The BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING and SOCIETY

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Winter 2012 FRONTIERS OF ENGINEERING

The BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING AND SOCIETY

Overview of Climate Engineering Eli Kintisch Offsetting Climate Change by Engineering Air Pollution to Brighten Clouds Lynn M. Russell Keeping Up with Increasing Demands for Electrochemical Energy Storage Jeff Sakamoto The Car and the Cloud: Automotive Architectures for 2020 Rahul Mangharam Playing to Win: Serious Games for Business Phaedra Boinodiris Engineering Tissue-to-Tissue Interfaces and the Formation of Complex Tissues Helen H. Lu Engineering 3D Tissue Systems to Better Mimic Human Biology Matthew Gevaert

The mission of the National Academy of Engineering is to advance the well-being of the nation by promoting a vibrant engineering profession and by marshalling the expertise and insights of eminent engineers to provide independent advice to the federal government on matters involving engineering and technology. The BRIDGE

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING

Charles O. Holliday Jr., Chair Charles M. Vest, President Maxine L. Savitz, Vice President Thomas F. Budinger, Home Secretary Venkatesh Narayanamurti, Foreign Secretary C.D. (Dan) Mote Jr., Treasurer

Editor in Chief: Ronald M. Latanision Managing Editor: Cameron H. Fletcher Production Assistant: Penelope Gibbs The Bridge (ISSN 0737-6278) is published quarterly by the National Acad emy of Engineering, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC

20418. Periodicals postage paid at Washington, DC. Vol. 42, No. 4, Winter 2012 Postmaster: Send address changes to The Bridge, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418. Papers are presented in The Bridge on the basis of general interest and time- liness. They reflect the views of the authors and not necessarily the position of the National Academy of Engineering. The Bridge is printed on recycled paper. C © 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

A complete copy of The Bridge is available in PDF format at http://www.nae.edu/TheBridge. Some of the articles in this issue are also available as HTML documents and may contain links to related sources of information, multimedia files, or other content. The Volume 42, Number 4 • Winter 2012 BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING AND SOCIETY

Editor’s Note 3 Exploring the Frontiers of Engineering Kristi Anseth

Features 5 Overview of Climate Engineering Eli Kintisch Adaptation to climate change may include two types of geoengineering: solar radiation management (SRM) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR). 10 Offsetting Climate Change by Engineering Air Pollution to Brighten Clouds Lynn M. Russell Research shows that the judicious targeting of clouds and selection of the size and composition of particle emissions can produce substantial cooling effects. 16 Keeping Up with Increasing Demands for Electrochemical Energy Storage Jeff Sakamoto Electric vehicles show promise in minimizing reliance on fossil fuels, but their widespread use will likely require a revolutionary advance in energy storage technology. 25 The Car and the Cloud: Automotive Architectures for 2020 Rahul Mangharam Informational needs in automobiles are transcending mechanical, electronic, and software boundaries to include programmed services for the driver and the vehicle itself. 34 Playing to Win: Serious Games for Business Phaedra Boinodiris Gaming techniques can save money, time, and resources while making departments and organizations more agile. 40 Engineering Tissue-to-Tissue Interfaces and the Formation of Complex Tissues Helen H. Lu The successful regeneration of tissue-to-tissue interfaces through a bioinspired approach may enable the translation of tissue engineering technologies from bench to bedside. 48 Engineering 3D Tissue Systems to Better Mimic Human Biology Matthew Gevaert Engineered 3D tissue systems can better mimic human biology and thus meet the growing need for more effective in vitro models.

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The BRIDGE

NAE News and Notes 56 NAE Newsmakers 58 C.D. (Dan) Mote Nominated to Be Next NAE President 60 Highlights of the 2012 NAE Annual Meeting 63 Remarks by NAE Chair Charles O. Holliday Jr. 65 What Are We Waiting For? Sputnik? An Explanation of Today’s World? New Ways of Working? National Strategy? Annual Address by NAE President Charles M. Vest 69 2012 Founders Award Acceptance Remarks by Nicholas A. Peppas 72 2012 Arthur M. Bueche Award Acceptance Remarks by James J. Duderstadt 74 Charles M. Vest President’s Opportunity Fund 75 2012 US Frontiers of Engineering Symposium 76 Mirzayan Fellows Join Program Office 77 Calendar of Meetings and Events 78 In Memoriam

79 Publications of Interest

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self- The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National perpetuating society of distin guished scholars engaged in scientific Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the author- to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility ity of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional char- has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on ter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. National Academy of Sciences. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, The National Research Council was organized by the National under the charter of the Nation al Academy of Sciences, as a parallel Academy of Scienc es in 1916 to associate the broad community of organization of outstand ing engineers. It is autonomous in its adminis- science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering tration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal gov- accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the ernment. The National Academy of Engineer ing also sponsors engi- Council has become the principal operating agency of both the neering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages edu- National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engi- cation and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of neering in providing services to the government, the public, and the engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered of Engineering. jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. www.national-academies.org FALL 2006 3 Editor’s Note

human-induced changes in the planet’s radiative balance. Two presentations from this session are included in this issue. Eli Kintisch, of Science Magazine, provides an overview of climate engineering and of important considerations before such intervention is undertaken. In the second article, Lynn Russell, a researcher at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, describes the role of atmospheric aerosols in climate engineering and gives examples of recent field projects that have attempted to shed light on the basic science and physics of cloud Kristi Anseth brightening. The second session, chaired by Michael Degner Exploring the Frontiers of of Ford Motor Company and Sanjeev Naik of Gen- eral Motors, was about advances in vehicle electrifi- Engineering cation. Presentations focused on current research on, Every year the US Frontiers of Engineering (FOE) and challenges in, technology enablers such as energy Symposium brings together approximately 100 out- storage systems, electric machine drives, and electrical standing young engineers, ages 30 to 45, to share ideas system integration and control. In Keeping Up with and learn about cutting-edge research on a wide range the Increasing Demands for Electrochemical Energy of engineering topics. A unique characteristic of the Storage, Jeff Sakamoto of Michigan State University symposium series is that participants are competitively reviews recent improvements in automobile electrical selected from researchers working across the spectrum energy storage systems, where reductions in cost, size, of engineering disciplines in academia, industry, and and weight are necessary to increase the adoption of government. FOE provides these emerging engineering plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles (PHEVs and leaders with a rare opportunity to learn about the latest BEVs). He describes some of the recent improvements research in engineering areas other than their own and in battery technologies, industry targets to enable wide- to meet and network with promising engineers working spread adoption of PHEVs, and some of the ongoing in different fields. The meeting is truly memorable, and research to meet these targets. I encourage you to nominate your eligible colleagues. I Today’s drivers have high expectations for the safety, attended my first US FOE symposium in 1998 as a new reliability, comfort, and connectivity of their vehicles. assistant professor, and it is now my great privilege to Rahul Mangharam of the University of Pennsylvania serve as chair of the organizing committee and meeting. discusses technical approaches to enhance vehicle safe- The eighteenth US FOE Symposium was held Sep- ty through remote diagnostics, networking, recalls, and tember 13–15, 2012, at General Motors Technical software upgrades. He and his colleagues are working Center in Warren, Michigan. It was organized into four on several products to enhance traffic networking that sessions with the following themes: climate engineer- will suggest alternate routes to avoid congestion, expe- ing, vehicle electrification, serious games, and engineer- dite auto safety recalls and system repairs, and support ing materials for the biological interface. Seven papers vehicle-to-vehicle communications that alert drivers to based on this year’s presentations are included in this sudden braking or accidents on the road ahead. issue of The Bridge. Serious games were the focus of the third session, The session on climate engineering was organized by chaired by Li-Te Cheng of Google and Ben Sawyer of David Sholl of the Georgia Institute of Technology and Digitalmill. The term—best understood as a medium of Armin Sorooshian of the University of Arizona. Climate many design, engineering, and technical domains rather engineering is the concept of proactively and artificially than a specific technology—applies to the increasing modifying the Earth system in ways that might combat use of video game technologies in nonentertainment The 4 BRIDGE domains. Initially, serious games were a training tool, networking. The dinner speaker, a traditional highlight with a second wave of applications in therapeutic and of FOE programs, was Alan Taub, professor of materials health behavior change efforts. A new generation of science and engineering at the University of Michigan serious games supports innovative crowd sourcing activ- and former vice president of global R&D at General ities that tackle scientific, organizational, and social Motors. In his remarks on the reinvention of the auto- challenges through video game play. In Playing to Win: mobile for 21st century sustainability, he described vari- Serious Games for Business, Phaedra Boinodiris of IBM ous stages in the automotive industry from development provides pointers for the adoption of serious games for of the internal combustion engine to the oil shock of process optimization and complex problem solving. the 1970s and the subsequent focus on fuel efficiency The final session of the meeting, chaired by Karen and safety. He noted that today’s primary challenge is Burg of Clemson University and Ali Khademhosseini accommodating the number of vehicles that the world of Harvard Medical School, covered the topic of engi- can afford as personal income in developing countries neering materials for the biological interface. The ses- increases, with the primary issues being energy and sion focused on the cell-cell or cell-tissue components emissions, safety, congestion, and affordability. Dr. Taub of the biological interface of, say, tendon to bone or concluded his talk by pointing out that if engineers are cartilage to bone. Repairs of tissues across interfaces are motivated to save the world, the automotive industry is quite complex because of very diverse tissue properties a good place to do so. (e.g., tissue mechanics) and corresponding interfacial It was my great pleasure to serve as chair of the Orga- interactions. To simulate these interactions, research- nizing Committee for this year’s US FOE Symposium. ers are studying the design of materials, control of I want to close by expressing my gratitude to Janet cells, and design of bioreactors in which to grow and Hunziker, NAE senior program officer, Vanessa Les- assess these systems. In her presentation, Helen Lu of ter, program associate, and Lance Davis, NAE Execu- Columbia University described engineering tissue-to- tive Officer, for their contributions to the planning tissue interfaces for the formation of complex tissues. and implementation of this pioneering series. I also Matthew Gevaert of Kiyatec then covered the transla- thank the sponsors of the 2012 symposium: General tion of these ideas to commercial application through Motors, The Grainger Foundation, Air Force Office of the cultivation of 3D tissue systems to better mimic Scientific Research, Department of Defense ASDR&E relevant events in the body. Research Directorate–STEM Development Office, In addition to the presentations, FOE symposia pro- National Science Foundation, Microsoft Research, and vide lively Q&A sessions, panel discussions, and oth- Cummins Inc. er activities that encourage personal discussions and Adaptation to climate change may include two types of geoengineering: solar radiation management (SRM) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR).

