert Morgan Lawrence, D.C.; Brenda M.D., Elizabeth Zemp, M.D., and Ulrike Kosta Love; Charlene L. Muehlenhard, Ph.D.; Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D.; Miguel A. Pérez, Ph.D.; Timothy TANZANIA ...... 1009 Perper, Ph.D.; Helda L. Pinzón-Pérez, Ph.D.; Carol Philip Setel, Eleuther Mwageni, Namsifu Mndeme, and Queen, Ph.D.; Herbert P. Samuels, Ph.D.; Julian Yusuf Hemed; Additional comments by Beldina Opiyo- Slowinski, Psy.D.; William Stackhouse, Ph.D.; William Omolo, B.Sc. R. Stayton, Th.D.; and Mitchell S. Tepper, M.P.H. Updates coordinated by Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D., THAILAND...... 1021 and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., with comments and Kittiwut Jod Taywaditep, Ph.D., Eli Coleman, Ph.D., updates by Mark O. Bigler, Ph.D., Walter Bockting, and Pacharin Dumronggittigule, M.Sc.; Updates by Ph.D., Peggy Clarke, M.P.H., Sarah C. Conklin, Ph.D., K. J. Taywaditep, Ryan Bishop, Ph.D., and Lillian S. Al Cooper, Ph.D., Martha Cornog, M.A., M.S., Susan Robinson, Ph.D. Dudley, Ph.D., Warren Farrell, Ph.D., James R. TURKEY ...... 1054 Fleckenstein, Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., Patricia Hamdullah Aydýn, M.D., and Zeynep Gülçat, Ph.D.; Goodson, Ph.D., Erica Goodstone, Ph.D., Karen Allyn Rewritten and updated in 2003 by H. Aydýn and Gordon, M.P.H., Ph.D. (cand.), Eric Griffin-Shelley, Z. Gülçat Ph.D., Robert W. Hatfield, Ph.D., Loraine Hutchins, Ph.D., Michael Hyde, M.F.A., Ph.D. (cand.), Ariadne UKRAINE ...... 1072 (Ari) Kane, Ed.D., Patricia Barthalow Koch, Ph.D., Tamara V. Hovorun, Ph.D., and Borys M. Vornyk, John Money, Ph.D., Charlene L. Muehlenhard, Ph.D., Ph.D. (Medicine); Rewritten and updated in 2003 Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D., Miguel A. Pérez, Ph.D., by T. V. Hovorun and B. M. Vornyk Helda L. Pinzón-Pérez, Ph.D., William Prendergast, Ph.D., Ruth Rubenstein, Ph.D., Herbert P. Samuels, UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN Ph.D., William Taverner, M.A., David L. Weis, Ph.D., AND NORTHERN IRELAND ...... 1093 C. Christine Wheeler, Ph.D., and Walter Williams, Ph.D. Kevan R. Wylie, M.B., Ch.B., M.Med.Sc., M.R.C.Psych., D.S.M., chapter coordinator and contributor, with VIETNAM...... 1337 Anthony Bains, B.A., Tina Ball, Ph.D., Patricia Jakob Pastoetter, Ph.D.; Updates by J. Pastoetter Barnes, M.A., CQSW, BASMT (Accred.), Rohan Collier, Ph.D., Jane Craig, M.B., MRCP (UK), Linda LAST-MINUTE DEVELOPMENTS...... 1363 Added by the Editors after the manuscript had been typeset Delaney, L.L.B., M.Jur., Julia Field, B.A., Danya Glaser, MBBS, D.Ch., FRCPsych., Peter Greenhouse, GLOBAL TRENDS: SOME FINAL M.A., MRCOG, MFFP, Mary Griffin, M.B., M.Sc., IMPRESSIONS...... 1373 MFFP, Margot Huish, B.A., BASMT (Accred.), Anne Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., and Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D. M. Johnson, M.A., M.Sc., M.D., MRCGP, FFPAM, George Kinghorn, M.D., FRCP, Helen Mott, B.A. CONTRIBUTORS and (Hons.), Paula Nicolson, Ph.D., Jane Read, B.A. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... 1377 (Hons.), UKCP, Fran Reader, FRCOG, MFFP, BASMT (Accred.), Gwyneth Sampson, DPM, MRCPsych., AN INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY OF Peter Selman, DPSA, Ph.D., José von Bühler, R.M.N., SEXOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS, Dip.H.S., Jane Wadsworth, B.Sc., M.Sc., Kaye ASSOCIATIONS, AND INSTITUTES...... 1394 Wellings, M.A., M.Sc., and Stephen Whittle, Ph.D.; Compiled by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. Extensive updates and some sections rewritten by the original authors as noted in the text INDEX ...... 1405

For update s, corrections, and links to many of the sites refer ence d in these chapter s, visit The Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity on the Web at http://www.SexQuest.com/ccies/. Read ers of CCIES are invit ed to subm it im portant news items or reports of findings of new sex re search be- ing done in any of the countri es covered here, or any other country in the world. We will try to keep the SexQuest CCIES website update d with your help. Send items in Engli sh if pos sible, with appro pri ate cita - tions, to Ray mond J. Noonan, Ph.D., CCIES Edi tor , Health and Physi cal Edu ca ti on Depart ment, Fashion Insti tute of Technol ogy , 27th Street and 7th Ave nue, New York, NY 10001 USA, or by email to rjnoonan@ SexQuest.com. Spe cial Pricing Just for Us ers of CCIES at The Kinsey In sti tute Website! The Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity (Noonan & Francoeur, 2004)

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(NY residents please add 8.375% sales tax; PA residents please add 6% sales tax) Sales Tax TOTAL CU59 569 ConSexualityIreland:Perspectivetin uum Dem Comographicsplete In andter na a tion Briefal HistoricalEncy clo pe dia of

Ireland (Eire)

Thomas Phelim Kelly, M.B.* Updates by Harry A. Walsh, Ed.D., and the Editors

Contents Demographics and a Brief Historical Perspective 569 1. Basic Sexological Premises 569 2. Religious, Ethnic, and Gender Factors Affecting Sexuality 571 3. Knowledge and Education about Sexuality 572 4. Autoerotic Behaviors and Patterns 573 5. Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors 573 6. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and Bisexual Behaviors 575 7. Gender Diversity and Transgender Issues 575 8. Significant Unconventional Sexual Behaviors 575 9. Contraception, Abortion, and Population Planning 576 10. Sexually Transmitted Diseases and HIV/AIDS 578 (CIA 2002) 11. Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, and Therapies 579 12. Sex Research and Advanced Professional Education 580 References and Suggested Readings 580 HIV/AIDS (1999 est.): Adult prev a lence: 0.1%; Per- sons living with HIV/AIDS: 2,200; Deaths: < 100. (For ad di - tional de tails from www.UNAIDS.org, see end of Sec tion Demographics and a Brief 10B.) Historical Perspective Lit er acy Rate (de fined as those age 15 and over who ROBERT T. FRANCOEUR can read and write): 100% (1993 est.), with 96% at ten dance A. Demographics in nine years of com pul sory school The Re public of Ire land—“Eire” in the Irish lan guage— Per Capita Gross Do mes tic Product (pur chas ing oc cu pies five sixths of the island of Ire land in the North At - power parity ): $27,300 (2001 est.); In fla tion: 4.9%; Un em - lantic Ocean west of Great Britain. Slightly larger than the ploy ment: 4.3%; Liv ing be low the pov erty line: 10% (1997 state of West Vir ginia, Ire land has an area of 27,135 square est.) mile s (70,280 km2). The north east ern cor ner of the is land is North ern Ire land, a part of the United Kingdom. The ter rain B. A Brief Historical Perspective is mostly level-to-roll ing in te rior plains sur rounded by rug - Celtic tribes in vaded what is now Ire land about the 4th ged hills and low moun tains, with sea cliffs on the west ern cen tury B.C.E., bring ing their Gaelic cul ture and lit er a - coast line. The cli mate is tem per ate mar i time, mod er ated by ture. St. Patrick brought Chris tianity to these Celts in the the North At lan tic Cur rent, with mild win ters and cool sum - 5th cen tury C.E. The Norse in va sions, which be gan in the mers. The is land is con sistently humid and overcast about 8th cen tury, ended in 1014 when the Irish King Brian Boru half of the time. de feated the Danes. Eng lish in va sions be gan in the 12th In July 2002, Ire land had an esti mated pop ula tion of cen tury with bit ter re bel lions, fam ines, and sav age re pres - 3.88 million. (All data are from The World Fact book 2002 sions. The East er Mon day Re bel lion (1916) failed, but was (CIA 2002) un less oth er wise stated.) fol lowed by guer rilla war fare and harsh re pres sion by the Age Dis tri bution and Sex Ra tios: 0-14 years: 21.3% English. When the Irish Parlia ment (Dail Eireann) reaf - with 1 male(s) per female (sex ratio); 15-64 years: 67.3% firmed their in de pend ence in 1919, the Brit ish of fered do - with 1.02 male(s) per female; 65 years and over: 11.4% with minion sta tus to the six coun ties of Ul ster and to the 26 0.77 male(s) per female; To tal pop u la tion sex ra tio: 0.98 coun ties of south ern Ire land. The Irish Free State in the male(s) to 1 female south adopted a consti tu tion and do minion sta tus in 1922, Life Ex pec tancy at Birth: To tal Pop u la tion: 77.17 while north ern Ire land re mained a part of the United King - years; male: 74.41 years; fe male: 80.12 years dom. In 1937, a new con sti tu tion was adopted along with Ur ban/Ru ral Dis tri bu tion: 57% to 43% the decla ra tion of Eire (Ireland) as a sover eign dem ocratic Eth nic Dis tri bu tion: Celtic and English state. In 1948, Eire with drew from the Common wealth de - Re li gious Dis tri bu tion: Ro man Cath o lic: 91.6%; Church clar ing it self a re pub lic. The Brit ish Par lia ment rec og- of Ire land: 2.5%; other: 5.9% (1998 est.) nized both ac tions, but re af firmed its con trol over the Birth Rate: 14.62 births per 1,000 popu la tion northeast six counties, a decla ra tion Ireland has never rec- Death Rate: 8.01 per 1,000 popu la tion og nized. De spite re cur ring vi o lence and po lit i cal shifts, Infant Mortal ity Rate: 5.43 deaths per 1,000 live births both the British and the people of Ireland favor a peaceful Net Mi gra tion Rate: 4.12 mi grant(s) per 1,000 pop ula - Ireland:resolution Basic of the Sexological conflict. Premises tion To tal Fer til ity Rate: 1.9 chil dren born per woman 1. Basic Sexological Premises Pop u la tion Growth Rate: 1.07% A. Character of Gender Roles The idea that there are def inite and sepa rate roles for the *Com mu ni ca tions: Harry A. Walsh, Ed.D., 1201 Gulf Course sexes per vades all aspects of Irish so ci ety. In this di vi sion of Road, #1207, Monticello, MN 55362 USA; [email protected]. roles, the femi nine is re garded as sub or di nate to the mascu - 570 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality line. The soci ety is a pa triar chal one where so cial power and dents agreed that men and women should share housework. con trol are as so ci ated with mas cu lin ity. The 1937 Irish In reality, women do the lion’s share. Consti tu tion re flected what was con sidered the main role of Irish women thus: “In partic ular the State rec og nizes that by B. The Sociolegal Status of Males and Females her life within the home, woman gives to the State a support There are no dif ferences between the legal status of male with out which the common good can not be achieved.” This and female children. There are minor dis tinctions between pro vi sion, and the at ti tudes un der ly ing it, have been used to male and female ado les cents. For exam ple, boys may work deny women equality in all spheres of Irish life. in bars at age 16 while women can not work there un til age [Com ment 1997: The cult of the Vir gin Mary is very 18. It is il le gal for a male over age 14 years to have sex ual strong in Ire land. Mary is de picted as a kind of Cinderella— in ter course with a girl under 17 years of age, but the girl con fined to the kitchen with her dreams and fan ta sies. The commits no crime in the same sit ua tion. Homo sex ual acts model pre sented to the women of Ireland is seen at the Mar - un der the age of 17 are il le gal for males, but not for fe males. ian Shrine of Knock in west ern Ire land. In this vision, she The gov ern ment has re cently prom ised leg is la tion that will was re ported to have worn a long dress with a sash, a veil, make dis crim i na tion on the grounds of sex illegal. and wear ing the crown of a rich feu dal lady. Yet, one of the The social status of males and females is reflected in the best-sell ing prayer-cards at the shrine is “The Kitchen gender roles demand ed of each. From a very early age, girls Prayer”: be gin to learn to pre pare them selves for a tra di tion ally femi - nine role in soci ety and boys learn to pre pare for a tra di tion - Lord of all the pots and pans and things . . . ally mascu line role. The femi nine role is regarded as having a Make me a saint by getting sense of so cial value, while men regard themselves person - Meals and washing up plates. ally as supe rior to women. These atti tudes are used as a jus ti- [The im age of the Vir gin Mary held up be fore the eyes of fi ca tion for de ny ing women equal ity and for the fact that po - Irish women re in forces the es tab lished cul tural at ti tude: liti cal, social, and economic power is exercised by men. Women can have their dreams, but their place is in the kitchen. (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] C. General Concepts of Sexuality and Love [Com ment 2003: How ever, the pres ent gen er a tion of The so cial iza tion pro cess and gen der-role stereo typ ing young mothers is quite differ ent from their moth ers. Get ting gen er ally de mands that sex ual ex pres sions be long prop erly a career outside the home in place before starting a fam ily is to the mar ried state of hetero sex ual men and women. The quite com mon. They may be mar ried, but they are in no rush proper ex pres sion of sex u al ity within the mar i tal un ion is to get pregnant the first year or, indeed, for several years af- limited to the act of penile-vagi nal inter course. An inabil ity ter mar riage. In the “old Ire land,” tongues started to wag if a or lack of in cli na tion to en gage in co itus can be grounds for young wife failed to get preg nant within the first year or two annul ment of a mar riage. Childless marriages are gener ally after mar riage. This, of course, raises the question: How are frowned on and the child less cou ple is con sidered self ish. they avoid ing preg nancy? The only rea sonable con clu sion Any overt or sug gested sex ual ex pres sion out side the pri - has to be that they are us ing some method of ar ti fi cial birth vacy of the marriage bed is, at the very least, disap proved con trol. It is hard to imag ine that all young cou ples are em - of. Within mar riage, women are ex pected to be sex u ally ploy ing the nat ural fam ily plan ning method of con tra cep - avail able and to play second fiddle to their husband’s sexual tion—which sug gests that young cou ples are mak ing con - desires. scious deci sions that fly in the face of the moral dic tates of Sex ual ac tiv ity out side mar riage in hetero sex u al re la- their Church. The fact that per sonal con science is tak ing tionships is toler ated to some degree, espe cially if it appears prior ity over insti tu tional conscience is certainly a new that the cou ple may eventu ally marry. How ever, dif ferent feature of Roman Catholicism in Ireland. standards exist for men and women. Males are seen as sex- [Another small, but sig nif i cant, sign of the chang ing ual go-get ters with in stinc tive sex ual urges they can not con - times can be seen in a practice that has become quite com - trol. They are nei ther en cour aged nor ex pected to take re - mon today . Young fe males, when they marry, do not take spon si bil ity for the con se quences of their be hav ior. Fe - their hus band’s name, not even as a sec ond, hy phen ated males are seen as sexu ally pas sive and in need of a male to name. So, if Molly Malone mar ries, she stays Molly Malone. awaken their rela tively weak sexual desires . Because fe- (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] males are seen as more in control, they are held respon sible At the same time, since the advent of the women’s for both their own and the male’s sexual be hav ior. A fur ther movement and Ire land’s join ing with the Eu ro pean Com - twist to the tale is that women must never undermine the munity in 1973, a num ber of le gal re forms have been male’s dominant role in sex. brought about, giving women more or less le gal equal ity. Roman tic love is ide al ized and this ideal is per pet uated But so cially, eco nom i cally, and po lit i cally, women are far in all media forms. Roman tic novels outsell all other types from equal, al though the gap has nar rowed somewhat in the of fic tion. Most peo ple would say they married be cause past 20 years. Women make up about 30% of the workforce, they were “in love.” People who say they are still “in love” but in in dustry , their av er age earn ings are only 67% of the after many years of marriage say so with pride. aver age male earnings. Ireland has the low est em ploy ment The sex u al ity of chil dren, dis abled per sons, the chron i - rate in Europe for moth ers with chil dren un der 5 years of cally ill, the el derly, those who live in insti tu tions, and sin- age. In 1991, 16.7% of mar ried women were in the la bor gle per sons without an op posite-sex part ner is hardly ac - force, compared with 50% in Ger many. There are no pub - knowl edged, let alone rec og nized and respected. licly funded childcare fa cil i ties. Dis crim i na tion against [Com ment 2003: An older, Irish priest recalls the time women is widely prac ticed, and as yet, they have no redress when married women would con fess to ex pe ri enc ing an or - in law. The most power ful posi tions in poli tics, law, medi - gasm when engag ing in sex with their husbands. It was as - cine, the mil i tary, po lice forces, in dus try, uni ver si ties, and sumed that a woman en gaged in sex just to sat isfy her hus - fi nan cial in sti tu tions are held al most ex clu sively by men. band, and that she her self had low or no sex ual de sire. Con - Al though at ti tudes to equal ity have changed con sid er ably se quently, women who expe ri enced or gasm felt that this in recent times, in the social sphere, actual practice lags far must have been the work ing of an evil spirit in side of them; be hind. For ex ample, in a 1986 survey , 95% of the re spon- there fore, she needed to con fess and be for given. The young Ireland: Basic Sexological Premises 571 peo ple of Ire land to day would find it hard to be lieve that tics, and in their views on work, marriage, and the fam ily. such a mental ity existed just a generation back. Many Irish people are at ease with a repub lic that is tradi - [“Boys will be boys and girls will be sluts” was an im- tional, na tion al ist, and Cath o lic. How ever, a grow ing num- bedded, male atti tude. All exam ples em ployed by preach ers ber feel alien ated in such a society. made it clear that the female was respon sible if a cou ple had [Com ment 1997: Ease of travel has made the young peo - sex out side of mar riage. Since she did not have any sex ual ple of Ire land less in sular and more im pa tient with the in su- de sire worth talk ing about, she could main tain her compo - lar men tal ity of the older gener a tion. The youth of Ire land sure and con trol the urges of the aggres sive male. (End of think of Lon don, Paris, Frank furt, and even Boston and Ireland:Afcomfecting ment Religious, by Sexuality H. A. W Ethnic,alsh)] and Gender Factors New York, as “neigh bor ing cit ies,” and have ex po sure to lifestyles and value sys tems that their parents never had. 2. Religious, Ethnic, and Gender [Ca thol i cism and na tion al ism were syn on y mous in the Factors Affecting Sexuality minds of the pre vious gen er a tion. To be Irish was to be Catho lic. Some of Ireland’ s greatest writers went into exile A. Source and Character of Religious Values be cause, al though thor oughly Irish, they were not seen as The Irish are an out stand ingly re li gious peo ple. Over Cath olic enough. The young Irish to day do not see Ca thol i - 90% of the pop u la tion are Ro man Cath o lic and 3% Prot - cism as a neces sary compo nent of self-identity . They seem estant. Eighty per cent attend church at least weekly and to un der stand where cul ture leaves off and real faith be gins. about 50% ex press a great deal of con fi dence in their Con se quently, they can dis card el e ments of Cath o lic or tho - Church. Among the youn ger gen er a tion, there is less ac cep - doxy with greater ease and feel no guilt about be ing un-Irish tance of or tho dox be liefs and re li gious prac tices, but the dif - when they do so. (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] ference between gen era tions is not nearly as great as that [Com ment 2003: The Ro man Cath olic Church in Ire land found in other Western countries. faces an enor mous chal lenge in to day’s Ire land. For one Ro man Ca thol i cism greatly in flu ences all as pects of thing, the trust level be tween Church and people has been Irish life. Since its foun da tion, the state laws have comple - damaged se ri ously by rev e la tions of clergy sex ual abuse. In mented Cath olic Church laws. Until 1972, the Irish Con sti - the for mer Ire land, the common thinking was: If you had a tu tion paid hom age to the “special po sition” of the Cath olic doc tor in the family , you were blessed; if you had a priest Church in Irish life. [Com ment 1997: This resulted, until re- and a doc tor in the family , you were saved. Par ents are not cently, in an un re solved is sue of Church an nul ments vis-à- hold ing up priest hood as an ideal to their chil dren as they vis the con sti tu tional pro hi bi tion against di vorce. Af ter the used to do. (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] con sti tu tional pro hi bi tion against di vorce was re voked in a For some, the shift to wards greater per missive ness and No vem ber 1995 ref er en dum, it be came pos si ble for the es ti - tol er ance that be gan in the 1960s is pro gressing too quickly, mated 80,000 sep a rated Irish cou ples to ob tain a civ i l di - for oth ers too slowly. There is a con stant ten sion be tween vorce. The Church has, in re cent years, granted an nul ments, old and new ide ol o gies, be tween Ca thol i cism and na tion al - dubbed “di vorce Irish-style,” and per mitted re marriage, but ism on the one hand, and lib er al ism and mate ri al ism on the an nul ments were and re main dif fi cult to ob tain from Church other. Until recently , the battle lines were clearly drawn, but au thor i ties. (End of comment by H. A. Walsh)] now some are at tempt ing a synthe sis of these seem ingly [Com ment 2003: Since the Irish are en joy ing new contra dic tory val ues. Fore most in this attempt is the Irish wealth, the promise of “the grass of a goat and a cow” is an - President, Mary Robinson. cient folk lore to di vorc ing fe males to day. If the di vorc ing [Com ment 2003: It is true that the Irish of the last gener - husband has wealth, women are de manding their fair cut. a tion packed their churches on week ends. However , the Also, be cause of the new wealth of the country , thou sands drop-off in church at ten dance by to day’s youth would lead of Irish in America are re turn ing home. Some are re turn ing one to ask: What brought the pre vious gen er a tion to church with sec ond wives. The old put-down about “driv ing a sec - in such great num bers? Was it faith or fa ther land? There ond-hand car” (marry ing a di vorced per son) has lost its was a say ing in Ire land: “It’s eas ier to go to church than to sarcas tic bite in today’s Ireland. stay away, because, if you stay away, every one will be talk- State schools, which the ma jor ity of chil dren at tend, are ing about you.” It was the cul tural thing to do. Also, Ire land mainly run by re li gious or ga ni za tions. [Com ment 1997: had been touched by the Ref or mation Wars through peo ple However , be cause of ag ing and a de cline in voca tions, like Henry VIII, Ol i ver Cromwell, and Queen Eliz a beth I. many teach ing and ad min is tra tive po si tions in schools, So, to go to church was a pa tri otic act, a de fi ance of Eng lish once held by re li gious orders, are now filled by la ity. This Protes tant ism. To be Irish was to be Cath olic. To be Irish has caused some tension in recent years as lay ed uca tors be - and Cath o lic was to be an ti-Brit ish and an ti-Prot es tant ism. come more con scious of hav ing po lit i cal clout. (End of To say that the Irish packed their churches be cause of pure com ment by H. A. Walsh)] Reli gious bodies also play a ma - faith would be an ex ag ger a tion. Faith they had, but not in jor role in the pro vi sion of the country’s nonprimary health - its pur est form, be cause na tion al ism was part of the mix. care services. Because faith is a unify ing force, the fact that the “faith” of This perva sive reli gious in fluence is reflected in the way the Brit ish and the “faith” of the Irish kept them fight ing sex u al ity is treated on po lit i cal, so cial, and per sonal lev els. each other for cen tu ries surely makes one wonder how It is re flected in the type of cen sorship of books, films, and “faith-ful” ei ther was. So, if Irish youth are not at tend ing tele vision programs that prevails. It is re flected in the laws church as regu larly as the gener a tion ahead of them, it may re lat ing to hu man re pro duc tion, the lack of sex ed u ca tion in not indi cate a lack of faith but, rather, a search for a faith the schools, and the ab sence of the study of sex u al ity in any that co mes without the trap pings of na tion al ism and cul - academic institution. tural pres sures. Church lead ers who are cry ing in their On a per sonal level, sex is asso ci ated with fear and guilt Guinnesses over the fact that youth are not coming to for many peo ple, and even in com munal, sin gle-sex show - church as faith fully as their par ents did, need to un der stand ers, nu dity is unusual. There is ev i dence, however , of some that the old Ref or mation Wars have no rel e vance for young de cline in re li gious in flu ence over the past ten or so years. Irish boys and girls today . The biases that still work with The Irish people as a whole are charac ter ized by con- some success in North ern Ire land are ir rel e vant to young servativism—con ser va tive in re li gion, in mo ral ity, in pol i - peo ple in the Re public. (End of comment by H. A. Walsh)] 572 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