Overview of Climate Engineering

Eli Kintisch

Top science institutions around the world, including the US National Academies and the UK Royal Society, have called for studies into deliberate tinkering with the planet’s climate or atmosphere to partially offset global warming, a practice known as climate engineering or geoengineering. Vari- ous characteristics distinguish the two major types of geoengineering: solar radiation management (SRM; e.g., orbiting sunshades, aerosols sprayed into Eli Kintisch is a correspondent the stratosphere) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR; e.g., carbon-sucking with Science magazine and machines, catalysis of oceanic algal growth). The number of scientists Knight Science Journalism fellow studying both is steadily increasing, and several companies are conducting CDR engineering research, but the United States has yet to follow the at the Massachusetts Institute of lead of a number of European countries that have dedicated programs for Technology. geoengineering research. Efforts at global carbon dioxide pollution abatement remain stalled even as the effects of a warming planet become increasingly apparent. Research findings suggest that the planet may be closer to global tipping points, such as the release of methane from permafrost, than previously thought. As the global climate crisis intensifies, taboos once held by scientists and policymakers are falling by the wayside. Adaptation, the organized response to a warming planet and its myriad local impacts, was once viewed by top officials as a distraction from the main priority of mitigating global greenhouse gas emissions. Now local and national governments around the world are The 6 BRIDGE creating plans to respond and adapt to warmer temper- scientists try to avoid using the terms “geoengineer- atures, higher seas, more pervasive drought, and other ing” or “climate engineering” to generalize between environmental challenges. the two. Geoengineering is a radical form of adaptation. The publication in 2006 of a controversial paper by Nobel Planetary Sunblock: Solar Radiation Prize winner Paul Crutzen entitled “Albedo Enhance- Management ment by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribu- “Fast, cheap, imperfect and uncertain” is how Har- tion to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?” both jumpstarted vard physicist David Keith (2011), one of the leading the discussion of geoengineering and lent credibility to thinkers on both methods, describes SRM. The most an idea that had until then existed largely in the shad- commonly explored technique for blocking sunlight ows of academia. from the planet is to mimic the natural cooling effect Every serious researcher or policy expert who studies of volcanoes by spreading sulfurous particles in the climate engineering, including Crutzen, believes that stratosphere. The following paragraphs explain Keith’s cutting greenhouse gas emissions is at least as impor- characterization. tant as developing geoengineering technologies, if not Fast: The 1991 eruption of the Mount Pinatubo vol- more urgent. cano sprayed 5 million tons of sulfur aerosol into the It is useful to consider abatement, carbon dioxide stratosphere as sulfur dioxide, which scattered light removal, and solar radiation management in proper con- away from Earth and cooled the planet by 0.5°C (Kravitz text with one another. In Figure 1, each large circular 2013). Modeling studies (e.g., Caldeira and Matthews element represents a process that drives the next step in 2007) suggest that if a similar quantity of sulfur aerosol the chain. The central items are interventions that miti- were artificially injected into the stratosphere, the cool- gate the impact between two linked terms; for example, ing could be essentially instantaneous. efficiency lowers the consumption of energy that results Cheap: A recent study by an aerospace research firm from consumption of goods and services. Three abate- suggests that the costs of deploying a global SRM scheme ment steps—using less energy (“conservation”), using to offset anthropogenic warming “are comparable to energy more efficiently (“efficiency”), and producing the yearly operations of a small airline” (McClellan energy less carbon-intensively (“low-carbon energy”)— et al. 2010). can together lower global greenhouse gas emissions. Next are geoengineering options. The round-tipped “arrows” indicate a more tenuous relationship than the other links. As shown in Figure 1, CDR goes a step further than abatement. By pulling gases out of the atmosphere it gets at the heart of the problem: if lowering emissions is akin to reducing one’s exposure to a virus that causes a fever, CDR is like using an antiviral medication. SRM is one step further still. It does not change the level of CO2 in the atmosphere but instead serves to reduce its climatic effects. Temperature is the most prominent of those effects, and SRM lowers the planet’s thermostat by directly reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed by the planet. Perhaps the metaphorical equivalent is using a cold compress to alleviate fever. Both CDR and SRM techniques attempt to mimic natural processes that scientists mostly understand. But that is where their similarities end. In their tech- Figure 1 Connections among various factors in terms of the climate challenge. nical aspects, the political dynamics that might govern See text for discussion. The round-tipped “arrow” between the “impacts on human their deployment, and their feasibility, the differences systems” and “desire for improved well-being” indicates that the former drives the between them are stark. That’s one reason that many latter. Reprinted with permission from Caldeira et al., forthcoming. WINTER 2012 7

Imperfect: A number of modeling studies have sug- the research participants had filed before receiving UK gested various side effects of this technique, including funds for the project (Watson 2012). depriving the planet of solar energy that influences rainfall, leading to less precipitation (Ricke et al. 2010). Thinning the Greenhouse Layer: Carbon This effect could disrupt the southeast Asian monsoon Dioxide Removal season or weather in South America, potentially exac- Scientists have proposed a variety of techniques for erbating droughts. removing CO2 from the atmosphere. These range from Uncertain: Many aspects of the climate system are not engineering forests to be more carbonaceous, to growing fully understood, so tinkering with a fundamental vari- massive algal blooms at sea, to sucking carbon dioxide able that drives the system—the amount of solar energy out of the atmosphere. entering it—may have serious unexpected or unintended consequences. Since Crutzen’s landmark paper, research into SRM has evolved from proof-of-concept modeling into more Many aspects of the sophisticated efforts. The Geoengineering Model Inter- climate system are not fully comparison Project (GeoMIP) involves 19 different global climate models. Each has run separate simula- understood, so tinkering with tions with four standardized scenarios in which solar radiation management is deployed in different ways a fundamental variable may (Kravitz et al. 2011). Because different climate mod- have serious unexpected or els employ different assumptions, characteristics, and physics, use of the same initial conditions, the thinking unintended consequences. goes, may yield more robust results about the environmental effects of various SRM strategies. One example of the increasingly sophisticated modeling research on Few credible scientists believe CDR techniques to be stratospheric aerosols is a recent study that found that a panacea. The approach has attracted somewhat less sulfate aerosols deployed to offset warming caused by a attention and different kinds of controversy than SRM, doubling of CO2 concentrations would make the sky which Keith (2011) calls “slow, expensive and effec- 3 to 5 times brighter—and less blue—than it is cur- tive,” as explained below. rently, which could affect photosynthesis in plants and Slow: Global yearly emissions of CO2 are 34 million people’s psychological moods (Kravitz et al. 2012). cubic metric tons, resulting in an accumulation of 500 In the United States, David Keith and Harvard billion tons of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere. colleague James Anderson, an atmospheric chemist, Relying heavily on CDR as part of a climate response are planning “to develop in situ experiments to test strategy means creating a massive industry—perhaps the risk and efficacy of aerosols in the stratosphere” the biggest engineering project in human history—to (Keith 2012). steadily remove this mass of gas from the atmosphere The most visible effort to explore stratospheric one molecule at a time. approaches through actual experimentation is the Expensive: A 2011 study by the American Physical Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineer- Society concluded that collecting CO2 directly from ing (SPICE) project, led by Bristol University and the atmosphere “is not currently” economically via- supported by the British government at £1.6 million ble despite “optimistic” technical assumptions (APS for 3½ years. Along with ongoing work to design par- 2011). It estimated that the basic cost of a system that ticles and computer modeling, the project originally could be built today would be about $600/ton, an order included a planned field experiment to spray 150 liters of magnitude more than the estimate for low-carbon of water 1000 meters in the air to test how a balloon energy sources. would behave in the wind during spraying, a feasibil- Effective: CDR methods build off commercial tech- ity test. The field experiment was cancelled because niques that work in submarines and space shuttles to of public concern about lack of regulations on SRM as clean air of CO2 gas, and promise fewer side effects than well as worries over a patent application that one of SRM methods. The 8 BRIDGE

A number of startups are focusing on different tech- • That research plans and results be transparent and niques for CDR. In 2007 Sir Richard Branson launched shared publicly a $25 million contest called the Virgin Earth Challenge • That bodies independent of researchers studying to encourage the development of technologies that climate engineering assess the environmental and “will result in the net removal of anthropogenic, atmo- socioeconomic impacts of research spheric greenhouse gases each year for at least ten years without countervailing harmful effects.”1 The eleven • That decisions about deploying technology on a contest finalists represent a decent survey of leading global scale be made only when “robust governance commercial entities in this area, including firms that structures” to oversee such efforts are in place. propose to sequester carbon in biochar added to soil, A number of expert panels (e.g., Long et al. 2011) to directly capture atmospheric CO through chemical 2 have urged the United States to create a dedicat- methods, or to burn biofuels and sequester the resultant ed research program in this area. But although the CO in the ground. 2 National Science Foundation has supported a handful of studies on SRM, and funds from various agencies have supported work applicable to CDR approaches, European governments there is no integrated, organized effort in the federal government. have more organized Several studies exploring public opinion on cli- programs to support climate mate engineering technologies have been published. In August 2011 Cardiff University released results of a engineering research than quantitative public engagement research project involving about 35 people that met for a day and a half. “Very the United States. few people were unconditionally positive about either the idea of geoengineering or the proposed [SPICE] field Geoengineering Research Policy and test. However, most were willing to entertain the notion Public Opinion that the test as a research opportunity should be pur- sued” (Parkhill and Pidgeon 2011). Several European governments have supported orga- An Internet poll of 3,105 American, Canadian, and nized programs to support climate engineering research. British individuals published in 2011 found that 8% and The United States has none. Studies on the governance 45% of respondents, respectively, correctly deﬁned the of climate engineering approaches are being conducted interchangeable terms “geoengineering” and “climate by a coalition co-led by the UK Royal Society (SRM engineering” (Mercer et al. 2011). In the same survey, Governance Initiative), an Oxford University group on respondents were asked to rate statements from 1, for a two-year grant (Climate Geoengineering Governance “strongly disagree,” to 4, for “strongly agree.” For the project), and the European Transdisciplinary Assessment statement “If scientists ﬁnd that Solar Radiation Man- of Climate Engineering project, led by the Institute for agement can reduce the impacts of global warming with Advanced Sustainability Science in Potsdam, Germany. minimal side effects, then I would support its use,” the Meanwhile, work on the ethics of climate engineer- average response was 3.01. The statement “Solar Radia- ing has yielded, among other things, the so-called tion Management will help the planet more than it will “Oxford Principles,” proposed to restrict research into hurt it” received an average response of 2.49. The results SRM and CDR (Rayner et al. 2009). They include the suggest that geoengineering could be viewed favorably following guidelines: by the public. • That SRM be regulated as a public good Conclusion • That the public be involved in research related to As the world’s population contends with the chal- SRM decisions, including field experiments lenge of climate change, respected scientists will continue studying climate engineering as part of a suite 1 Virgin Earth Challenge announcement; posted online at www.virgin. of responses—the most important of which is the com/subsites/virginearth/ (accessed July 28, 2012). immediate curtailing of greenhouse gas emissions. For WINTER 2012 9

policymakers and researchers in this area, the follow- Engineering 2012: Reports on Leading-Edge Engineering ing considerations will have to be taken into account: from the 2012 Symposium. Washington: National Acad- the need to address risks inherent to the two types of emies Press (forthcoming). climate engineering through research despite a lack of Kravitz B, Robock A, Boucher O, Schmidt H, Taylor KE, dedicated funding for such work in the United States; Stenchikov G, Schulz M. 2011. The Geoengineering the conduct of such studies, including possible field Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP). Atmospheric studies, in an ethical way; and ongoing, open debate on Science Letters 12:162–167. the study and use of climate engineering while mind- Kravitz B, MacMartin DG, Caldeira K. 2012. Geoengineering: ful of public opinion, still nascent, on the prospect of Whiter skies? Geophysical Research Letters 39:L11801. deploying the technology. Long JCS, Rademaker S, Anderson JG, Benedick R, Caldeira K, Chaisson J, Goldson D, Hamburg SP, Keith DW, Lehman References R, Lowy F, Morgan MG, Sarewitz D, Schelling TC, Shep- APS [American Physical Society]. 2011. Direct Air Capture herd JG, Victor DG, Welan D, Winickoff DE. 2011. Geo-

of CO2 with Chemicals. A Technology Assessment for the engineering: A National Strategic Plan for Research on APS Panel on Public Affairs. Available online at www. the Potential Effectiveness, Feasibility, and Consequences aps.org/policy/reports/assessments/upload/dac2011.pdf of Climate Remediation Technologies. Washington: Bipar- (accessed November 9, 2012). tisan Policy Center. Caldeira K, Matthews HD. 2007. Transient climate-carbon Mercer AM, Keith DW, Sharp JD. 2011. Public understanding simulations of plantetary geoengineering. Proceedings of of solar radiation management. Environmental Research the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of Letters 6:044006. America 104:9949–9954. McClellan J, Sisco J, Suarez B, Keogh G. 2010. Geoengineer- Caldeira K, Bala G, Cao L. 2013. The Science of Geoengi- ing Cost Analysis: Final Report. Cambridge MA: Aurora neering. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Flight Sciences Corporation. 41 (forthcoming). Parkhill KA, Pidgeon NF. 2011. Public engagement on geoen- Crutzen PJ. 2006. Albedo enhancement by stratospheric sul- gineering research: Preliminary report on the SPICE delib- fur injections: A contribution to resolve a policy dilemma? erative workshops. Technical Report. Understanding Risk Climatic Change 77:211–221. Group Working Paper, 11-01. Cardiff University School of Keith D. 2011. Towards a Federal Research Program on Solar Psychology, Wales. Radiation Management. Presentation at the American Rayner S, Redgwell C, Savulescu J, Pidgeon N, Kruger T. Meteorological Society. Washington DC, April 12. Available 2009. Memorandum on draft principles for the conduct of online at www.ametsoc.org/atmospolicy/climatebriefing/ geoengineering research. UK House of Commons Science Keith.pdf (accessed August 5, 2012). and Technology Committee enquiry into the Regulation Keith D. 2012. “Can Geoengineering Save the World?” of Geoengineering. ScienceLive online chat, May 30. http://news.sciencemag. Ricke K, Morgan G, Allen M. 2010. Regional climate response org/sciencenow/2012/05/live-chat-can-geoengineering- to solar-radiation management. Nature Geoscience 3:8. sav.html (accessed November 13, 2012). Watson M. 2012. Testbed news, May 16. Available online Kravitz B. 2013. Climate engineering with stratospheric aero- at http://thereluctantgeoengineer.blogspot.com/2012/05/ sols and associated engineering parameters. In Frontiers of testbed-news.html (accessed August 12, 2012). Research shows that the judicious targeting of clouds and selection of the size and composition of particle emissions can produce substantial cooling effects.

Offsetting Climate Change by Engineering Air Pollution to Brighten Clouds

Lynn M. Russell

Natural, industrial, and residential combustion produces both aerosols that cool the Earth and CO2 that warms it, and the amount of combustion worldwide has increased substantially since the invention of the steam engine as well as with the increase in populations relying on wood and char burning. Natural and early man-made combustion processes emitted aerosols and CO roughly proportionally, although the ratios of emission Lynn M. Russell is a professor 2 types were dependent on burning conditions. In the wake of smog-induced of atmospheric chemistry at the respiratory-health-related deaths in London in 1952, and ensuing legisla- Scripps Institution of Oceanography tion in favor of limiting emissions in the United States and Europe, “air quality engineering” was developed to reduce combustion-related aerosol of the University of California, San emissions. But the reductions—without corresponding reductions in CO2 Diego. emissions—led to more warming (with some offset for reductions in absorbing aerosol emissions). One approach to “climate engineering” is to undo these reductions in aerosol emissions in a way that avoids the health and visibility impacts of pollution but still allows for particles to cool the Earth both by reflecting sunlight directly and by brightening clouds (which mag- nify the scattering of light with water). The engineering challenge with this approach is that clouds are the least understood component of the climate system, and current models cannot reliably predict their formation and properties. Recent research in the Eastern Pacific Emitted Aerosol Cloud Experiment (E-PEACE) 2011 illustrates that judicious selection of WINTER 2012 11

the meteorological regime and the size and composition of particle emissions can achieve substantial cooling effects. However, socioeconomic questions about climate engineering remain—such as the possibility that, if implemented, sudden cessation of enhanced particle emissions could exacerbate the climate effects on ecosystems and might interfere with oceanic and terrestrial ecosystem processes—thus requiring cau- tious and comprehensive research.

Background The fundamental physics that control the global mean surface temperature are well understood: about one-third of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space by the Earth’s albedo and the remaining two-thirds is absorbed at the surface, then emitted as longwave energy. In this way the incoming and outgoing energy at the top of the atmosphere largely balances the energy leaving, after partially trapping Figure 1 Diagram illustrating a simplified version of the Earth’s energy balance some of the energy by the greenhouse effect of atmos between incoming shortwave radiation (F ) from the sun and outgoing longwave pheric water vapor and clouds as well as greenhouse short radiation (Flong) from the surface, showing the two underlying equations (the 1st gases (IPCC 2007). These interactions constitute the law of thermodynamics and the Stefan-Boltzmann equation) and two enhanced Earth’s radiative energy balance, as illustrated in Fig- effects (the CO2-enhanced greenhouse effect and the aerosol-enhanced cloud ure 1. Higher surface mean temperatures (Tsurf) are albedo effect), along with the key scientists who made seminal contributions in due to the greenhouse effect, caused by the man-made each area. The Stefan-Boltzmann is constant σ, the Earth’s albedo is α, the global release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Increas- mean surface temperature (approximating the Earth as a black body) is Tsurf, and ing albedo (α) can offset CO2-enhanced greenhouse Fghg is the radiation reemitted to Earth by greenhouse gases (and other longwave- warming by increasing the shortwave reflection of absorbing components in the atmosphere). This figure appears in color in the online clouds. And clouds can be brightened to increase posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. their reflectance by adding aerosol particles, which increase the number and decrease the mean size of Recent Model Simulations of Cloud Brightening cloud droplets. An example of such brightening is Model simulations have established the climate provided by the “ship tracks” created by the emissions impacts of distributing enough particles to modify enough of cargo ships crossing the Pacific Ocean, as shown in clouds to offset sufficient global warming to delay or less- Figure 2. en some of the effects expected in the Earth’s changing Keeping in mind that maintaining global mean sur- climate (Latham 1990, 2002; Latham et al. 2008). Some face temperature does not imply that regional tem- schemes focus on a perceived need for engineering and peratures or precipitation patterns are kept constant, development of new technology, such as Flettner rotors engineering the global mean surface temperature to and high-efficiency seawater atomization (Salter et al. reduce changes from present-day conditions could be 2008). Other studies use detailed global modeling inves- sufficient to alleviate some of the most severe effects tigations to show what fraction of clouds are brightened, of global warming. Adding aerosol is straightforward, with more aggressive increases in brightening resulting since particle production is a side effect of most com- in exacerbation of climate in some regions even as oth- bustion processes as well as a result of vaporization of ers are improved (Rasch et al. 2009). Global simulations liquids in condensable conditions. The real challenge have also shown that where clouds are targeted is impor- in engineering aerosol particles to offset climate change tant, as some choices result in exacerbation of drought by brightening clouds is predicting how the Earth sys- conditions in some regions (Korhonen et al. 2010; Rasch tem, and in particular its clouds, will affect the albedo et al. 2009). In addition, recent studies have investigated response to increased particles. the complexities of aerosol cloud interactions, including The 12 BRIDGE

them in global climate models. Current global models lack (1) accurate aerosol particle activation, with associated implications for the profiles of supersaturation, vertical velocity, liquid water content, and drop distribution; (2) realistic microphysical growth and precipitation processes that control the formation and impacts of drizzle on cloud structure, lifetime, and particle concentration; and (3) eddy-based transport processes that control the effects of entrainment on cloud thickness and lifetime as well as the dispersion of aerosol plumes. These basic scientific issues have not been addressed by climate models or by climate engineering proposals that involve perturbing marine Figure 2 Enhanced multispectral image of the west coast of North America on June 21, 1994 from the NOAA Advanced Very stratocumulus; the follow- High Resolution Reflectance (AVHRR) satellite, showing reflectance of low clouds (gray) with tracks from cargo ships (white). ing section describes work High clouds (light gray with shadow), land (dark gray on right side), and clear sky over ocean (along coast at right). Compiled by our multi-institution col- by Kurt Nielsen of the Naval Postgraduate School (reproduced with permission). This figure appears in color in the online posting laboration to address them. of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. the damping of cloud brightening by reductions in cloud New Experimental Evidence of Cloud supersaturation (Korhonen et al. 2010) and by overlap- Brightening ping plumes1 of particles (Wang et al. 2011). To learn more about the cloud physical processes However, aerosol-cloud-radiation interactions are that affect aerosol-cloud-radiation interactions, we widely held to be the largest single source of uncer- designed the Eastern Pacific Emitted Aerosol Cloud tainty in projections of climate change due to increas- Experiment (E-PEACE) 2011 as a targeted aircraft ing anthropogenic emissions. The underlying causes of campaign with embedded modeling studies, using the this uncertainty in modeled predictions are the gaps in Center for Interdisciplinary Remotely Piloted Air- fundamental understanding of cloud processes (IPCC craft Studies (CIRPAS) Twin Otter aircraft and the 2007). Although there has been significant progress R/V Point Sur in July 2011 off the coast of Monterey, with both observations and models, and the qualitative California, with a full payload of instruments to mea- aspects of the indirect effects of aerosols on clouds are sure particle and cloud number, mass, composition, well known, the quantitative representation of these and water uptake distributions (Russell et al. 2013; processes is nontrivial and limits the ability to represent Shingler et al. 2012). Three central aspects of the collaborative E-PEACE design are described below, followed by highlights of the findings. 1 Cloud brightening is nonlinear, so two plumes of particles that overlap each other do not typically produce twice as much brightening. WINTER 2012 13

1. Controlled particle sources were used to separate technology and minimal resources. We noted that particle-induced feedback effects from natural vari- cooling outweighed warming by a factor of 50 on the ability. We have investigated three types of sources of day that a track was observed (Russell et al. 2013). This different particle sizes and compositions to character- cooling effect exceeds that of commercial shipping, for ize specific aspects of aerosol-cloud interactions: (1) which track-making ships induce twice as much cool- ship-emitted particles at rates of 1016 to 1018 s−1 with ing as warming (on days when tracks formed). dry diameters between 50 and 100 nm (Coggon et One of the most interesting results of E-PEACE was al. 2012), (2) shipboard smoke generator particles at the activation into cloud droplets of smoke particles rates of 1011 to 1013 s−1 with dry diameters between composed almost entirely of organic constituents (Shin- 50 nm and 1 μm, and (3) aircraft-based milled, coated gler et al. 2012). This result was surprising because many salt particles at rates of 109 s−1 with dry diameters organic components are hydrophobic and do not serve between 3 and 5 μm. The shipboard smoke generators as effective cloud nuclei at supersaturations below 0.2%. are shown in Figure 3. The large diameter of smoke particles makes it possible 2. Satellite observations showed that not all ship tracks for them to activate with fewer soluble constituents. cause cloud brightening (Chen et al. 2012), indicat- A second finding is the formation of tracks from ing a variety of cloud feedback responses to increased the smoke particles in cloud-covered marine boundary particle concentrations. These observations were layers. The organic smoke particles not only activated compared to the features predicted by large eddy to cloud droplets but also did so in sufficient numbers simulations and aerosol-cloud parcel modeling of the to form a track with a detectable increase in brightness. impacts of turbulence, precipitation, and other cloud However, there was a range of brightening observed for processes on the number concentration and size dis- the many different tracks formed by particle emissions tribution of cloud drops (Lu and Seinfeld 2005, 2006; from fairly similar cargo ships (Chen et al. 2012), indi- Russell et al. 1999). cating that cloud feedback processes play an important role in determining cloud brightening. 3. The track from the controlled emission of smoke- The third important finding of E-PEACE was the generated particles demonstrated efficient cooling frequency of low clouds with multiple layers, which of clouds at very low warming cost, using existing reduce the impact of particles on clouds. Tracks did not