B. Source and Character of Ethnic Values her baby died dur ing child birth in a field in the middle of [Com ment 1997: In the 4th century B.C.E., Celtic tribes win ter. She had not told any body that she was preg nant. invaded what is now Ireland, where their Gaelic culture and Follow ing this tragic event, sex edu ca tion became a matter liter a ture flourished. The Celtic worldview was dualistic, of pub li c and po lit i cal de bate. The Min is ter for Ed u ca tion di vid ing the world into two oppos ing subworlds, one of planned a re form of second ary level edu ca tion to in clude light, good, and spirit, and the other of dark ness, evil, sin, per sonal and so cial skills train ing, in clud ing sex ed u ca tion, and body. In the 5th cen tury C.E., St. Pat rick con verted the in the new cur ric u lum. The gov ern ment’s Health Ed u ca tion Celts to Chris tian ity. Some an thro pol o gists have sug gested Bureau began train ing teachers to teach this new as pect of that a major factor in the nega tive and repres sive view of the cur ric u lum. However , this re form was not imple mented sexu al ity that per vades Irish culture may be traced to the be cause of po lit i cal, re li gious, and pres sure-group op po si- adop tion of the origi nal Celtic dualistic phi loso phy by cel i - tion. None the less, over 2,000 teach ers have been trained so bate Chris tian monks who found it con ge nial to their own far to deal with sexu al ity and personal rela tionships . A criti - apoc a lyp tic vi sion. (End of com ment by R. T. Francoeur)] cism of this train ing has been that it does not place enough [Com ment 1997: Mo nas ti cism in tro duced an as ceti cal empha sis on how polit i cal, religious, economic, and social el e ment into Irish spir i tu al ity. To this day, thou sands of Irish factors shape sexuality, values, and personal relationships. seek out the bar ren ness of mountains and is lands to do pen - In 1987, the De part ment of Ed uca tion is sued guide lines ance for their sins of the flesh. Suf fer ing is seen as mer i to ri - to postprimary schools rec ommend ing that sex and re la - ous, something to be “of fered up” in un ion with Christ on tion ship ed u ca tion be in te grated into all sub jects. These the Cross or for the re lease of “the poor souls in pur ga tory.” guide lines also rec om mended that such ed u ca tion should Since suf fering was seen as meri to ri ous, it was natu ral that not be sec u lar and would re quire a re li gious in put. Par ents plea sure would be suspect. Sex was “a stolen plea sure.” were to be fully in volved in the pro cess. Whether or not and (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] how schools imple ment these guide lines is not known, but it [Com ment 1997: In the 17th and 18th cen tu ries, Irish ap pears that few schools have adopted them. In a Green Pa- youth were trained for the clergy in France where they were per on Ed u ca tion (1992), the gov ern ment pro posed that fu - strongly in flu enced by an other dualistic cur rent, French ture cur ric ula will pro vide for “sex u al ity ed u ca tion ap pro - Jan sen ism. The Jansenists saw the world torn be tween two pri ate to all lev els of pu pils, beginning in the early stages of oppos ing forces of good and evil. Jan sen ism stressed the primary education.” cor rupt ibil ity of hu man na ture and its sinful, evil ten den - The gov ern ment-con trolled East ern Health Board has cies, as soci ated the body and emo tions with evil, and glo ri - ini ti ated a Child Abuse Pre ven tion Pro gram in pri mary fied the as cetic denial of all “worldly” de sires (Mes senger schools. The pro gram en cour ages chil dren to ex er cise con - 1971; Francoeur 1982, 58-60). trol, to be as ser tive, and to seek help for any problem. Crit - [Eng lish in va sions and col o ni za tion started in the 12th ics claim that it dwells on nega tive aspects of sexu al ity, is cen tury, and the re sult ing 700 years of strug gle, marked by too nar row in its scope, and places re sponsi bil ity for avoid - bit ter re bel lions and sav age re pres sions, have left their ing abuse on po ten tial victims rather than on adults. mark on Irish cul ture. Eng lish tax a tion, limits on in dustri al - It appears that there is wide varia tion in the ways in iza tion, and re stric tions on the kinds of crops Irish farm ers which in di vid ual schools pro vide sex ed u ca tion. Some pro - could raise helped create a soci ety in which marriage of the vide none; oth ers set aside a par tic ular day or days and pro - off spring was de layed to pro vide man ual la bor for the farm vide ex pert speak ers. More fre quently, it is in cor po rated and sup port for the par ents. In the system of pri mogen i ture, into one or two school sub jects, usu ally sci ence and/or re li - the first-born son in her ited the en tire pa ter nal home stead, gion. Sur veys re veal that the ma jor ity want a more com pre - be cause di vid ing up the farm land among all the sons would hen sive school sex ed uca tion that be gins early in school ing leave none with a vi a ble eco nomic base. With few other and is in de pend ent of religious instruction. eco nomic op por tu ni ties avail able, the other offspring fre - No infor mation is avail able on the pro vi sion of sex ed u - quently became priests or nuns, or emigrated. ca tion in spe cial schools, such as those for men tally hand i - [This com bi na tion of re li gious du al ism and eco nomic capped persons. pres sures has re sulted in a so ci ety strongly domi nated by the [Com ment 1997: Higher ed uca tion was not avail able to clergy and re li gious, with late mar riages for those who most Irish in the first half of the 20th cen tury. The priests, marry, and a sex ually re pressive value system that holds celi - school teach ers, and lo cal doc tor, if the town had one, were bacy and sexual absti nence in great esteem (Stahl 1979). the only ones with a higher ed u ca tion. This gave the clergy (End of com ment by R. T. Francoeur)] enor mous power. Many of them were, for all prac ti cal pur - In 1922, North ern Ire land chose to re main part of the poses, may ors of the towns. With Irish uni ver sities turn ing United King dom, while the Irish Free State adopted a con sti - out thou sands of grad u ates to day, the clergy have to deal tu tion as a Brit ish domin ion. In 1937, the Irish Free State re - with an ed u cated youth. Older Irish people obeyed in stinc - jected domin ion sta tus and de clared it self a sov er eign dem o - tively when the Church ruled on something. The young cratic state. In 1948, the Irish Free State withdrew from the Irish to day test the pro nounce ments to see if they make Brit ish Common wealth and de clared itself a republic. sense or not. If not, they say so. The older Irish were too su - [Ed i tor’s Note: John C. Mes sen ger has pro vided ex ten - per sti tious to dis agree with the Church (“God will get you sive ethnographic ob ser va tions of “Sex and Re pres sion in an for that”). The avail abil ity of higher ed u ca tion has re sulted Irish Folk Commu nity ” in a small is land com munity of the in young Irish men and women test ing the eth i cal po sitions Ireland:Gaeltacht Knowledge he calls Inis Baegand Education (see Marshall about & S uggsSexuality 1971).] of Cath o lic or tho doxy. (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] 3. Knowledge and Education B. Informal Sources of Sexual Knowledge about Sexuality The Du rex Re port—Ire land (1993), de signed to be sta - tis ti cally rep re sentative of the adult popu la tion aged 17 to A. Government Policies and Programs 49 years liv ing in the Re public of Ire land, found that the fol - for Sex Education low ing were the main sources of sexual in for mation: own Prior to 1984, the gov ern ment had no for mal pol i cies re - friends, 36%; mother, 23%; books and mag a zines, 12%; re - gard ing sex ed uca tion. In that year, a 15-year-old girl and li gious teacher, 10%; lay teacher, 10%; fa ther, 5%; and sis - Ireland: Knowledge and Education about Sexuality 573 ters or broth ers, 5%. Six teen per cent of this sample be lieved sex toys in Ire land. Sex ually ex plicit books, maga zines, and that the teach ing of sex ed uca tion should be di rectly in flu - videos have become in creasingly available in recent years, enced by their Church’s teachings. and these un doubt edly sometimes play a part in auto eroti c An other na tion ally rep re sentative sur vey car ried out by ac tiv i ties. Un usual auto eroti c prac tices some times come to The Irish Times (1990) found that 95% of ur ban dwell ers light through the work of cor oners and doc tors. One of these and 92% of ru ral dwell ers were in fa vor of pro vid ing sex ed - is the use of as phyxi a tion tech niques to heighten sen sa tion uca tion in the schools. A Health Ed u ca tion Bu reau study in dur ing self-pleasuring. Other ex amples are the use of penile 1986 of a na tional random sample of 1,000 par ents found con strict ing de vices, or “cock rings.” It appears, too, that that 64% learned about sex from friends, 37% from books, Ireland:drug use isInterpersonal sometimes as Heterosexualsociated with autoerotic Behaviors activities. 23% from mother, 6% from both par ents, 2% from fa ther, and 11% from a teacher. Thirty-two percent stated that they 5. Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors had not them selves pro vided sex ed uca tion for their chil - A. Children dren and one in three of these par ents stated that they did not In Deehan and Fitzpatrick’s (1993) study, less than half intend to do so. the par ents stated that their child had shown in ter est in the Although sex ed u ca tion is firmly on the po lit i cal and so - bod ies of oth ers. Where in ter est was shown, 46% men- cial agenda in Ireland, consen sus has not yet been reached tioned the in ter est was in the mother’s breasts or gen i tal by those who con trol ed u ca tion on how it should be in cor - area; 25% men tioned sib ling’s gen i tals as the fo cus of in ter - porated into the school cur ric u lum. Mean while, the needs est. Sex ual ized play that in volved look ing at an other child’s Ireland:of chil dren Autoerotic and ad o les Behaviors cents go largely and Patterns unheeded. but tocks or gen i tals was re ported by 23% of par ents. How - ever, par ents al ways qual i fied their an swers by adding that 4. Autoerotic Behaviors and Patterns this had only taken place in a sit u a tion where the child A. Children and Adolescents would need to be undressed. The first Irish study of child hood sex ual be hav ior When parents were read a list of possi ble sex games their (Deehan & Fitzpatrick 1993) assessed sexual be hav ior of child might have en gaged in, 7% re ported gen i tal touching chil dren as per ceived by their par ents. It was not na tion ally games and 4% said that their child had been ly ing on top of repre sentativ e and had a middle-clas s bias. More than half another child in im ita tion of a sexual act. Simu lated inter - of the par ents re ported that their child had shown no in ter - course or kiss ing or lick ing of the gen i tals was not re ported est in his or her own gen i tals. Boys were much more likely by any parents. Thirteen percent of the children were re- to show such inter est, as were younger chil dren. Thirty- ported to share a bed, usu ally with sib lings. This was dis tin - seven per cent re ported that their child played with his or guished from chil dren go ing reg u larly to the par ents’ or sib - her gen i tals. Most par ents said this oc curred openly in the ling’s bed, which was re ported by 64% and 39%, re spec - home. Sixteen percent described such play as self-pleas - tively. Bath ing or shower ing with other family members uring, most re gard ing this as a com fort habit or “nerv ous oc curred in 78% of 3- to 5-year-olds, 68% of 6- to 9-year- fid dling.” It is probable that much child hood auto eroti c olds, and 33% of 10- to 12-year-olds. These sit u a tions pro - be hav ior does not come to the attention of parents. vide op por tu ni ties for sex ual ex plo ra tion of which the The im pres sion that auto eroti c be hav ior is com mon in parents would not necessarily be aware. ado les cence comes from the frequency with which it is con- demned by the clergy re act ing to the fre quency with which B. Adolescents this “sinful be hav ior” is con fessed, the high propor tion of Puberty Rituals let ters to “Agony Aunts” on the sub ject, and the fre quent us - There are no rit u als to mark the mile stone of pu berty in age of slang words for self-pleasuring, par tic ularly among Irish life. In the Deehan and Fitzpatrick (1993) study, par - adolescent boys. ents re ported hav ing dis cussed breast de vel op ment with [Com ment 1997: Only 50 mile s (80.5 km) sepa rate Ire - 38% of daugh ters and 20% of sons, men strua tion with 26% land from Eng land, the home of Victorianism. During Vic - of daugh ters and 7% of sons, pu bic hair de vel opment with to rian times, Ire land was oc cu pied by Eng land. The Vic to - 40% of daugh ters and 20% of sons, erec tions with 11% of rian frenzy about mas tur ba tion crossed the Irish Sea, and sons and 5% of daugh ters, and wet dreams with 4% of sons with it much of the in ac cu rate “sci en tific” in for ma tion and 3% of daugh ters. The vast major ity of those chil dren about the health risks to those who mas tur bate, the so-called were prepubertal. An in creas ing number of pri mary school de gen er acy the ory. Both the Church and the med i cal pro - teach ers are dis cussing puberty with their pupils. fes sion re flected Vic to rian at ti tudes to auto eroti cism in Ire- land. Even the lan guage of Vic to rian Eng land crossed the Premarital Sexual Activities and Relationships Irish Sea, with mas tur ba tion be ing known as “self-abuse,” The only survey to date on pre mari tal sex ual ac tiv ity in “the sol i tary vice,” and so on. However , the Irish have a way ad oles cence was con duced in 1991 by Ni Riordain among of molding the Eng lish lan guage. While church men and 2,000 fe male 12- to 17-year-old stu dents in the prov ince of phy sicians spoke of the “sol i tary vice” and “self-abuse,” the Munster . It re vealed that 25% of the 17-year-olds, 10% of na tive Irish be gan to speak of “pull ing the wire” and “play - the 15-year-olds, and 1% of the 12-year-olds had ex pe ri - ing the tea pot.” (End of comment by H. A. Walsh)] enced sex ual inter cours e. In the same year, teenage extra - mari tal births accounted for 26% of all extra mar i tal births B. Adults and 4.7% of all births. These fig ures suggest that the tra di - No studies have been car ried out to in di cate the ex tent or tional re li gious and so cial ta boos re gard ing pre mar i tal sex di ver sity of adult auto eroti c be hav ior. There are in di ca tions that were ef fec tive for so long are no lon ger so. It ap pears that some men who en gage in self-pleasuring dur ing ad o - that ado les cents are sexu ally ac tive to a degree that would les cence stop do ing so when they reach adult hood be cause be un think able to their par ents as ad o les cents. In ad di tion to of the stigma of im matu rity at tached to it. This seems to be the change in ad oles cents’ at ti tudes to wards sex, there is the partic u larly so in the case of married men. In con trast, there fact that today’ s teenag ers also have greater freedom to are some in di ca tions that many women engage in self- meet and spend time with po ten tial sex ual part ners. Mixed pleasuring for the first time in adult hood. In re cent years, schools, teen age dis cos and other so cial events, trips away there has been an in creas ing mar ket for vi bra tors and other from home, and fewer so cial re stric tions by par ents pro vide 574 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality sex ual op por tu ni ties that were not here to fore avail able. The house holds were sin gle-par ent fam i lies, with mar ried cou - for mation of cou ple re la tion ships with an understanding of ples with chil dren mak ing up 48% of the house holds. The some degree of exclusivity seems to be occurring at a vast ma jor ity of single par ents are women. On av er age, they progressively earlier age. have lower in comes than other women with chil dren and a higher risk of pov erty. Most sin gle par ents are de pend ent on C. Adults the state for their main or only source of in come. Sin gle Premarital Courtship, Dating, and Relationships mothers or fa thers who co habit are not classified as single The most com mon pat tern in pre mar i tal hetero sex u al re - parents. lation ships is that of a series of more or less “steady” re la- Within two-par ent house holds, there has been a change tion ships lead ing even tu ally to en gage ment and mar riage. A from the tra di tional pat tern char ac ter ized by a dom i nant pa - “steady” re la tion ship usually in volves a high de gree of mu - triar chy , a rather severe author ity system, and a gener ally tual af fec tion and sex ual ex clu siv ity. Part ners usu ally get to nonexpressive emo tional econ omy. There was a rig idly de - know and social ize with one another’s family and friends. fined di vi sion of la bor, with moth ers spe cial iz ing in emo - Dances, workplaces, col leges and other postsecondary tion ally support ive roles. The modern trend is to ward a mar - ed u ca tional in sti tu tions, and so cial net works, ap pear to pro - riage where both husband and wife are ex pected to achieve vide the most op por tu ni ties for meet ing pro spec tive part - a high de gree of com pat i bil i ties based on shared in ter ests ners, but par ents, in par tic u lar, are not slow in let ting a son and com ple men tary dif fer ences. Rather than be ing de fined or daugh ter know that they con sider a par tic u lar per son to and le git i mized within closed com mu nal sys tems, in ter per- be an unsuitable partner. son al re la tion ships are geared to ward in di vid ual self-de vel - Between “steady” rela tion ships , there may be a se ries of op ment. Part of this trend is that an in creas ing number of short-lived re la tion ships, and “one-night stands” seem to be married women are employed for wages, and more married in creas ingly com mon. Oth er wise, there may be pe ri ods of men are assuming childcare and housekeeping duties. vary ing length where peo ple show no in ter est in close The Du rex Re port—Ire land (1993) in cluded ques tions hetero sex u al relationships. re gard ing fre quency of sex ual in ter course, change in sex ual A de ci sion to marry is usually marked by an “en gage - be hav ior in re la tion to the aware ness of AIDS, and the num- ment,” when the cou ple an nounce their in ten tion to fam ily ber of sex ual part ners in the pre vious 12 months. Daily co - and friends. Rings are usu ally ex changed and a cel e bra tion itus was re ported by 2% of married and sin gle adults. Forty- party held. Most cou ples in steady hetero sex u al re la tion - five per cent of mar ried and 25% of sin gle peo ple re ported ships appear to en gage in sex ual in ter course, though this in ter course once or twice a week; 13% and 10%, re spec - fact would rarely be openly ac knowl edged within their tively, re ported a fre quency of once or twice a month. Three fami lies. When such cou ples spend the night in a fam ily per cent of mar ried and 36% of sin gle peo ple said they were home, they are usu ally shown to sepa rate bed rooms. More not sex ually ac tive. Mar ried men and women av er aged 1.05 and more cou ples are choos ing to co habit, of ten caus ing and 1.03 sex ual part ners, re spec tively, in the pre vious year. consid er able conflict with family, particularly for women. Single men av er aged 2.72 part ners and single women 1.25 Single Adults partners in the previous 12 months. Lit tle is known about the sex ual be hav ior and re la tion - Faith ful ness within mar riage is highly val ued. In the ships of single adults. The cultural imper a tive to marry is so 1983 Eu ro pean Value Sys tems Sur vey, 98% of the Irish re - strong that older single adults, es pe cially women, are of ten spondents con sidered it as very impor tant for a suc cess ful re ferred to in pe jo ra tive terms. Despite this, more and more marriage. In the same study, 12% said they con sidered mar - adults are re maining sin gle. In 1986, 39% of the adult popu - riage to be an out dated in sti tu tion; less than 1% were co hab - la tion were single. it ing. In law, a per son may have only one hus band or wife. Oc ca sional in stances of bigamy come to light. Marriage, the Family, and Divorce In Novem ber 1995, Irish vot ers ap proved a ref er en dum Until the 1960s, Ire land pro vided an ex ample of a Mal - le gal iz ing di vorce. The orig i nal Irish Con sti tu tion had thu sian pop u la tion, such that al though fer til ity was high, stated that “No law shall be en acted pro vid ing for the grant popu la tion growth was con trolled through the de lay ing or of a dis solu tion of mar riage.” A 1986 ref er en dum on an avoid ance of mar riage. Since then, Ire land has moved rap - amend ment to al low di vorce was re jected by 63.3% of the idly to ward a neo-Mal thu sian type of pop ula tion con trol, vot ers. Re cent opin ion polls sug gest that the major ity with gen er ally in creas ing nuptiality and de clin ing mar i tal would now vote for such an amend ment; the gov ern ment fer til ity. In 1961, the crude mar riage rate was 5.4 per 1,000 pro posed hold ing a sec ond ref er en dum in 1994. In the popu la tion. This rose to 7.4 in 1973, but has been de clin ing 1991 cen sus, just over 2% of adults classified themselves since to 4.6 in 1993. The me dian age of mar riage shows a as separated. simi lar pat tern. In 1945-46, this was 33.1 years for grooms [Com ment 1997: In Decem ber 1993, after a Matri mo - and 28 years for brides. This fell to 25 and 23.2, re spec - nial Home Bill had been ap proved by Par lia ment, the Re - tively, in 1977, but by 1990 had risen to 28.6 for grooms and pub lic’s Presi dent, Mrs. Mary Rob in son, sent the bill to the 26.6 for brides. Supreme Court for a re view of its con sti tu tion al ity. This un - The crude birth rate per 1,000 popu la tion re mained more ex pected move ap peared to be an ef fort to avoid a pro tracted or less con stant at around 22 un til 1980. How ever, be tween bat tle in 1994, when the peo ple were sched uled to vote 1961 and 1981, mar i tal fer til ity de clined 37%, with a cor re - again whether to legal ize divorce. The matri mo nial bill was spond ing in crease in the ex tra mar i tal birth rate. Since 1980, intended to replace the tradi tional practice of almos t always the crude birth rate has fallen dra mati cally to 15 per 1,000. giv ing the home to the husband with joint own er ship of The ex tra mar i tal fer til ity rate has con tin ued to in crease, ac - homes in di vorce settle ments . After a year’s delay , in No- count ing for 16.6% of live births in 1991, with 28.6% of ex - vember 1995, a scant major ity of 0.4% of the vot ers, tra mar i tal births be ing to teen ag ers. Mar riage has de clined slightly over 9,100 votes out of more than 1.6 mil lion votes in pop u lar ity in the past 20 years; women are hav ing fewer cast in a coun try of 3.5 mil lion peo ple, le gal ized di vorce. In children and having them at an earlier age. mid-1996, the Su preme Court of Ire land re jected a chal - As ex tra mar i tal births in crease, so have sin gle-par ent lenge and confirmed the pro-di vorce vote of No vember fami lies. The 1991 census revealed that at least 16% of 1995. (End of comment by R. T. Francoeur)] Ireland: Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors 575