FIGURE 3 Operation of smoke generators aboard the research vessel (R/V) Point Sur for E-PEACE in July 2011. This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. The 14 BRIDGE form every day because of either the absence or struc- et al. 2012). In particular, careful research is needed to ture of clouds near the ship. To produce a track with a assess the impacts of particle deposition on ocean and significant albedo effect, the cloud layer needed to be downwind terrestrial ecosystems; sustained changes in uniform and single-layered. In addition, for rapid mixing particle deposition could have deleterious impacts on of particles into the cloud layer, the layer needed to be ocean and land biota. Furthermore, shifts in precipi- below approximately 500 m. During the 12 days of the tation patterns and direct radiation at the surface, if E-PEACE cruise, multiple cloud layers of 100 to 1000 m substantial, could affect crop production. And imple- were present on more than half. Since particles emitted mentation of cloud brightening in regions near suscep- by ships on the ocean surface are usually transported only tible human populations could affect health. to the lowest cloud layer, their modification of droplet distributions does not appreciably change the albedo Conclusions seen from above the top cloud layer. In such cases, parti- Although the technology for particle emission and cles have little effect on the radiation balance. The pres- distribution exists, the engineering required for cloud ence of low cloud layers overlying the layers affected by brightening is hardly trivial. The most critical chal- the smoke particles resulted in a low frequency of track lenges to engineering the design of large-scale cloud formation. This finding is significant because it shows brightening are (1) cloud feedback processes that affect the need for representing small-scale cloud structure in the cloud response to aerosol enhancements and reduce global climate models in order to improve predictions of the expected brightening, (2) multilayered clouds that aerosol-induced cloud albedo changes. mask changes in underlying clouds, and (3) ecosystem impacts of particle deposition (Russell et al. 2012). These issues require region-specific observations and The E-PEACE results provide small-scale, short-duration testing to determine realistic constraints for modeling. In addition, although particle a proof of concept that cloud production is feasible with existing technology, there are ample opportunities for optimizing the efficiency brightening to reduce global of particle emission processes and for minimizing their mean warming is possible on ecosystem impacts. Knowledge of aerosol-cloud interactions remains suf- small scales for limited time. ficiently uncertain that consideration of their use for climate engineering is premature. Substantial advances are needed in understanding of aerosol and cloud phys- Implications for Climate Engineering ics to quantify their role in climate change, and such The E-PEACE results provide a proof of concept advances require experimental as well as modeling stud- that cloud brightening to reduce global mean warming ies. If such studies demonstrate the effectiveness of par- is possible, with existing, decades-old technology, for ticles for cloud brightening, it may be possible to use some cloud conditions (but it will not reduce drought this method to offset some of the warming to the global or ocean acidification). Track formation requires mean surface temperature caused by greenhouse gases. sufficient particle production to increase droplet number by 100 to 300 cm−3 over well-mixed boundary lay- Going Forward ers 100 m to 600 m high and spanning track widths of The seriousness of the consequences of global warm- several kilometers. Cargo ships and portable smoke gen- ing merits research into the possibility of using cloud erators can both easily emit 1016 to 1018 s−1, which is brightening for climate engineering. However, while sufficient at wind speeds of up to 10 m s−1 to make tracks cloud brightening will target atmospheric emissions in unpolluted marine air. The advantage of smoke gen- outside of national boundaries (since offshore marine erators for climate engineering is that the lower fuel stratocumulus have some of the largest impact on albe- consumption by the much smaller ship has a substan- do) in areas that largely lack environmental regulations, tially lower CO2 cost, making cooling more efficient. any large-scale implementation should involve multi- However, the radiative effects are not the only ones to national agreement and cooperation, as well as com- be considered before deploying on a large scale (Russell pensation for unexpected and harmful consequences. WINTER 2012 15

Furthermore, as with any solar reflection method that enhancement of the albedo and longevity of low-level mar- does not also reduce greenhouse gases, once initiated itime clouds. Atmospheric Science Letters 3:52–58. the cessation of cooling would likely cause accelerated Latham J, Rasch P, Chen CC, Kettles L, Gadian A, Gettel- warming as the system returns to the nonmasked warm- man A, Morrison H, Bower K, Choularton T. 2008. Global ing (Russell et al. 2012). temperature stabilization via controlled albedo enhance- In summary, while cloud brightening could be appro- ment of low-level maritime clouds. Philosophical Transac- priate to prevent tipping points (such as massive sea ice tions of the Royal Society A–Mathematical Physical and loss, which some predict may occur as early as 20152), Engineering Sciences 366:3969–3987. implementation of cloud brightening to offset climate Lu ML, Seinfeld JH. 2005. Study of the aerosol indirect effect warming should be considered as an option only after by large-eddy simulation of marine stratocumulus. Journal sufficient research is devoted to better constraining of the Atmospheric Sciences 62(11):3909. aerosol-cloud-radiation interactions. Lu ML, Seinfeld JH. 2006. Effect of aerosol number concentration on cloud droplet dispersion: A large-eddy simulation Acknowledgments study and implications for aerosol indirect forcing. Journal E-PEACE was supported by the National Science of Geophysical Research Atmospheres 111:D02207. Foundation under grant AGS-1013423. Thanks to Kurt Rasch PJ, Latham J, Chen CC. 2009. Geoengineering by Nielsen of the Monterey Naval Postgraduate School for cloud seeding: Influence on sea ice and climate system. compiling the satellite image in Figure 2. Environmental Research Letters 4:045112–045119. Russell LM, Seinfeld JH, Flagan RC, Ferek RJ, Hegg DA, References Hobbs PV, Wobrock W, Flossmann AI, O’Dowd CD, Chen Y-C, Christensen MW, Xue L, Sorooshian A, Stephens Nielsen KE, Durkee PA. 1999. Aerosol dynamics in ship GL, Rasmussen RM, Seinfeld JH. 2012. Occurrence of tracks. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres lower cloud albedo in ship tracks. Atmospheric Chemistry 104(D24):31077. and Physics 12:8223–8235. Russell LM, Rasch PJ, Mace GM, Jackson RB, Shepherd J, Liss Coggon MM, Sorooshian A, Wang Z, Metcalf AR, Frossard P, Leinen M, Schimel D, Vaughan NE, Janetos AC, Boyd AA, Lin JJ, Craven JS, Nenes A, Jonsson HH, Russell LM, PW, Norby RJ, Caldeira K, Merikanto J, Artaxo P, Melillo Flagan RC, Seinfeld JH. 2012. Ship impacts on the marine J, Morgan MG. 2012. Ecosystem impacts of geoengineering: atmosphere: Insights into the contribution of shipping A review for developing a science plan. Ambio 41:350–369. emissions to the properties of marine aerosol and clouds. Russell LM, Sorooshian A, Seinfeld JH, Albrecht BA, Nenes Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 12:8439–8458. A, Ahlm L, Chen Y-C, Coggon M, Craven JS, Flagan IPCC [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]. 2007. RC, Frossard AA, Jonsson H, Jung E, Lin JJ, Metcalf AR, Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contri- Modini R, Mülmenstädt J, Roberts GC, Shingler T, Song bution of Working Group I to the fourth assessment report. S, Wang Z, Wonaschütz A. 2013. Eastern Pacific Emitted In IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), ed. Aerosol Cloud Experiment (E-PEACE). Bulletin of the Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, American Meteorological Society (in press). Avery KB, Tignor M, Miller HL. Cambridge UK: Cam- Salter S, Sortino G, Latham J. 2008. Sea-going hardware for bridge University Press. the cloud albedo method of reversing global warming. Phil- Korhonen H, Carslaw KS, Romakkaniemi S. 2010. Enhance- osophical Transactions of the Royal Society A-Mathemati- ment of marine cloud albedo via controlled sea spray injec- cal Physical and Engineering Sciences 366:3989–4006. tions: A global model study of the influence of emission Shingler T, Dey S, Sorooshian A, Brechtel FJ, Wang Z, Met- rates, microphysics and transport. Atmospheric Chemistry calf AR, Coggon M, Mülmenstädt J, Russell LM, Jonsson and Physics 10:4133–4143. HH, Seinfeld JH. 2012. Characterisation and airborne Latham J. 1990. Control of global warming. Nature 347: deployment of a new counterflow virtual impactor inlet. 339–340. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 5:1259–1269. Latham J. 2002. Amelioration of global warming by controlled Wang H, Rasch PJ, Feingold G. 2011. Manipulating marine stratocumulus cloud amount and albedo: A process-mod- 2 See for example an article in the September 14, 2012, issue of The Guard- elling study of aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions in ian, “Arctic expert predicts final collapse of sea ice within four years”; response to injection of cloud condensation nuclei. Atmo- available online at www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/sep/17/ arctic-collapse-sea-ice?newsfeed=true (accessed November 9, 2012). spheric Chemistry and Physics 11:4237–4249. Electric vehicles show promise in minimizing reliance on fossil fuels, but their widespread use will likely require a revolutionary advance in energy storage technology.

Keeping Up with Increasing Demands for Electrochemical Energy Storage

Jeff Sakamoto

The interest in vehicle electrification is unprecedented. Several automotive manufacturers are producing or planning to produce hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fully or battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery technology is the current leading candidate to meet the near- and medium-term needs for electric vehicles. Leveraging considerable growth and development from Jeff Sakamoto is an assistant pro- the manufacturing of batteries for microelectronics, Li-ion technology has fessor in the Chemical Engineering advanced significantly in the last decade. However, the leap from small- and Materials Science Department scale microelectronic batteries (tens of watt hours) to electric vehicle battery packs (tens of kilowatt hours) is not trivial. Performance metrics such at Michigan State University. as cost/kilowatt hour, specific energy (Wh/kg), specific power (kW/kg), safety, and cycle life are considerably more demanding for electric vehicles than for laptops and cell phones. Electric vehicles (EVs) show promise in minimizing reliance on fossil fuels, but their widespread use will likely require a revolutionary advance in energy storage technology. Research in sophisticated and efficient power electronics, battery/cell telemetry, safety, thermal management, and schemes to recycle/reuse EV batteries can help to establish a solid foundation for the development and use of EVs. This article provides an overview of energy storage technology for vehicle electrification, highlights challenges, and discusses opportunities at the frontiers of battery research. WINTER 2012 17

FIGURE 1 Energy use in the United States in 2011. This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx.

The Need for Advanced Energy Storage However, due to the relatively low chemical-to-mechan- In terms of sustainability, minimizing dependence ical energy conversion efficiency of internal combustion engine technology (ICE), the ratio of serviceable to on fossil fuels and reducing CO2 emissions are compelling arguments to electrify vehicles. And from a rejected energy is disproportionately low compared to practical perspective, EVs can take advantage of exist- other energy use sectors. ing infrastructure for electrical power production and If EVs can improve energy efficiency in the short term transport—infrastructure that will soon be bolstered by and the technology for non-fossil-fuel-based/renewable efforts to augment renewable energy production whose electrical power generation can be realized in the long primary byproduct is electrical power (e.g., through term, the benefits to our country’s current and future photovoltaic cells and wind turbines). sustainability are clear. Assuming the latter, the follow- If electrical energy becomes the preferred form of ener- ing discussions focus on electrical energy storage, spe- gy, electrochemical energy storage is a natural fit. In con- cifically batteries. trast, hydrogen fuel cell technology requires an entirely Challenges for Electrochemical Energy Storage new infrastructure to efficiently produce hydrogen and and Use in EVs then transport, store, and reconvert it to electrical energy. To put into perspective the amount of energy con- Defining the ideal battery for EVs is complicated sumed by the transportation sector, of the total 2.85 × because of the numerous powertrain configurations 1016 watt-hours (1 Quad = 2.93 × 1014 watt-hours) of involved in HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs; for example, energy used by the United States in 2011 27.7% (7.91 the capacity (kWh), power (kW), and cycle life can × 1015 watt-hours) went to transportation (Figure 1).1 be considerably different for an HEV compared to a BEV (Khaligh and Lee 2010). To simplify discussion, 1 These data and the accompanying figure are from the Lawrence Liver- this article focuses on BEVs with battery character- more National Laboratory website, https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/content/ energy/energy_archive/energy_flow_2011/LLNLUSEnergy2011.png, istics that can power a four-seat vehicle for approxi- accessed November 9, 2012. mately 100 miles on a single charge, criteria favorable The 18 BRIDGE for widespread adoption.2 Figure 2 shows the necessary performance attri- butes of an effective EV battery. Vehicle range is determined by the amount of energy stored in the battery and the rate at which the energy is expended to pro- pel the vehicle. A 23 kWh battery used to power a ~70k W electric motor is believed to be sufficient to achieve a range of about 160 km. The mass and volume of the battery should be minimized to reduce the vehicle mass while maxi- Figure 3 Comparison of battery technologies currently available and under development (Bruce et al. 2012). Darker shading mizing vehicle cabin vol- in the bars indicates the specific energy values in laboratory scale prototypes; lighter shading indicates the range of anticipated ume, respectively. specific energy values for Li-S and Li-air technologies, respectively. Cd, cadmium; Li, lithium; MH, metal hydride; Ni, nickel; Pb, Vehicle acceleration lead; Zn, zinc. This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. is determined by specific power (kW/kg) or how quickly the stored energy can be Ensuring consistent, long-term vehicle range requires extracted per unit mass of battery. A common metric is a charging efficiency of 99.9999% such that approxi- in the single to multi-kW/kg range (e.g., 1–3 kW/kg). mately 80% of the original battery capacity is available Replacement of the ICE powertrain with an electric at the end of the vehicle’s life. powertrain should not considerably add to the vehicle Widespread use of BEVs will entail operation in cost, and the cost of the battery pack should be less dramatically different climates, so the battery must be than $5,000. capable of operating at relatively low and high ambient temperatures. Although it is difficult to quantify how fast is fast enough, the issue of range anxiety may be addressed if a battery pack can be charged at a charging station as quickly as a gasoline tank can be filled at a gas station. Last, and perhaps most importantly, the battery technology must be safe and reliable.

Li-ion Batteries Of the battery chemistries available today (Figure 3), Li-ion has the highest specific energy (Tarascon and Armand 2001) and is the only technology capable of meeting the criteria shown in Figure 2. While other Figure 2 Battery performance criteria to power the next generation of battery energy storage technologies such as supercapacitors, electric vehicles. flywheels, and compressed air are in development, only Li-ion batteries are mature enough or meet the necessary

2 Whether this BEV performance standard is specifically required to sig- criteria or both (Dunn et al. 2011). Li-ion batteries also nificantly impact energy consumption is not yet known, but agencies have the distinct advantage of both intrinsically high and auto companies generally agree with this definition (Bruce et al. 2012; CCC 2012; Thackeray et al. 2012). cell voltage (>3 V) and the capacity to store lithium ions WINTER 2012 19

in the solid state, resulting in high specific energy and started development in 1996 and were flight qualified low cell volume (energy density), respectively. and implemented in 2003, a testament to how quickly In a typical Li-ion cell (Figure 4), lithium ions are Li-ion battery technology can progress. shuttled, with relatively high efficiency, between In 2008, a combination of factors led to a signifi- the anode and cathode via a liquid Li-ion electrolyte cant push to improve vehicle fuel efficiency, resulting (EVSAE 2012). Graphite (in powder form) is by far the in a rapid transformation of the auto industry with an most common anode that reversibly uptakes and releas- emphasis on vehicle electrification. In 2011 GM rolled es lithium ions between graphene sheets. The cathode out the PHEV Volt and Nissan the BEV Leaf, and in consists of a ceramic of nominal formula LiMO2 (in 2012 Ford started selling the BEV Ford Focus. powder form), where M stands for a transition metal These past and recent successes are impressive, but such as cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), or nickel (Ni) Li-ion battery packs still require considerable reductions that can change valence states upon insertion/extrac- in cost as well as increases in specific energy to extend tion of Li-ions. During discharge, it is more energeti- vehicle range. The following section presents a mate- cally favorable for the graphite anode to release its rials perspective on opportunities in electrochemical Li-ions and for the cathode uptake Li-ions to reduce energy storage and milestones whose achievement will the M valence charge (e.g., M4+ to M3+). This shuttling address these issues. of lithium ions from the anode to the cathode is accompanied by the simultaneous passing of electrons through Opportunities in Electrochemical Energy an external circuit to power the electric vehicle. Storage Since their invention in 1991 by Sony and profes- Unlike lead (Pb)-acid, nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), and sor John B. Goodenough, Li-ion batteries have been nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH) battery technologies, integrated into cell phones, laptop computers, and Li-ion technology performance has room for improve- other microelectronics (Figure 5). And some of the first ment, as shown in Figure 3. Advanced electrode and Li-ion-powered EVs were not terrestrial but instead cell designs and electrode material breakthroughs vehicles sent to survey the surface of Mars in 2003 (Thackeray et al. 2012) may enable a doubling in ener- through NASA’s Mars Exploration Program (Huang et gy density and a fourfold reduction in cost compared al. 2000). The Mars Exploration Rover Li-ion batteries to available Li-ion technology. Eventually, however,

FIGURE 4 Schematic of a lithium (Li)-ion cell: (A) at the atomic scale (A, amperes; reprinted with permission from Tarascon and Armand 2001) and (B) at the microscopic scale (adapted from EVSAE 2012). This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. The 20 BRIDGE

FIGURE 5 Li-ion batteries come in a variety of designs: (a) spiral wound cell, (b) button or watch cell, (c) prismatic cell, and (d) solid polymer (electrolyte) battery (Tarascon and Armand 2001). Ah, amp-hour; Al, aluminum; Cu, copper; V, volt. This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx.

Li-ion technology improvements will crest, requiring Increasing the mass/volume fraction of active mate- a breakthrough in battery technology to approach the rial is one strategy to improve specific energy. Making cost target (~$150/kWh) and the range of an ICE pow- thicker, less porous electrodes is a popular approach to ertrain vehicle (>400 km). achieve this, but thicker and less porous active elec- Several research and government agency reports (e.g., trode layers impede the transport of ions in the electro- Bruce et al. 2012; CCC 2012) present complementary lyte and thus reduce power (Buqa et al. 2005). near-term roadmaps to guide battery research and devel- Furthermore, the nonuniform current in thicker opment over the next two decades. Three milestones electrodes can cause metallic lithium to deposit on extrapolated from these roadmaps illustrate the frontiers the anode and oxygen gas to be released from certain of battery development, with substantial steps in 2015 LiMO2 cathodes, which can be a safety hazard in the and 2020 followed by a revolutionary leap in 2030. presence of heat and flammable electrolyte solvents. These challenges can be addressed through research 2015 Milestone: Optimize Current Materials and Cell on advanced electrode designs, powder processing, and Component Design coating technologies (DOE 2010). In the short term the focus is on optimization of Cycle life is another concern that requires attention. materials and conventional liquid electrolytes. At A passivation layer forms on the surface of a graphitic present, approximately 50% of a battery pack mass is anode particle during the solid electrolyte interphase dead weight (Johnson and White 1998). For example, (SEI). As lithium intercalates and deintercalates from in the cell cross-section shown in Figure 4b, only the graphite particles, the corresponding swelling and graphite anode and LiMO2 particles store lithium and contraction create fissures in the SEI, resulting in the therefore energy; the electrical current–collecting foils, continuous and irreversible consumption of lithium electrolyte, separator, and hermetic container do not and diminishing capacity retention. Again, improved store energy. electrode designs to homogenize charge flow could WINTER 2012 21

address this concern, as could the development of new carbon matrix to create an encapsulation effect (Zhao electrolytes and/or electrolyte additives to make the et al. 2011). Envia Systems recently announced a 400 SEI more robust. Wh/kg Li-ion cell pack using Si-based anodes, but it Economies of scale will probably not play a signifi- has yet to be commercialized (Thackeray et al. 2012). cant role in minimizing cost per kilowatt hour ($/kWh) Advanced materials processing and materials engineer- (Bruce et al. 2012; CCC 2012) by 2015. Rather, new ing could play a major role in optimizing alloying elec- materials with appreciably better performance and low- trode performance and reducing cost. er cost are needed to bring costs down to the target of approximately $150/kWh.