[Com ment 2002: Di vorce was for bid den by the Con sti - While lit tle or no re search has been car ried out on homo - tu tion. The ref er en dum to amend the Con sti tu tion in 1996 sexu al expe ri ences, it ap pears that these are common in ad- led to a fight of Irish pro por tions. An ti-di vorce cam paign ers oles cence, partic u larly for males. It may be just as common ran with the slo gan: “Hello di vorce, good bye daddy.” The for girls, but the greater general toler ance for male sexual Cath olic Church threw all its re sources be hind the an ti-di - expres sion makes it more likely that one becomes aware of vorce cam paign. Even the Pope in ter vened the day be fore the male homosexual. the vote, call ing on the Irish peo ple to vote “no.” Those fa - Gay men and les bi ans tend to meet in par tic ular bars, vor ing a change used some emerg ing, cler i cal sex scan dals. discos, saunas, and clubs. These are con centrated in cit ies, They showed a pic ture of a prom i nent Irish Bishop who re - par tic u larly in Dub lin. Re la tion ships formed can in clude signed af ter ad mitting that he had fa thered a son in Con nect - brief anon y mous sexual en coun ters, a se ries of sex ual i cut. The cap tion read: “Let the Bish ops look af ter their own friend ships, an open re la tion ship with a pri mary part ner, or fami lies. Vote ‘Yes.’” It seems that dis gust over cleri cal sex- a closed mo nog a mous re la tion ship. Cruis ing, in which sex - ual miscon duct won the day—but not by much. The fi nal ual part ners are sought in pub li c places, such as parks and vote was 50.3% in fa vor, 49.7% against. In round body toilets, seems to be lim ited to gay men. Bisex ual married numbers, the mar gin of vic tory was only 9,114 out of 1.6 men also appear to favor these outlets. million ballots cast. The one problem with the new Family Tele phone sup port and in for mation lines are run in the Divorce Law is that its lan guage is so in compre hen sible that major cit ies by gay and les bian or ga ni za tions. They also the av er age per son will not be able to un der stand it, and it is provide facil i ties for meetings and social events. Gay and so packed with clauses and sub clauses, that even at tor neys les bian pub li ca tions are widely dis trib uted, and pub li ca - will have trou ble inter pret ing it. It seems that all this pad- tions by the Gay Health Ac tion or ga ni za tion have been in ding was in serted to give the im pres sion that a di vorce the fore front in keep ing all seg ments of the com munity in - would be dif fi cult to get. Pos sibly the fram ers hoped that re - formed about HIV infection and AIDS. stric tions would make the bill more pal at able. For ex ample, In 1993, the gov ern ment re pealed the ex ist ing law mak - the bill states that couples must be separated for four years ing homosex ual acts be tween men in pub li c or pri vate il le - before a divorce will be granted. gal, giving all such acts the same legal status as heterosex u - [Other in di ca tions that at ti tudes have changed in Ire land: al acts. The ex tent of the reform surprised many, since a It is no lon ger il le gal for Irish women to travel abroad for an more limited re form would have re solved a rul ing by the abor tion; homo sex u ali ty was re moved from the Crim i nal Eu ro pean Court of Hu man Rights in 1988 that Ire land’s Code; be tween 1974 and 1992, the birth rate dropped by half; laws on homosex u ali ty were in breach of the Eu ro pean and, le gal re stric tions on the pur chase of con doms were Conven tion on Hu man Rights. The gov ern ment has also dropped. (End of com ment by H. A. Walsh)] ini ti ated in tro duc tion of spe cific leg is la tion to out law dis- crim i na tion on the grounds of sex and sex ual orientation in Sexuality and the Physically Disabled Ireland:both employ Genderment Diversity and social and areas. Transgender Issues and Elderly At ti tudes about the sex u al ity of phys i cally and men tally 7. Gender Diversity and hand i capped per sons and the el derly are gen er ally neg a tive. Transgender Issues In the train ing of teachers and health per sonnel who work Transves tism and transsexualism are so marginalized as with the hand i capped and the el derly, sex u al ity in given lit - to be al most in vis i ble. How ever, peo ple are gen er ally aware tle or no atten tion. Insti tu tions in general make little provi - of both phe nomena and transves tism appears to be quite sion for the sexual needs of their residents. common. There are a number of trans sex ual peo ple, but all Incidence of Oral and Anal Sex would have un der gone gen der-re as sign ment sur gery abroad. The in ci dence of these sex ual ex pres sions is unknown. It is probable that most hospi tal ethi cal commit tees would Oral sex appears to be rela tively common and anal sex not per mit the pro ce dure. At pres ent, it is not possi ble to al ter much less so. There are no le gal re stric tions on any of these one’s birth cer tif i cate to change the sex des ig nated at birth. Ireland:Behaviorsactivities. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and Bisexual There are no legal restrictions on transvestism. [Com ment 1997: Transves tites have a way of act ing out 6. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and their transves tism that is cultur ally ac cepted. They can join Bisexual Behaviors a fife-and-drum band or be long to a troupe of tra di tional Ireland:dancers, andSignificant wear kil ts.Unconventional (End of com ment Sexual by H. A. Behaviors Walsh)] Rep re sen ta tion of hetero sex u ali ty as the only ac cept able sex ual ex pres sion is di rectly linked to the wider re la tion - 8. Significant Unconventional ships between the sexes in soci ety . The fam ily, based on marriage, is promoted as the only valid so cial unit. Homo- Sexual Behaviors sexu al men and lesbian women are seen as a threat, and are A. Coercive Sex marginalized, os tra cized, and dis crim i nated against. They Sexual Abuse, Incest, and Pedophilia can be, and are, dismissed from jobs and denied pro mo- In the past decade, there has been a growing awareness tions. In cus tody pro ceed ings, they can have their chil dren that child sex ual abuse is com mon and wide spread in Ire land. taken from them on the ba sis of their sex ual ori en ta tion. A 1987 survey of Dublin adults re vealed an in ci dence of 6% They can not adopt chil dren. They are the tar gets of per va - for males and fe males. However , this sur vey asked only sive social prej u dice, of ten amounting to open hostility and about dig i tal-gen i tal and penile-gen i tal con tact. There has physical assault. been much con tro versy and some de nial con cern ing child The so ci etal mes sages to which young peo ple are ex - sex ual abuse, but there are now signs of of fi cial rec ogni tion posed almos t entirely omit the ex peri ences, desires , and of the prob lem. An in te grated ap proach in volv ing dif fer ent hopes of young les bi ans and gay men, as they do with all disci plines is be ing de vel oped in an effort to re duce its in ci - minor ity groups. Those im ages that do oc cur are al most al- dence and to treat victims . Follow ing the success of a recent ways neg a tive ste reo types and car i ca tures. Young homo- pi lot pro ject, plans are to intro duce a full treat ment pro gram sex uals face an even greater bur den of sex ual guilt and con - for abus ers. A Child Abuse Pre ven tion Pro gram has been in - fu sion than is the norm in other societies. tro duced in pri mary schools, but is not uni ver sally sup- 576 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality ported. One crit i cism has been that it places too much Sexual Harassment responsibility on children for prevention of such abuse. Irish leg is la tion does not spe cif i cally ad dress the prob - A 1989 study of 512 con firmed cases of child sex ual lem of sexual harass ment. The Minis ter for Equality and abuse in a health board area re vealed only 55 crim i nal pros - Law Reform has indi cated that such legis la tion will be in - e cu tions (10.7%). Sen tenc ing ranged from a seven-year jail tro duced. Since 1985, vic tims of sexual ha rassment can term to ap plica tion of the Proba tion Act. Po lice statis tics for pur sue claims against employ ers un der the Em ploy ment 1991 in clude only six re ported or known in cest of fenses, a Equal ity Act. A survey of per sonnel man ag ers, con ducted gross under state ment of actual inci dence. Legally , a male is by the Dub lin Rape Cri sis Center in 1993, found that in ci - pro hib ited from hav ing sex ual in ter course with his daugh - dents of sex ual ha rassment had been brought to the at ten - ter, grand daugh ter, sis ter, or mother, and a fe male from hav - tion of man age ment in 40% of the com pa nies. Half of the ing in ter course with her son, fa ther, grand fa ther, or brother. compa nies did not have a spe cific sex ual ha rassment policy When the vic tim is under 15 years of age, the max i mum and 55% of these had no plans to introduce one. pen alty for con victed males is life im prison ment and for con victed fe males, seven years im pris on ment. When the Rape victim is over age 15, the sentencing varies greatly. In 1991, 110 cases of rape were re ported or known to the There is very lit tle pub li c dis cus sion of pedophilia and po lice, yet the Dub lin Rape Cri sis Center was aware of over its in ci dence is not known. 300 cases in the same year. Social and profes sional atti tudes to vic tims of rape of ten en cap sulate in stark form soci ety’s [Clergy Sexual Abuse per va sive neg a tive at ti tudes to wards women. These very at - [Up date 2003: In the spring of 2001 and March 2002, titudes lead many vic tims not to report the crime. It is doc u men ta ries pro duced and broad cast by the Brit ish widely rec og nized that the num ber of rapes re ported to the Broad cast ing Cor po ra tion (BBC) tele vi sion and state net - police repre sents a minority of the actual incidents. work RTE re ported on the life and 1999 sui cide of a priest The 1990 Crim i nal Law (Rape Amendment) Act ex - from Wexford, Ire land, who faced 29 charges of sodomy , tended the le gal def i ni tion of rape to in clude penile pen e tra - sexual assault, and gross inde cency , as well as dozens of tion of the mouth or anus, and vag i nal pen e tra tion with any other cases of clergy sex ual abuse. The docu men ta ries object. This act also permits a married woman to charge her shocked the very-Cath o lic na tion, forced the April 1, 2002, husband with mar i tal rape. Con vic tion on charges of rape or res ig na tion of Bishop Brendan Comiskey, the bishop of other se ri ous sex ual as saults car ries a max i mum sen tence of Wexford, and brought charges against Dub lin’s Car di nal life im pris on ment. Judges, how ever, pos sess com plete dis- Desmond Connell, the na tion’s primate. In 2001, the Cath o - cre tion in sen tenc ing, pro vided they take into ac count a Su - lic Church in Ire land agreed to pay $110 million in com pen - preme Court rul ing in 1988 that held that the nor mal sen - sa tion to hun dreds of peo ple who were physi cally and sex u - tence for rape should be a sub stan tial prison sen tence. Le - ally abused by priests and nuns in church-run, state-funded nient sen tenc ing is common and causes considerable public voca tional schools. The Church and a spe cial team of po lice outrage. and de tec tives ap pointed by the Prime Min ister launched two in ter nal in ves ti ga tions and one in de pend ent in ves ti ga - B. Prostitution tion. Early find ings put St. Pat rick’s College in Maynooth, Female, and to a much lesser extent, male pros titu tion is the coun try’s most distin guished semi nary, un der a cloud prac ticed in the main ports, cit ies, and towns. Con tact be - following allegations that teenage pupils were sexually tween pros ti tutes and cli ents oc curs on the street, in mas - harassed by their teachers. sage par lors, and through ad ver tis ing. Some pros ti tu tion is [The core of the scan dal was that, de spite hun dreds of con trolled by pimps. writ ten