2020 Milestone: Electrode and Electrolyte Materials New materials with Breakthroughs appreciably better The 2020 milestone focuses on reducing cost rather than increasing specific energy, although it is hoped performance and lower that the latter will increase by more than a factor of two. Once the electrode and cell design have been optimized, cost are needed to bring increases in the specific energy will require new elec- costs down. trode and complementary electrolyte materials that can store more lithium or charge-per-unit mass/volume and that have higher voltage (energy = amps × volts × time). On the cathode side, there are two promising If the new materials can be made at comparable or lower approaches. First, the cathode system, a composite cost, a byproduct of increased specific energy will be a layered structure, enables the full extraction of one commensurate decrease in cost/kWh (Figure 3). molecular unit of lithium, or x = 1 per formula unit of Alloying anodes such as silicon (Si)- or tin (Sn)- xLi2MnO3(1 − x)LiMO2 (M = Mn, Ni, Co) (Thackeray based electrodes will likely constitute the next genera- et al. 2012). This type of material, developed by Thac- tion of Li-ion battery anodes (Thackeray et al. 2012). keray and colleagues at Argonne National Laboratory, The term “alloying” is used to describe the reversible, can deliver nearly twice the specific capacity compared electrochemical reaction between lithium and a pure to conventional LiMO2 cathodes. element such as silicon or tin. There are a few practical concerns associated with Specific capacity (milliamp hours per gram, or mAh/g), this material strategy, however. For example, the lithium which refers to the amount of lithium that an electrode must come from the anode (which is not the case with can uptake and release, is commonly used where one conventional LiMO2 cathodes) and the charging volt- mole (6.94 grams) of lithium can provide 26.8 Ah of age (4.6 V) is outside the stability window of most con- electrical charge. Graphitic anodes have a theoretical ventional electrolytes, resulting in diminished cycle life. specific capacity of 372 mAh/g, and silicon and tin have The second approach involves increasing the cath- specific capacities of 4009 and 960 mAh/g, respectively, ode reaction voltage from about 4.0 V to approximately making the interest in these anodes apparent. 5.0 V to result in a 20% increase in specific energy, pro- However, a >300% change in volume accompanies vided the specific capacity is comparable to that of con- the uptake and release of lithium from silicon and tin, ventional cathodes. Examples of high-voltage cathodes creating significant mechanical stresses that cause include LiMn1.5Ni0.5O2 and LiMPO4 (M = Co, Ni) decrepitation and poor cycle life (Deshpande et al. (Allen et al. 2011), both of which are relatively mature 2010). One solution is to reduce the powder particle compared to the composite layered cathodes described size from the typical micron scale to the nano scale and above, but the lack of stable electrolytes limits their thus decrease the magnitude of strain. Creating nano widespread implementation. Si wires with <100 nm dimensions, originally demon- Higher cell voltage (cathode side) and a stable SEI strated by the Cui group (Wu et al. 2012), reduces the (anode side) with advanced anodes both require sig- overall strain to minimize decrepitation and improve nificant improvements in electrolytes. One approach cycle life. Another approach is to increase cycle life by is to integrate additives to conventional electrolytes to embedding Si or Sn particles in an elastic or compliant improve the high-voltage (cathode) stability. The Kang The 22 BRIDGE group achieved this by increasing the electrolyte stabil- Li-S is attractive because of its high theoretical ity to enable the use of LiCoPO4 (4.8 V) cathodes (von energy density (2199 Wh/l), high theoretical specific Cresce and Kang 2011). A completely different approach energy (2567 Wh/kg), and the low cost and abundance involves a solid electrolyte material breakthrough using of sulfur (Bruce et al. 2012). Factoring in the mass of a ceramic rather than liquid electrolyte. The advantages the electrolyte, electrical current–collecting foils, pack- could include higher stability (0 to >6 V) and perhaps aging, and other features, the practical specific energy safety as a flammable liquid electrolyte is replaced by a is reduced to approximately 600 Wh/kg, which is still highly thermal and chemically stable ceramic. considerably higher than that of advanced Li-ion bat- A class of ceramics referred to as “fast-ion conduc- teries. In a Li-S cell, elemental lithium and sulfur are tors” conducts lithium ions about as fast as a conven- the reactants, a nonaqueous electrolyte shuttles lithium tional liquid electrolyte. Additionally, these ceramics ions between electrodes, and, because sulfur does not have negligible electronic conductivity and the Li-ion have sufficient electrical conductivity, a specific porous conductivity improves with increasing temperature. carbon (Ji et al. 2009) is added to increase the effective Recent examples of promising solid electrolytes include electrical conductivity of the S-cathode. sulfur (S)-based (Kamaya et al. 2011) and oxide-based Two challenges remain: (1) prevention of deleterious electrolytes (Murugan et al. 2007; Rangasamy et al. mechanisms that result from the formation of soluble 2011) that exhibit Li-ion conductivities comparable to Li-S compounds during cycling and (2) achievement conventional liquid electrolytes. of a stable/cyclable Li-electrolyte interface, a challenge Next-generation Li-ion batteries will require new mate- since the 1980s when it led to the demise of recharge- rials for anodes, cathodes, and electrolytes. Advanced able lithium metal anode batteries. materials and ceramic processing technology based on Li-air batteries are of two types: nonaqueous and lessons learned from the 2015 milestone will play a key aqueous (Bruce et al. 2012); the “air” in question is the role in achieving the 2020 milestone. The development source of oxygen and, for the aqueous batteries, water of new electrolyte materials, in particular, will advance vapor. Nonaqueous batteries involve the reaction of progress toward the 2030 milestone of enabling new bat- lithium with oxygen gas (O2) to form Li2O2. (The ref- tery chemistry beyond Li-ion technology. erence to “air” may be a bit misleading since both water vapor and carbon dioxide must be excluded from the reaction/cell in the nonaqueous configuration.) During Next-generation Li-ion discharge, lithium is transported through a nonaqueous electrolyte and reacts with O2 in the presence of batteries will require new a porous carbon network and a catalyst to form solid precipitates of Li2O2. The theoretical energy density of materials for anodes, this system is (3436 Wh/l) and the theoretical specific energy is (3505 Wh/kg). Some of the key challenges cathodes, and electrolytes. for nonaqueous Li-air batteries are (1) development of an oxygen-permeable membrane that excludes carbon dioxide and water vapor, (2) development of effec- 2030 Milestone: Beyond Li-ion Batteries tive cathode electrodes that prevent pore occlusion If electric powertrains are to replace ICE technology, resulting from the formation of solid byproducts during without raising concerns about cost or range, a new bat- discharge, and (3) effective integration of catalysts to tery technology is required (Bruce et al. 2012). Three improve reaction kinetics. of the most popular battery chemistries that represent In the second type of Li-air battery an aqueous elec- the frontier of energy storage are Li-S, Zn-air, and Li-air trolyte is used to transport lithium ions into a carbon (the metal air batteries are actually semifuel cells, but cathode electrode to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) for brevity and consistency they are referred to as bat- during discharge. At lower concentrations LiOH is teries). Because the challenges related to Zn-air tech- soluble in the electrolyte, whereas at higher concen- nology are relatively well known (Lee et al. 2011), the trations (i.e., greater degrees of discharge) it precipi- focus here is on Li-S and Li-air batteries, which are not tates out as a solid. The theoretical energy density of as well understood. the aqueous variant is (2234 Wh/l) and the theoretical WINTER 2012 23

specific energy is (3582 Wh/kg). Some of the chal- Conclusions lenges that remain for aqueous Li-air technology are There is a compelling need for advanced electro- technologies to (1) protect the lithium metal anode chemical energy storage to power the next generation from the aqueous electrolyte using a ceramic elec- of electric vehicles. And interest in Li-ion technology trolyte membrane, (2) prevent reactions with carbon is on the rise, if growing attendance at the 5-year-old dioxide from ambient air, and (3) prevent pore and annual symposium “Beyond Li-ion” is any evidence. electrolyte interface occlusion when/if LiOH precipi- But although Li-ion batteries offer substantial perfor- tates at higher depths of discharge. Although there are mance advantages over previous battery technologies, few examples of advanced prototypes, the projected range capacity and cost are major challenges to over- specific energy for both Li-air variants is expected to come by 2015. Better electrode, cell, and pack design, be about 1000 Wh/kg. together with advanced manufacturing and power The majority of the challenges involve the discov- electronics, will establish a solid foundation for future ery of new materials and development of an electrolyte EV technology. to enable the use of metallic lithium anodes. The need By 2020, material and electrolyte breakthroughs are for ceramic electrolytes that protect the lithium metal expected to provide moderate improvements in BEV anode is one aspect common to Li-air and Li-S technol- range—and dramatic reductions in cost. Anodes that ogy. In addition to poor cycle stability, excess lithium is are cheap (based on Si or Sn) are expected to uptake required to counter the effects of poor cycling efficien- and release more lithium per unit mass. On the cath- cy. For example, two- to fourfold excess lithium may be ode side, the focus will be on increasing the voltage and necessary, thus reducing the energy density. One recent lithium uptake and release per unit mass. Developing material breakthrough (Murugan et al. 2007) identified higher-stability liquid and solid electrolytes will com- a new class of ceramic oxide electrolyte that is believed plement higher-voltage cathodes and efforts to revolu- to exhibit the unprecedented combination of stability tionize energy storage in the long term (2030). against lithium with high, room-temperature ionic con- Provided the necessary electrical infrastructure is ductivity (Figure 6). in place by 2030, a breakthrough in electrochemical In addition to new electrolytes, advanced catalyst and energy storage is required if ICE technology is to be catalyst support electrodes, similar to those found in fuel replaced by BEVs. Li-air or Li-S batteries may be the cells, are required to improve rechargeability and power. high specific energy, low-cost technology of the future, but significant materials and engineering challenges must first be overcome. Solving the lithium metal anode–electrolyte interface stability issue; developing novel catalyst/catalyst support cathodes; and creating stable, semipermeable solid electrolytes require further research and development if Li-air and Li-S technologies are to mature. The frontiers of electrochemical energy storage are exciting from multiple perspectives, and are likely to generate significant engineering research and development opportunities in the coming decades.

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The Car and the Cloud Automotive Architectures for 2020

Rahul Mangharam

Over the past two decades, automobile journey durations have doubled. Furthermore, travelers increasingly use their vehicle as a mobile office, meeting room, and even living room. With this evolution, informational and entertainment needs in the vehicle now transcend mechanical, electronic, and software boundaries to include services for the driver, passengers, and the vehicle itself. Rahul Mangharam is Stephen Three trends are emerging in drivers’ expectations for their vehicle: (1) J. Angello Term Chair Assistant continuous connectivity with both the infrastructure (e.g., smart traffic Professor, Department of Electrical intersections) and other commuters, (2) enhanced levels of productivity and entertainment for the duration of travel, and (3) reduction in cognitive load and Systems Engineering, University through semiautonomous operation and automated congestion-aware route of Pennsylvania, and founding mem- planning. To address these demands, vehicles should become more program- ber, PRECISE Center (Penn Research mable so that almost every aspect of engine control, cabin comfort, connectivity, navigation, and safety will be remotely upgradable and designed in Embedded Computing and to evolve over the lifetime of the vehicle. Integrated Systems Engineering). Progress toward the vehicle of the future will entail new approaches in the design and sustainability of vehicles so that they are connected to networked traffic systems and are programmable over the course of their lifetime. To that end, our automotive research team at the University of Pennsylvania is developing an in-vehicle programmable system, AutoPlug, an automotive architecture for remote diagnostics, testing, and code updates for dispatch from The 26 BRIDGE a datacenter to vehicle electronic controller units. For are developed to enable remote diagnosis and repro- connected vehicles, we are implementing a networked grammability throughout the life of the vehicle, driv- vehicle platform, GrooveNet, that allows communica- ers will be able to choose from a software component tion between real and simulated vehicles to evaluate the marketplace to enhance the safety, performance, and feasibility and application of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) comfort of their vehicle. and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication; the Ensuring the safe and correct programming of the new focus in this paper is on its application to safety. Finally, service features is paramount. Automotive plug-and- we are working on a tool for large-scale traffic conges- play devices that communicate to and from the vehicle tion analysis, AutoMatrix, capable of simulating over will allow new classes of services and customization such 16 million vehicles on any US street map and comput- as online vehicle diagnostics, warranty management, ing real-time fastest paths for a large subset of vehicles. networked infotainment, and integration of applica- The tools and platforms described here are free and tions such as driver behavior and vehicle performance open-source from the author. measurements for personalized insurance services.

Connected Vehicles New vehicle-to-vehicle Every year, approximately 6.4 million car accidents occur in the United States, typically involving three communication technology people (two drivers and one passenger). That translates to roughly 19.2 million Americans injured in car acci- will be able to issue safety dents each year, or odds of 1:16 for every individual. alerts to approaching vehicles Several sources4 estimate that over 90% of vehicle crashes are due to driver negligence and therefore and prevent a pile-up. avoidable (Duri´c and Miladinov-Mikov 2008). A vehicle’s “safety bubble” is currently limited to its physical body, with integrated crash and proximity Programmable Vehicles sensors (e.g., ultrasonic, LiDAR, radar). In the vehicle Vehicles today are built in long design cycles and of the future, V2V and V2I wireless communication is with electronic architectures that are static in both expected to enhance safety. Such communication tech- form and function. Technology adoption is considered nology, when interfaced with the vehicle’s powertrain only at the beginning of the design cycle, frozen for the and using audio and haptic feedback, will be able to lifetime of ownership of the vehicle (~12 years1), and issue safety alerts to all approaching vehicles during often obsolete within 6 years.2,3 In contrast, the vehicle events such as sudden braking, loss of traction, or air- of the future will be programmable with services for bag deployment. Early warning messages communicated the long-term health and performance of both humans down the highway in a timely “multi-hop” manner (i.e., and vehicles. from one vehicle to another in a few hundred millisec- Electronics and software for engine and cabin controls onds) will allow for longer reaction and stopping time currently account for over 30% of the cost of an automo- and thus prevent a pile-up. bile, and this figure is expected to grow as vehicles evolve Connected vehicle architectures for such safety-crit- from mechanical to electronic to software-controlled ical automotive systems require much work to ensure to service-based mobile cyber-physical system (CPS) security and privacy together with the timely delivery of platforms. As new automotive electronic architectures traffic alerts, warnings, and information updates.

Networked Traffic Systems 1 Polk.com. 2012. Average Age of Vehicles Reaches Record High, Janu- ary 17. Available online at http://goo.gl/TN5Ow. Delays due to traffic congestion cost Americans 2 US DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Vehi- $78 billion in the form of 4.2 billion lost hours and cle Technologies Program. 2010. Average Length of Light Vehicle Ownership, May 10. Available online at www1.eere.energy.gov/ vehiclesandfuels/facts/2010_fotw622.html. 4 See, for example, The Economist. Look, No Hands: Automotive technol- 3 Polk.com. 2012. Americans are keeping new vehicles an average ogy: Driverless cars promise to reduce road accidents, ease congestion of nearly six years, February 22. Available online at http://goo.gl/ and revolutionise transport, September 1. Available online at www. 7R3N3. economist.com/node/21560989. WINTER 2012 27

2.9 billion gallons of wasted fuel, and 35–55% of these delays are caused by point- based traffic incidents rather than recurring congestion. As the density of vehicles increases, there is a need for large-scale traffic congestion management such that real-time “eco- routing” can be provided to prevent, avoid, and alleviate traffic back-ups. Models and tools for nationwide traffic congestion management, with networked streaming vehicle data, are required to compute the fastest and most eco- friendly routes without new infrastructure costs. In the Real-Time Sys- Figure 1 Remote diagnostics of automotive control systems showing the vehicle’s software architecture (in dashed box) and tems Lab at Penn, we are the remote diagnostics center (RDC) communicating over a network link. The RDC communicates via the onboard “supervisor” investigating the design of with the vehicle control system to observe its state and update its software in the event of an unexpected fault. C0, Cf1, Cf2 = such a platform to enable software-based controllers in the vehicle (e.g., for stability, traction, antilock braking, and cruise control). Using dynamic diagnos- the scaling of traffic net- tic trouble codes (DyDTCs), the RDC observes the state of the vehicle software for postmarket analysis of unanticipated faults. work operations to handle data processing for millions of vehicles, estimate and module that could result in engine failure and possi- predict congestion, and facilitate route assignment as bly lead to a crash (NHTSA 2009). In August 2011, well as to model traffic operations and disaster response Jaguar recalled 17,678 vehicles because of concerns during congestion. that the cruise control might not respond to normal inputs and once engaged could not be switched off.6 In In-Vehicle Systems: Remote Diagnostics, November 2011, Honda recalled 2.5 million vehicles Testing, and Reprogramming to update the software that controls their automatic More than 20.3 million vehicles were recalled in transmissions.7 2010, many because of software issues related to elec- Current automotive systems lack a systematic tronic systems such as cruise control, antilock braking, approach and infrastructure to support postmarket run- traction control, and stability control. New and scalable time diagnostics for control software (although at least methods are necessary to evaluate such controls in a one online source indicates that there is a significant realistic and open setting. effort to incorporate automotive software testing and The increasing complexity of software in automo- verification at the design stage8). Once a vehicle leaves tive systems has resulted in the rise of firmware-related the dealership lot, its performance and operation safety vehicle recalls due to undetected bugs and software are a “black box” to the manufacturers and the original faults.5 In 2009, Volvo recalled 17,614 vehicles because equipment providers. of a software error in the engine-cooling fan control

6 IEEE Spectrum. 2011. Jaguar Software Issue May Cause Cruise Control to Stay On, October 25. Available online at http://spectrum.ieee.org. 5 IEEE Spectrum. 2011. Honda Recalls 936,000 More Vehicles for Elec- 7 Reuters. 2011. Honda recalls 2.5 million vehicles on software issue, trical and Software Fixes, September 7. Available online at http:// August 25. Available online at www.reuters.com. spectrum.ieee.org. 8 AUTOSAR (Automotive Open System Architecture); www.autosar.org. The 28 BRIDGE

Furthermore, for the more than 100 million lines of information from the service centers to the manufac- code and 60-plus electronic controller units (ECUs) turer, which takes time—during which a safety-critical in a vehicle (Schäuffele and Zurawka 2005), there system may malfunction. are only about eight standard diagnostic trouble codes Consequently, there is an urgent need for systematic (DTCs) for software and they are extremely general postmarket in-vehicle diagnostics for control system (e.g., “memory corruption”). Of the DTCs for software, software so that issues can be detected early. An in- none target the ECU software even though systems vehicle system would log sensor values and perform such as stability, cruise, and traction control are criti- runtime evaluation of the states of the system controls. cal for safety. A remote diagnostic center (RDC) would receive the data (over a network link) to prepare a fault detec- In-Vehicle Diagnostics and Recall Management tion and isolation response (Figure 1), in the form of The current approach to vehicle recalls is reactive: a proposed dynamic diagnostic trouble code (DyDTC) the manufacturer recalls all vehicles of a particular year/ that “observes” the ECUs and system control tasks in make/model only after a problem occurs in a significant question. Once sufficient data are captured, the RDC, number of them. For a software-related recall, the vehi- using a gray-box model of the vehicle (i.e., with sen- cle is taken to service center and a technician either sor and control system observation logs), executes sys- manually replaces the ECU that has the faulty code or tem identification to build a model of the vehicle. It reprograms the ECU code with the new version pro- then develops a fault-tolerant controller to address the vided by the manufacturer. problem and the vehicle is remotely reprogrammed by The wait-and-see approach to recalls has a signifi- a code update. cant cost in both time and money and may have a We have developed an early design of such a system, negative impact on the vehicle manufacturer’s reputa- AutoPlug, although we recognize that the approach will tion. Furthermore, the current recall method relies on be difficult in practice as it would require extensive run- word of mouth or the transmission of manually logged time verification of the updated controller.

FIGURE 2 End-to-end stages of the AutoPlug automotive architecture. (1) When an unexpected fault is reported, the remote diagnostic center (RDC) sends custom diagnostic code to the vehicle to observe its performance. Using vehicle models developed during the design phase, the RDC safely observes the operation of the software on the vehicle while it is running. Using this information it extracts a new model for the vehicle (perhaps with changes due to wear and tear, faulty sensors, changes in suspension). (2-3) With the updated vehicle model, the control system design is reformulated to correct the faults in the vehicle. (4-5) The RDC remotely updates and verifies the correctness and safety of the reformulated control software. CAN = controller area network; ECU = electronic controller unit. WINTER 2012 29

Overview of AutoPlug and the RDC. We assume the network link between the AutoPlug is an automotive ECU architecture between two is available. the vehicle and an RDC to diagnose, test, update, and The runtime system within the vehicle manages: verify control software. Within the vehicle, we evaluate • Fault detection and isolation. Sensor, actuator, and observer-based runtime diagnostic schemes and intro- control system states are logged for the specific ECU. duce a framework for remote management of vehicle The data are analyzed locally and a summary of the recalls. The diagnostic scheme deals with both real- and states is transmitted to the RDC. non-real-time faults, with a decision function to detect and isolate system faults with modeling uncertainties. • Fault-tolerant controllers. Once a fault is detected, We also evaluate the applicability of “opportunis- the high-performance controller is automatically tic diagnostics,” where the observer-based diagnostics replaced with a backup controller. are scheduled in the ECU’s real-time operating system • ECU reprogramming for remote code updates. (RTOS) only when there is slack available in the sys- Upon receipt of reformulated controller code from tem (i.e., it can work with existing hardware in vehicles the RDC (which will guarantee the stability and without interfering with current task sets). The perfor- safety of the vehicle), the runtime system reprograms mance of this aperiodic diagnostic scheme is similar to the particular controller task(s) with the updated that of the standard, periodic scheme under reasonable code. This can be done over a cellular or wireless assumptions. The framework integrates in-vehicle and communication link. remote diagnostics and makes vehicle warranty management more cost-effective. • Patched controller runtime verification. The updat- The aim of the AutoPlug architecture, illustrated in ed code is monitored with continuous checks for Figure 2, is to make the vehicle recall process less reac- safety and performance. tive with a runtime system for diagnosis of automotive While the onboard system provides state updates of control systems and software. Our focus is on the online the specific controller, the RDC provides complemen- analysis of the control system and control software both tary support through: in the vehicle ECU network and between the vehicle

FIGURE 3 (a) AutoPlug hardware-in-loop testbed with real-time monitoring and diagnostics. CAN = controller area network; ECU = electronic controller unit. (b) Real-time monitors for stability controller showing the sensor information of the vehicle dynamics. (c) Analysis of the error signal (i.e., residual) of a particular sensor and its expected values. A smart thresholding scheme is used at the remote diagnostics center to determine the extent of the fault based on the residual signal. The 30 BRIDGE