and in-per son complaints to the bishops, no ac tion Pros ti tu tion is not a crim i nal of fense, but as so ci ated ac - was taken by the priests’ re li gious supe ri ors. Also, in some tiv i ties, such as so lic it ing in a pub li c place, op er at ing and cases re ported af ter 1995 by church au thor i ties to the Dub - manag ing a brothel, or cre at ing a pub li c nui sance, are fel o - lin po lice, the po lice took no ac tion on the complaints. In nies. The gov ern ment has re cently in di cated that it in tends many cases, as has hap pened in Aus tralia, Canada, the to amend the laws on prosti tu tion to make clients lia ble to United States, and else where since the mid-1980s, the bish - prose cu tion for so lic it ing and to make “curb crawling” an ops re sponded by moving the ac cused priests to other par - of fense. There is a high de gree of tol er ance to wards prosti - ishes and ju risdic tions. Some of the com plaints dated back tu tion in Ireland, as long as it is out of sight and mind. to the 1930s. In Oc to ber 2002, the Gov ern ment Minis ter for C. Pornography and Erotica Health and Chil dren said that a na tional in ves ti ga tion into In 1926, the gov ern ment ap pointed a Cen sorship Board abuse by Roman Cath o lic cler ics would not be fea sible. with the power to pro hibit the sale and dis tri bution of ma te - “How does one cope with the enor mity of all of that? It rial it consid ers in de cent or ob scene. Ini tially, books were could go on for ever.” At the same time, the head of the its main fo cus of at ten tion, and many works of lit er ary coun try’s Bu reau of Crim i nal In ves ti ga tion said in an RTE merit, such as James Joyce’s Ulys ses, were banned. In 1946, ra dio in ter view that “Every thing will be looked at, and it an ap peals pro ce dure was in tro duced, and in 1967, the du ra - will be looked at systematically and collectively” (Lavery tion of each ban was re duced to 12 years. Cus toms and Ex- 2002ab; O’Brien 2002). cise of fi cers are em pow ered to con fis cate ma te rial they [On the last day of 2002, af ter a five-hour meet ing with con sid er in de cent or ob scene. Por no graphic books, mag a - repre sen ta tives of clergy sex ual abuse victims , the Roman zines, and vid eos, mainly imported, are widely avail able, Cath o lic Arch bishop of Dub lin pledged the arch di o cese’s Ireland:Planningthough they Contraception, are not openl yAbortion, displayed andor easily Population accessible. full co op er a tion with any po lice in ves ti ga tion into sex ual- abuse al le ga tions against priests. Car di nal Desmond Connell also prom ised the police full access to Church files, accepted 9. Contraception, Abortion, and a role for vic tims in shaping how the Church han dles such Population Planning matters in the fu ture, and their in volve ment in improv ing A. Contraception struc tures for deal ing with abuse and complaints (Hoge Until 1979, the law pro hib ited im por ta tion and sale of 2002). (End of up date by R. T. Francoeur)] con tra cep tives, de spite the fact that, in 1975, 71% of the Ireland: Contraception, Abortion, and Population Planning 577 adult Dub lin pop u la tion sup ported the view that birth con - clin ics have re peat edly found that a high pro por tion of teen - trol was a ba sic hu man right. The Irish Times survey in age, first-time cli ents had been hav ing un pro tected sex ual 1990 found that 88% of the 18- to 65-year-olds fa vored the in ter course, some times for up to three years. pro vi sion of con tra cep tive in for ma tion in health ed u ca tion courses in schools. For over 20 years, the discrep ancy has B. Teenage (Unmarried) Pregnancies been grow ing be tween Cath o lic Church teach ing on con - In 1992, there were 2,435 live births to un married teen - tracep tion and the actual practice of many Cath olics. Yet, ag ers, rep re sent ing 26% of ex tra mar i tal births and 4.7% of the pro gres sive lib er al iza tion of con tra cep tion law since all births. There has been a con tin uous rise in both ex tra - 1979 has lagged behind the changing public attitude. mari tal and teen age un married births since 1981, even The ab sence of a com pre hen sive school sex-ed u ca tion though the pro por tion of teens in the pop u la tion has re - pro gram, combined with the re luc tance of most par ents to mained at about 13.3%. dis cuss con tra cep tion with chil dren and ad o les cents, means Of fi cial sta tis tics show that 700 un mar ried teen ag ers of that many young peo ple be gin hav ing sex ual in ter course Irish res i dence had abor tions in Eng land and Wales in 1991. with lit tle knowl edge, and even less use, of con tra cep tion. In ad di tion, other Irish teen ag ers commonly give an Eng lish Lit tle at ten tion has been paid to the needs of ad oles cents in or Welsh ad dress. There is no way of knowing how many this re gard, mainly be cause, up to now, the fo cus has been un mar ried, preg nant teen ag ers had mis car riages, il le gal on meeting the needs of adults. abor tions, or con cealed the birth of their babies. Ac cord ing to The Du rex Re port—Ire land (1993), the What ever the ac tual fig ures, an ap pre cia ble num ber of main sources of in for mation on con tra cep tion for 17- to 49- Irish teen ag ers are ex pe ri enc ing un planned preg nan cies year-olds were: books and mag a zines, 31%; friends, 20%; each year. In contrast to former times, most pregnant teen- tele vi sion and films, 7%; and lay teach ers, 6%. The pre - ag ers do not marry. Most have and rear the child them - ferred main sources of in for mation were: par ents, 35%; lay selves, usu ally with the help of the fam ily and/or part ner. teach ers, 22%; books and mag a zines; 10%; and govern - About 20% have an abor tion and a small num ber give up the ment health agencies, 5%. baby for adop tion. All un married par ents are en ti tled to a [Com ment 1997: Be fore the ad vent of “the pill” and con - means-tested state al lowance. In 1984, 42% of Irish teenag - dom, the most fre quent form of con tra cep tion in Ire land was ers who had an abor tion in Eng land or Wales had not used co itus in ter rup tus. Many an Irish woman was shocked to con tra cep tion on most oc ca sions when they had sex ual in - find that she was preg nant even though “he pulled out in ter course, and 83.4% were not us ing con tra cep tion at the time.” Also, men who could not get their hands on con doms time they became pregnant. were known to fash ion their own from sa ran wrap. (End of [Magdalene Asylums for “Fallen Women” com ment by H. A. Walsh)] [Up date 2002: In the 19th cen tury, the Ro man Cath o lic All con tracep tive methods are currently avail able in Ire - Church opened up what were called Mag da lene Asy lums as land, al though a per son may have to travel a con sider able ref uges for “fallen women.” Some of the Mag da lene distance for some meth ods, such as the IUD, di a phragm, or women were prosti tutes or un wed mothers, but oth ers were ster il iza tion. Fur ther more, the ma jor ity must pay for con- commit ted to the asy lums because, in some small way, they tra cep tive ser vices and sup plies. Fam ily plan ning clin ics in had vi o lated the very con ser va tive so cial mo res of the time the main cit ies and towns are the prin ci ple pro vid ers of or ig nored the Church’s moral code, bring ing shame and com pre hen sive fam ily plan ning ser vices. These re ceive no dishonor on their fam i lies. Op er ated with state ap proval by gov ern ment fund ing ex cept for some ed u ca tional and re - the Sis ters of the Good Shep herd and other re li gious orders search pro jects. Some clin ics have been pro vid ing rec og - of nuns, the Asy lums and orphan ages were, in fact, self- nized train ing for doc tors and nurses for 20-some years, so sup port ing work houses, func tion ing as com mer cial laun - that more and more fam ily doc tors are now providing fairly dries for schools, pris ons, and other in sti tu tions. In mates comprehensive family planning services. worked long hours, seven days a week, and 364 days a year A re cent amend ment to the fam ily plan ning laws al lows with only Christ mas Day off. They re ceived no pay, pray ing con doms to be sold to a per son of any age with min i mal re - non stop out loud, even while work ing, to pre vent the girls strictions. Male steril iza tion is provided in fam ily planning from talk ing with each other. The women were so com - clin ics, some pri vate and pub li c hos pi tals, and by a few pletely cut off from the out side world, many stayed in the family doctors. Fe male steril iza tion is carried out in some Asy lum until they died and were bur ied in un marked graves pri vate hos pi tals with vary ing pre con di tions. Many hos pi- in prison cem e ter ies. The ba bies of un wed mothers were tals will not perform female steril iza tion for ethi cal rea sons. given up for adop tion or sent off to or phan ages. Over the de - Some vol un tary or ga ni za tions pro vide free in struc tion in cades, some 30,000 young women were sent to the Mag da - nat ural con tra cep tive methods, the Billings cervical mucus, lene Asy lums. The Asy lums were named after Mary Mag- and related methods. dalene, the patron of prostitutes who repented and washed Re spon dents to The Du rex Re port—Ire land (1993) re - the feet of Christ. ported on con tra cep tive use as fol lows: con doms, 28%; the [News stories about the 1996 clos ing of the last Asy lum, pill, 24%; nat u ral meth ods, 9%; va sec tomy and IUD, 3% cou pled with the growing scan dal of clergy sex ual abuse and each; female steril iza tion, 2%; dia phragm and other meth - its cov erup by both Church and state, trig gered a se ries of bit - ods, 1% each. Fourteen per cent re ported us ing no con tra - ing exposés of the casual abuse and cruelty that char acter ized cep tion, and 12% re ported not be ing sex ually ac tive. The the Asy lums, workhouses, and or phan ages. One of the most con dom is partic ularly popu lar among 25- to 29-year-olds, in flu en tial of these doc u men ta ries was The Mag da lene Sis- upper -social-c lass groups, and those liv ing in ur ban ar eas. ters, which re ceived the Gold en Lion award for best film at By con trast, nat ural meth ods are practiced almos t exclu - the Ven ice Film Fes ti val in 2002. The film was seen by over a sively by married cou ples over age 30 and those in ru ral mil lion peo ple, one quar ter of Ire land’s pop u la tion (Lyall areas. The pill is most pop ular among sin gle women. (See 2002). (End of up date by R. T. Francoeur)] ad di tional comments in Sec tion 1A, Basic Sexological Premises, Character of Gender Roles.) C. Abortion No compa ra ble sur vey has been car ried out among ad o - The Of fenses Against the Per son Act (1861) makes les cents. How ever, sur veys in in di vid ual fam ily plan ning abor tion il le gal in Ire land. How ever, in 1992, the Irish Su- 578 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality preme Court ruled that abor tion was per missi ble where high fertil ity rates. Almos t every fam ily in Ireland has a per - preg nancy posed a real and substan tial risk to the life of the sonal ex pe ri ence with emi gra tion. In the past, most emi gra - preg nant woman. Both pro-choice and antiabortion groups tion has been mo ti vated by the prevailing economic and cam paigned for fur ther ac tion to clar ify this rul ing. A ref er - Ireland:AIDSsocial condi Sexuallytions. Transmitted Diseases and HIV/ en dum followed in which the peo ple re jected an amend - ment to the Irish Con sti tu tion that would al low abor tion 10. Sexually Transmitted Diseases only where there was a real and substan tial risk to the life of and HIV/AIDS a preg nant woman, with the ex cep tion of a risk of sui cide. A. Sexually Transmitted Diseases At press time, legis la tion by the govern ment was still pend- ing to give effect to the Supreme Court ruling. Incidence, Patterns, and Trends In 1983, the peo ple had voted for an amend ment to the All sex u ally trans mit ted dis eases are of fi cially re port- Consti tu tion that would have pre vented any possi ble fu ture able in Ire land. How ever, the num ber of cases re ported to legis la tion to allow abortion. Ironi cally , it was the wording the De part ment of Health is low and widely ac knowl edged of this amend ment that fa cil i tated the 1992 Supreme Court as rep re sent ing only a small pro por tion of the to tal. A 1979 ruling. study by Freedman et al. esti mated that reported cases of Follow ing the 1983 ref er en dum, the court ruled that pro - syph i lis rep re sented only 24% of the prob able to tal and re - vi sion of in for ma tion and coun sel ing ser vices con cern ing ported gon or rhea cases less than 10% of the prob able to tal. abor tion were il le gal. Le gal opin ion also held that a preg - The total num ber of reported STD cases increased from nant woman could be re strained from trav el ling abroad for 1,823 in 1982 to 4,619 in 1988 be fore de creas ing to 3,858 in an abor tion. In 1992, an in junc tion was ob tained pro hib it ing 1991. Over all, there has been a rise of about 400% in the a preg nant 14-year-old al leged rape vic tim from having an number of cases re ported an nu ally be tween 1972 and 1991. abor tion in Eng land. This was appealed to the Su preme The major ity of cases reported are those treated in STD Court and led to the latest ruling mentioned above. clin ics, and these rep re sent a small pro por tion of all STD cases. Sta tistics from the STD clinic in the city of Cork In the 1992 ref er en dum, the peo ple also voted in fa vor of show a de cline in the number of new cases be tween 1985 amend ments to the Con sti tu tion to al low dis sem i na tion of and 1989, with a consid er able increase each year since. in for mation on abor tion and free dom of pregnant women to Gen i tal warts is the most common condi tion en coun tered in travel abroad for an abor tion. Legis la tion giv ing ef fect to this clinic, in creas ing by 63% be tween 1985 and 1991, these amend ments is also awaited. Opinion polls have in di - while gonorrhea decreased dramatically in the same period. cated that the ma jor ity of Irish adults ap prove of abor tion where the preg nant woman’s life or health is at risk. Treatment and Prevention Efforts In 1991, 4,154 women who gave Irish ad dresses had Treatment for STD is available free of charge at STD abor tions in Eng land and Wales. It is not known how many clinics in the main cities and towns. Treatment is also avail- Irish women giving other ad dresses have abor tions each able from special ists in private practice and fam ily doc tors. year. The ma jor ity of these women go to pri vate, fee-pay - Thirty per cent of the popu la tion is en ti tled to free med i cal ing clin ics. Be cause of the ban in Ire land on pro vid ing treatment by family doctors. Un til the appoint ment of a full- abor tion in for ma tion, coun sel ing, and re fer ral, many of time con sult ant in gen i to uri nary med i cine in 1988, clinic these women travel abroad un aware of and un pre pared for ser vices were poorly de vel oped, un der staffed, and over - what is ahead of them. Many have never been out side Ire - crowded. Since 1988, the sit ua tion has im proved, but many land pre vi ously. De spite the ban, some or ga ni za tions and parts of the country still have no clinical services. in di vid u als con tinue to pro vide nondirective coun sel ing Patients are encour aged to contact partners at risk. If and abor tion re fer ral, al though these sources will be hard they fail to do so, some clinics will make the contact them- to find for many women in need of such in for mation. It is selves with the pa tient’s per mission. In the 1979 Freed man prob able that many women ex pe ri enc ing com pli ca tions et al. study, one in five family doc tors was in ter viewed by fol lowing an abor tion are afraid to seek help from medical phone about treat ment of STDs. Six per cent had seen no personnel in Ireland. STD cases in the pre vious 12 months. The vast ma jor ity [Up date 2002: In March 2002, de spite vig or ous oppo si - had not seen a sin gle case of syph i lis or gon or rhea in a tion from the Cath olic Church, the Prime Min ister , and the woman and a very small number saw more than two cases major ity Flanna Fail party, Irish voters rejected a refer en - in the prior 12 months. More than half saw at least one case dum that would have fur ther tight ened Ire land’s al ready of male gonor rhea; 4% saw ten or more cases. At the time, strict lim its on abortion. This was the fifth time since 1980 the male/female ratio of syph ilis and gonor rhea cases was that Irish voters have rejected such legis la tion. This latest 8.4:1 and 8.5:1, re spec tively. Over two thirds of the family ref er en dum would have over turned a rul ing that al lowed doc tors said they would di ag nose and treat cases of STD abor tion if the woman threat ened sui cide, and set a 12-year themselves; 18% would use lab ora tory tests, and 51% prison term for vi ola tions. It also protecte d ex ist ing rights of would treat on the ba sis of clin i cal di ag no sis alone. Un for - women to obtain abor tions abroad and of women’s ad vo - tu nately, there is no more-current data on STD treatment in cacy groups to distrib ute in for mation about over seas clin - Ireland. ics, where an es ti mated 7,000 Irish women ob tain abor tions Only in very re cent years has an ef fort been made to edu - each year. As of 2002, Ire land and Por tu gal, both over - cate the publi c about STD symptoms , treat ment facil ities, whelmingly Cath olic, were the only Eu ro pean Un ion na - and pre ven tion. Leaf lets on these top ics are now pro duced tions with strict laws against abor tion (Gerlin 2002). (End of by the De part ment of Health, STD, and Family Plan ning update by R. T. Francoeur)] Clin ics. STDs are some times discussed on radio programs. D. Population Control Efforts B. HIV/AIDS The Irish gov ern ment has no stated po sition on pop ula - By April 1993, over 70,000 HIV tests had been ad minis - tion growth or re duc tion. With the ex cep tion of the pe ri od tered in Ire land. Of these, 0.5% were pos i tive, with in tra ve - be tween 1961 and 1986, the pop ula tion has been de creas ing nous (IV) drug users rep re sent ing 52% of those who tested since figures were first of ficially re corded 150 years ago. A pos i tive, with homo sex u als 18% and hetero sex u als 13%. high emi gra tion rate has more than off set the tra di tion ally Among the 341 per sons diag nosed as hav ing AIDS, 40% Ireland: Sexually Transmitted Diseases and HIV/AIDS 579 were IV-drug users, 35% were homo sex ual or bi sex ual, tis tics in di cate that in ter ven tions with in jec tion drug us ers 10.5% were hetero sex ual, 7% he mophil iac, and 2.8% were are ef fec tive in re duc ing trans mission rates in this group. babies. While Ireland has a low preva lence of HIV/AIDS, transmis - All blood do nors have been tested for HIV since the sion has in creased sig nif i cantly in the hetero sex u al cate- mid-1980s. Since No vember 1992, women at tend ing an te - gory, and prevention programs are reflecting the new epide - na tal clin ics and preg nant women hav ing blood tests for ru - miological data. bella sta tus have had anon y mous (unlinked) HIV test ing. [The es ti mated number of adults and chil dren liv ing Consid er ation is be ing given to sim i lar test ing of IV-drug with HIV/AIDS on Janu ary 1, 2002, were: users and those at tend ing STD clin ics to as cer tain the in ci - Adults ages 15-49: 2,200 (rate: 0.1%) dence of HIV in fec tion in these populations. Women ages 15-49: 660 The vast ma jor ity of those suf fer ing from AIDS are Chil dren ages 0-15: 190 treated at a Dub lin hos pi tal that is find ing it more and more [Less than 100 adults and chil dren died of AIDS dur ing dif fi cult to cope as the num bers in crease. Ef forts are now 2001. being made to con centrate med ical care for AIDS patients [No esti mate is avail able for the number of Irish chil dren in primary healthcare settings. who had lost one or both par ents to AIDS and were un der In Ireland, the gay com munity re acted swiftly and ef fec- Ireland:Therapiage 15 at es tSexualhe end ofDysfunctions, 2001. (End of Counseling,up date by the andEd i tors)] tively to the AIDS ep i demic. A 1989 survey of gay men found that there had been a major swing to safer sex prac - 11. Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, tices, and that this had resulted primar ily from edu ca tion and Therapies and in for ma tion cam paigns ini ti ated by the gay com mu nity. For IV-drug users, the gov ern ment has ini ti ated a meth a - A. Concepts of Sexual Dysfunction done-main te nance and needle-ex change pro gram. This is Irish so ci ety de fines healthy sex u al ity dif fer ently in con cen trated in sat el lite clin ics around Dub lin. A na tional many re spects for men and women, young and old, rich and AIDS commit tee ad vises the Min ister of Health on var i ous poor, and able-bod ied and dis abled per sons. Conse quently, aspects of AIDS. This has led to wider availabil ity of con- cul tural def i ni tions of sex ual dys func tion de pend on who is doms and gov ern ment-spon sored ad ver tis ing about HIV in - do ing the de fin ing and which peo ple they are talk ing about. fec tion in the me dia. These pre ven tion ef forts are sup ple - Those who de fine sex ual dysfunc tions are of ten the same mented by school sex ed u ca tion pro grams, but the avail - peo ple who treat it. In many in stances, the def i ni tions cur - ability and ef fective ness of these, as dis cussed earlier , is rent in profes sional circles in Ireland reflect and rein force highly suspect. Many nongovern ment bodies, such as trade cul tural ste reo types of what is con sid ered so cially ap pro pri - unions, have initiated their own prevention programs. ate gender and sexual roles. Those seeking treatment are [Up date 2002: UNAIDS Ep i de mi o log i cal As sess ment: usually as cul ture-bound as pro fes sionals in their concept of By the end of De cem ber 1999, there were a cumu la tive to tal what is sexually dysfunctional or unhealthy. of 691 cases and 349 deaths. In jec tion drug us ers ac counted for the largest number , 280 (40.5%), of cases of AIDS, B. Availability of Counseling, Diagnosis, homo sex u al/bi sex u als ac counted for 237 cases (34.2%), and Treatment hetero sex uals for 92 (13.3%), and the re main ing 82 cases Kieran (1993) sent question naires to 201 or ga ni za tions (11.9%) was com posed of he mophil i acs, chil dren, and oth - and in di vid u als who ap peared to prac tice psy cho sex ual ers. By mid 2001, a cu mula tive to tal of 2,469 cases of HIV coun sel ing and sex ther apy. Psy chol o gists, so cial work ers, in fec tion were re ported. The lat est break down of HIV in fec - and doc tors made up the ma jor ity of 75 re spondents. Most tion data from the HIV Surveil lance System showed at the worked in pri vate-prac tice set tings and doc tors were the end of De cem ber 1999 that 41.6% of the re ported 295 cases most common source of re fer ral. The re sponses are the only were among in jec tion drug us ers, 22.7% among homo sex u - per spec tive on sexual therapy in Ireland. als, 18.8% among hetero sex uals/un spec i fied risk, and the re - While there are psy chosex ual thera pists who practice a mainder (16.9%) was made up of hemophiliacs, children, more psy cho somatic ap proach; they are in a mi nor ity. The and other categories. most com mon the o ret i cal el e ment shared by the re spon dents [The prog ress of HIV in fec tion and AIDS is moni tored was a behav ioral approach. through the Na tional System of Surveil lance in Ire land. The In the sur vey, sex ual prob lems were de fined in terms of avail able data in clude the AIDS report ing system and the symp toms, for ex am ple, vag i nal spasms, erec tile dys func - lab o ra tory in for ma tion on HIV Sur veil lance. The AIDS re - tion, and early ejacu lation. Symp tom relief is regarded as a port ing system is based on clin i cal events that are re ported suc cess ful out come in sex ual ther apy. This symptom-ori - by the re gional AIDS co or di na tors to the De part ment of ented ap proach is also ev i dent in the en thu sias tic man ner in Health and Chil dren. A number of lab o ra to ries through out which many peo ple have em braced the latest “cure” for Ireland perform HIV testing, and confir ma tory tests are car - “erec tile dys func tion,” namely, phar ma co log i cally induced ried out in the Vi rus Ref er ence Lab o ra tory. The HIV Sur- penile erections. veil lance System is supple mented by an anon y mous un- Gov ern ment-funded psy cho sex ual ther apy ser vices are linked an te na tal HIV-test ing pro ject and a linked antenatal not avail able, ex cept on an ad hoc ba sis by some pub li c HIV-screening program introduced during 1999. health per sonnel. Most fam ily plan ning clin ics pro vide this [The Irish data indi cate a rela tively low inci dence of serv ice, as do or ga ni za tions such as the Catho lic Mar riage known HIV-positivity, with ap prox i mately 150 new cases Ad vi sory Coun cil and the non de nom i na tional Marriage per year in a pop u la tion of 3.6 mil lion (4 per 1,000). It is im- Counseling Services. portant that the HIV data reflect the true overall transmis - There are no le gal or other re stric tions on who may prac - sion rates, and in this context, the report ing system will in - tice as a psy cho sex ual ther a pist in Ire land. Al though all re - clude new devel op ments . These include HIV case-based re- spondents to Kieran’s survey stated that they had un der gone port ing, ad just ments for re port ing de lays, and ad di tional train ing in coun sel ing, no in di ca tion of the qual ity of such sur veil lance data, in clud ing HIV in fec tion in high-risk train ing was given. Forty per cent of the re spondents had re - groups, in clud ing pris ons, drug treat ment clin ics, and sex u - ceived no spe cific train ing in psy cho sex ual coun sel ing or ally transmit ted infec tion clinics. The most recent HIV sta- sex ther apy; 70% were re ceiv ing su per vi sion. Train ing, 580 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality pro fes sional stan dards, and ac cred i ta tion were the most Hoge, W. 2002 (De cember 31). Irish Church to coop er ate with Ireland:Educationcommon Sexconcerns Research of the and respondents. Advanced Professional abuse inquiry . The New York Times, p. A10. Irish val ues and atti tudes: The Irish report of the Eu ropean 12. Sex Research and Advanced value systems study. 1984. Dub lin: Do min i can Pub li ca- Professional Education tions. The Irish Times/M.R.B.T. Poll. May 28, 1990. Dub lin: The Irish Lit tle sexological re search is carried out in Ire land. No Times. uni ver sity or other ter tiary ed u ca tional in sti tu tion has a Kiernan, K. 1992. School sex edu cation in Ireland (The sis). grad u ate or post grad u ate pro gram on sex u al ity. Nor is there Dub lin: Trin ity Col lege. any for mal pro gram for sexological re search in any of these Kieran, P. 1993. Psy cho sex ual coun sel ing and sex ther apy in institutions. the Repub lic of Ireland (Thesis). Univer sity College Cork. The only sexological or ga ni za tion work ing in Ire land is Lavery, B. 2002 (Octo ber 23). TV program raises new as ser- the Ire land Re gion of the Brit ish Asso ci a tion of Sex ual and tions of abuse by priests in Ireland. The New York Times, p. Mar i tal Ther a pists. Ad dress: 67 Pembroke Road, Dub lin 4, A5. Ireland:Ireland. References and Suggested Readings Lavery, B. 2002 (Octo ber 25). New Irish po lice squad to in ves- tigate all cleri cal abuse cases. The New York Times, p. A5. References and Suggested Readings Lyall, Sarah. 2002 (No vember 28). Irish recall sad homes for A.I.D.S. Acti on News. 1989 (Au gust). Dub lin: Gay Health Ac- “fallen” women. The New York Times, p. A3. tion. McGoldrick, M. 1982. Irish fam ilies. In: M. McGoldrick, J. K. Cantillon, J., et al. 1993 (April). Sex u ally trans mit ted dis eases. Pearce, & J. Giordano, eds., Eth nic ity and fam ily ther apy. News let ter of the Irish As so ci a tion of Fam ily Plan ning New York: Guilford. Doctors. Messen ger , J. C. 1971. Sex and repres sion in an Irish folk com - The changing family . 1984. Dub lin: Univer sity College, Family munity . In: D. Mar shall & R. Suggs, Hu man sex ual be hav- Stud ies Unit. ior. Englewood Cliffs, New Jer sey: Prentice-Hall. Child abuse statis tics 1983-1991. Dub lin: De part ment of O’Brien, B. 2002 (March 30). Bleed ing the Church. World Health. Press Review , 49(6). Available: www.worldpressview .com/ Child sexual abuse in Dublin (Pilot survey report) . 1987. Dub - Eu rope/547.cfm. lin: Market Research Bureau of Ireland Ltd. Re port of the Garda Com missioner . 1991. Dub lin: Govern ment Child sexual abuse in the Eastern Health Board region of Ire- Pub li ca tions Office. land in 1988. 1993. Dub lin: Kieran McKeown Ltd. Sexual harass ment in the workplace . 1993. Dub lin: Dublin CIA. 2002 (Jan u ary). The world factbook 2002. Wash ing ton, Rape Crisis Center . DC: Cen tral In tel li gence Agency. Avail able: http://www Stahl, E. J. 1979. A new ex plana tion of sexual repres sion in Ire- .cia.gov/cia/pub li ca tions/fact book/index.html. land. Cen tral Is sues in Anthr opol ogy (Journal of the Cen- Deehan, A., & C. Fritzpatrick. 1993. Sex ual behav iour of nor- tral States An thro po log i cal So ci ety), 1(1):37-67. mal chil dren as perceived by their parents. Irish Med i cal Summary of A.I.D.S./H.I.V. stati sti cs. 1993 (March). Dub lin: Jour nal, 4:130-32. De part ment of Health. The Du rex re port–Ire land. 1993. Sunday Press/Lansdowme Market Resear ch Poll. 1993 (June First report of the Second Joint Commit tee on Women’s Rights. 20). Dub lin: The Sunday Press. 1988. Dub lin: Gov ern ment Pub li ca tions Office. Termi nation of pregnancy: England, women from the Re public Francoeur, R. T. 1982. Be com ing a sex ual per son (1st ed.). New of Ireland . 1984. Dublin: The Medico-So cial Research York: John Wiley & Son. Board. Freedman, D., et al. 1981. Sexual transmit ted diseases as seen Third report of the Second Joint Commit tee on Women’s Rights. by general practi tio ners in Ire land: Use of a telephone sur- 1991. Dub lin: Gov ern ment Pub li ca tions Office. vey. Sex u ally Trans mit ted Dis eases, 1:5-7. Ve ne real dis ease sta tis tics 1982-1991. Dub lin: De part ment of Gerlin, A. 2002 (March 9). Irish vot ers strike down bid to fur- Health. ther restrict abortion law. KRT News Serv ice; The Star-Led- UNAIDS. 2002. Ep i de mi o log i cal fact sheets by coun try. Gene - ger [Newark , NJ]. va, Swit zerland: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/ Guide lines on the de vel op ment of sex/re la tion ships ed u ca tion. AIDS (UNAIDS/WHO). Availabl e: http://www.unaids.org/ 1987. Dub lin: Depart ment of Education. hivaidsinfo/sta tis tics/fact_sheets/in dex_en.htm. Critical Acclaim for The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality 1. The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity, Vols. 1-3 (Francoeur, 1997) The World As so ci a tion of Sexol o gy, an in ter na tion al so ci ety of lead ing schol ars and eighty pro fes sional or ga ni za tions de voted to the study of hu man sexual be hav ior, has en dorsed The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity as an im por tant and unique con tri bu tion to our un der stand ing and ap pre ci a tion of the rich va ri ety of hu man sex ual at ti tudes, values, and behavior in cultures around the world. Re cip i ent of the “1997 Ci ta tion of Ex cel lence for an out stand ing ref er ence in the field of sexol o gy,” awarded by the Ameri can Foun da tion for Gen der and Gen i tal Med i cine and Sci ence at the Thir teenth World Con gress of Sexol o gy, Valencia, Spain. Rec om mended by Li brary Jour nal (Oc to ber 1, 1997) to pub li c and ac a demic li brar i ans look ing to up date their col lec tions in the area of sex u al ity: “An ex traor di nary, highly valu able syn the sis of in for ma tion not avail able else where. Here are in-depth re ports on sex-re lated prac tices and cul ture in 32 coun tries on six con ti nents, con trib uted by 135 sexol o gists worldwide. . . . For all academic and larger public collections.” Picked by Choice (As so ci a tion of Col lege & Re search Li brar ies/Amer i can Li brary As so ci a tion) as Best Ref er ence Work and Outstand ing Ac a demic Book for 1997: “Al though this en cy clo pe dia is meant as a means of un der stand ing hu man sexu al ity, it can also be used as a lens with which to view hu man cul ture in many of its other man i fes ta tions. . . . Con sid er ing cov er age, or ga ni za tion, and au thor ity, the com par a tively low price is also no ta ble. Rec om mended for refer ence collec tions in universities, special collections, and public libraries.” “Most impres sive, pro vid ing a wealth of good, solid in for mation that may be used by a wide va ri ety of pro fes sionals and stu dents seek ing in for mation on cross-cul tural pat terns of sex ual be hav ior . . . an in valu able, unique schol arly work that no li brary should be with out.”—Con tem po rary Psy chol ogy “. . . en ables us to make transcultural com par i sons of sexual at ti tudes and be hav iours in a way no other mod ern book does. . . . Clin ics and train ing or ga ni za tions would do well to ac quire cop ies for their li brar ies. . . . In di vid ual ther a pists and re search ers who like to have their own col lec tion of key publi ca tions should cer tainly con sider it.”—Sex ual and Mar i tal Ther apy (U.K.) “. . . schol arly, straight for ward, and tightly-or ga nized for mat in for mation about sex ual be liefs and be hav iors as they are cur rently prac ticed in 32 coun tries around the world. . . . The list of contri butors . . . is a vir tual who’s who of schol ars in sexual science.”— Choice “. . . one of the most ambi tious cross-cul tural sex sur veys ever un der taken. Some 135 sexol o gists worldwide de scribe sex-re lated prac tices and cul tures in 32 dif fer ent coun tries. . . . Best Ref er ence Sources of 1997.”—Li brary Jour nal “What sep a rates this en cy clo pe dia from past in ter na tion al sex u al ity books is its dis tinct dis sim i lar ity to a ‘guide book to the sex ual hotspots of the world.’ . . . An im pres sive and im por tant con tri bution to our un der stand ing of sex ual ity in a global so ci ety. . . . fills a big gap in peo ple’s knowl edge about sex ual at ti tudes and be hav iors.”—Sex u al ity In for mation and Ed u ca tion Council of the United States (SIECUS) “Truly impor tant books on hu man sexu al ity can be counted on, per haps, just one hand. The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity de serves spe cial at ten tion as an im pres sive ac com plish ment.”—Jour nal of Mar riage and the Fam ily “. . . a land mark ef fort to cross-ref er ence vast amounts of infor mation about hu man sexual be hav iors, cus toms, and cul tural at ti tudes ex ist ing in the world. Never be fore has such a com pre hen sive un der tak ing been even re motely avail able to re search ers, schol ars, ed u ca tors, and cli ni cians ac tive in the field of hu man sex u al ity.”—San dra Cole, Pro fes sor of Phys i cal Med i cine and Re ha bil i ta tion, University of Michigan Medical Center 2. The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity, Vol. 4 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2001) “. . . a mas ter piece of or ga ni za tion. The feat of suc cess fully compil ing so much infor mation about so many coun tries into such a co her ent and read able for mat de fies sig nif i cant neg a tive crit i cism.”—Sex u al ity and Cul ture, Paul Fedoroff, M.D., Co-Di rec tor, Sex ual Be hav iors Clinic Fo ren sic Program, The Royal Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Canada 3. The Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) “. . . [a] trea sure trove. . . . This unique compi la tion of spe cial ized knowl edge is rec ommended for re search col lec tions in the social sciences . . . as well as a second ary source for cross-cultural research.”— Li brary Jour nal, March 15, 2004, p. 64 “. . . a book that is truly historic, and in many ways compa ra ble to the great sexological sur veys of Havelock Ellis and Al fred Kinsey. . . . Many works of unde ni able im por tance are in tended to speak about hu man sexu al ity. But in this en cy clo pe dia we hear the voices of a mul ti tude of na tions and cul tures. With cov er age of more than a quar ter of the coun tries in the world, . . . not only will the Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity remain a stand ard ref er ence work for years to come, but it has raised the bar of sexological schol ar ship to a rig or ous new level.”—John Heidenry, ed i tor, The Week, and au thor of What Wild Ec stasy: The Rise and Fall of the Sex ual Revolution For more review excerpts, go to www.SexQuest.com/ccies/.