• Data analysis and fault localization. By observing stability control to see that the testbed does indeed per- sensor and control system operations locally, struc- form as a real vehicle would. tured system identification is used to create a model The main contributions of our applied research and of the vehicle and its control system is evaluated to development are threefold: isolate faulty behavior. • an architecture that uses both in-vehicle and remote • Reformulation of control and diagnostic code. A diagnostics for remote recall management of deployed new controller is formulated for the specific vehicle vehicles; model and further diagnostic code dispatched. • modification of the traditional observer-based • Recall management. Reformulated controller code is fault detection and isolation scheme for in-vehicle transmitted to the vehicle. opportunistic diagnosis, as well as an experimental thresholding scheme in the presence of modeling • Generation of controller verification profiles. The uncertainties; and updated controller is probed for performance and safety. • implementation and evaluation of these schemes on real ECUs for hardware-in-loop simulation. The remote diagnostic system is capable of diagnos- ing and reformulating controllers with real-time faults These three features facilitate postmarket diagnostics, (e.g., delay, jitter, incorrect sampling rates) and system testing, and reconfiguration from a remote data center. faults (e.g., stuck-at faults, calibration faults, and noise in sensors/actuators). Vehicle-to-Vehicle/Infrastructure Networking for Enhanced Safety AutoPlug Testbed Connected vehicles involve a special class of wire- To design and validate the proposed architecture we less networks where the maximum relative speeds are developed the AutoPlug testbed, which consists of a in excess of 80 meters per second, the node density can hardware-in-loop simulation platform for ECU devel- span more than 9,000 vehicles/mi2, and, most impor- opment and testing (Figure 3). The hardware is in the tantly, the dynamics of the vehicle, the environment, form of a network of ECUs, interfaced by a controller driver reaction, and interaction with other vehicles are area network (CAN) bus, on which we implement the considered in every communication and control deci- control and diagnostic algorithms. Each ECU runs a sion. Vehicles enabled with programmable short-range nano-RK RTOS, a resource kernel (RK) with preemp- wireless networking can communicate with each oth- tive priority-based real-time scheduling. er and with the infrastructure to enhance the driver’s Instead of a real vehicle, we use an open-source racecar simulator, which provides high-fidelity physics-based vehicle models and different road terrains, thus affording both the realism of an actual vehicle and the flexibility to implement our own code. In addition, we can introduce faults not covered by standard DTCs. We have tested basic control algorithms, running as Figure 4 Mixed evaluation of real and virtual connected vehicles with the GrooveNet platform. The three vehicles in the circles real-time tasks on nano- are real vehicles communicating with short-range wireless communication (using the IEEE 802.11p/WAVE protocol) on the RK, for antilock braking street. The remaining vehicles are simulated to facilitate communication between real and virtual vehicles. This platform allows systems (ABS), traction for scalable and high-fidelity evaluation of vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure network protocols. DSRC = dedicated control, cruise control, and short-range communication; V = virtual vehicle. WINTER 2012 31

perception of oncoming danger within hundreds of milliseconds and, within seconds or minutes, route the vehicle based on real- time traffic congestion. With connected vehicles, it is necessary to analyze and validate the effect of incremental deployment of V2V technologies on message delay, cover- age, and persistence in the region of interest. Because it is expensive to develop and test experimental protocols on a large fleet of vehicles, there is a need for vehicular network simula- tors that faithfully model first-order effects of the street topology, vehicle Figure 5 GrooveNet hybrid simulation demonstrating hundreds of virtual vehicles communicating with five real vehicles in the congestion, speed limits, city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. See text for discussion. communication channels, and spatiotemporal trends Our tests of GrooveNet with a fleet of five vehicles in traffic intensity on the performance and reliability over 400 miles across urban, rural, and suburban terrain of V2V networking. Once protocols are designed and show that it has realistic models for car following, com- evaluated through simulation, their performance must munication, mobility, driver types, traffic lights, road- be tested with real vehicles and realistic traffic densi- side communication nodes (e.g., wireless stations that ties. Although it may be possible to deploy a small fleet transmit updates about traffic lights to enable drivers to of vehicles (e.g., a dozen), it is not yet possible to assess adjust their speed accordingly), and other interactive the scalability of such protocols in rush-hour bumper- features of real-time driving. Each GrooveNet-enabled to-bumper vehicle densities. vehicle is capable of tight time synchronization via the GPS pulse-per-second signal for time-critical multi-hop GrooveNet Connected Vehicle Virtualization Platform communication. Using this platform we will develop a We have developed the GrooveNet vehicular net- suite of V2V and V2I safety communication protocols to work virtualization platform to simulate thousands of relay traffic incident alerts and warnings of unsafe road vehicles on any street map and communicate between conditions in the Philadelphia and Pittsburgh areas. real and simulated vehicles. GrooveNet supports a variety of models, network and vehicular system interfaces, Simulated and Actual Use of GrooveNet message types, and operating modes and, by using the Figure 4 shows three real vehicles (in the circles), same protocols, algorithms, and software implementa- which I refer to here as R1, R2, and R3 (from left to tion in both real and virtual vehicles, facilitates model- right). The first two vehicles are within communica- based design, model validation, graceful deployment, tion range; R3, over a mile away, is not. Thus if a safety and rapid prototyping. It works as both a simulator and alert is triggered by an airbag deployment in R1, only in-vehicle network platform with connections to the R2 receives the message. To illustrate the progression of CAN bus and radios using the recently standardized the message to approaching vehicles, we simulate virtual dedicated worldwide spectrum for vehicular communi- vehicles on the same road, each of which will enable a cations (IEEE 802.11p/WAVE standard), a GPS unit, “hop” for the data transmission. R2 sends the message and a cellular interface. over a cellular link to the vehicle operations director, The 32 BRIDGE which simulates the progression of the message from real vehicles via a wireless communication using the one to another of the virtual vehicles (V1, V2,…) until 802.11p/WAVE radio interface and between real and another real vehicle is in the vicinity of the virtual vehi- virtual vehicles over the cellular network. For this test cles. The message thus travels across multiple hops to be we drove five real vehicles along Forbes Avenue in received by R3 over the cellular link as if it were from R1. Pittsburgh and conducted experiments with more than We mask the cellular link’s latency by speeding up the 4,000 virtual vehicles. simulated communication across the virtual vehicles. Such hybrid simulation provides application users with All vehicles follow the same rebroadcast policy, an intuitive feel of the impact of communicating vehicle observe the posted speed limit, and obey car following density on packet delivery ratio and event response time, standards. Vehicle density can be increased arbitrarily and provides the developer with feedback about accu- and its effects observed by a driver in a real vehicle on racy and details needed in the simulation models. This the road. Varying the number of virtual vehicles enables network virtualization will make it possible to answer us to study the performance of the protocols and net- questions such as: Under what driving conditions and work algorithms under various densities, driving con- market penetration of networked vehicles will applica- ditions, and street topologies. As more experimental tion A achieve the desired performance? How does the vehicles become available, we can increase the realism probability distribution of model M compare with the and validation of our models. In the meantime, network real world? Is the resultant powertrain response safe and virtualization provides the best of both model-based under what conditions is it unsafe? design and real-world validation with rapid prototyping, with only a few real vehicles needed to operate as Traffic Congestion Analysis mobile gateways. To better understand empirical models of traffic con- Figure 5 presents a screen shot of GrooveNet imple- gestion in different street topologies across the nation, mented in Linux. In the top left panel is the list of simu- and to develop sound traffic prediction and congestion- lated and real vehicles with their current position, street aware fastest-path routing algorithms, it is necessary to speed, and heading (i.e., direction). The top right panel analyze large-scale traffic mechanisms. We have devel- provides a visualization of the current position and oped a traffic analysis tool, AutoMatrix, that simulates heading of vehicles in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Small and routes over 16 million vehicles on any US street circles designate vehicles; circles around a dark arrow map and provides real-time traffic routing services with represent vehicles that rebroadcast an alert message. hierarchical and synthetic traffic matrices (Figure 6). The bottom panel shows network connectivity between Using this tool, we are able to investigate the design of

FIGURE 6 AutoMatrix real-time traffic congestion modeling and congestion-aware traffic prediction and routing algorithm design. (Left) Traffic congestion simulation showing more than 800,000 vehicles in Washington, DC. (Center) Hierarchical routing showing one vehicle’s coarse-grained route (in large boxes), which is determined at the beginning of the trip. The real-time congestion-aware fine-grained fastest route shows the ¾-mile route ahead of the vehicle. (Right) Thousands of vehicles (each small box represents a vehicle), each with unique origins and destinations, routed with real-time congestion-aware fastest-path routes around Philadelphia. WINTER 2012 33

adaptive routing strategies, methods to mitigate conges- congestion data to support the needs of urban trans- tion, and ways to better use traffic network resources. portation operation centers. Vehicles are modeled to be car following, have speed variations, communicate periodically, and be capable of Conclusion multiple distributed and centralized routing algorithms. The future of the automobile lies in the design and AutoMatrix operates on a graphics processing unit development of new vehicles that are programmable, (GPU) and so is capable of very large-scale microsimu- connected vehicles, and networked traffic centers. lation and traffic analytics. We have implemented A* These efforts are a step toward safer, more efficient, and routing, which executes each vehicle’s search for a fast- more enjoyable commuting with automobiles. est path between its origin and destination in a parallel processing manner on the GPU. AutoMatrix is capable References of hierarchical routing so routes with different levels of Duri´c P, Miladinov-Mikov M. 2008. Some characteristics of details are possible. Vehicles can be guided with adap- drivers having caused traffic accidents. Medicinski Pregled tive routing—the assigned route “responds” to changes 61(9-10):464– 469. Available online at www.ncbi.nlm.nih. in congestion patterns and reroutes the vehicle to the gov/pubmed/19203062. updated fastest path. By modeling point-based conges- NHTSA [National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]. tion, such as blocked lanes due to vehicle breakdowns 2009. Safety Recalls, ID: 09V218000. Washington: US or accidents, we can model queuing effects as vehicles Department of Transportation. Available online at www. back up and congestion spreads through the region. safercar.gov. Using these approaches, AutoMatrix has the poten- Schäuffele J, Zurawka T. 2005. Automotive Software Engi- tial to improve response time to traffic incidents by neering: Principles, Processes, Methods, and Tools. advising drivers to take the updated fastest path to Warrendale PA: SAE International. their destination. We are working to use live traffic Gaming techniques can save money, time, and resources while making departments and organizations more agile.

Playing to Win Serious Games for Business

Phaedra Boinodiris

Gordian Knots Thousands of years ago in ancient Phrygia, there was a massive mound of tangled ropes that was so impressive, it had a name: the Gordian knot. Legend was that whoever could untangle the great knot would become king of all of Asia. One can imagine a stream of men arriving on horseback, strolling up to Phaedra Boinodiris is Serious the ropes, cursing loudly as they pulled here and pushed there, inadvertently making the mound even bigger and more tangled. Games Program Manager at IBM. According to the legend, one day Alexander the Great came into town, jumped off his horse, and with his supernaturally sharp blade sliced through the Gordian knot in one stroke, effectively ending the knot’s persistent challenge. If only today’s intractable problems could be solved so simply. As the world has become smaller and more interconnected, people and businesses rely on systems that produce huge quantities of data. Executives face enormous challenges in analyzing these quantities as they seek to transform their business to be more responsive to the global economy. According to a recent MIT report (Hopkins et al. 2010), company executives are seeking ways to not only visualize data but also run simulations and scenario development in order to learn how their organizations might be more agile. Agile businesses achieve 10–15% higher margins, up to 5% faster revenue growth, and WINTER 2012 35

up to 38% higher capital efficiency.1 Agility requires associated with the best games has not changed: the enterprise visibility, operational dexterity, and process challenge of any game or simulation should match the integrity. Visualization, motivation, and collaboration skills—and test the limits—of the players and the sur- are the components of the solution—the blade that can rounding system in a meaningful, enjoyable way. What cut through the massive mounds of data to enable busi- better test of game and gamer limits than the most seri- nesses to adapt quickly and compete. ous challenges facing the world today? Transformation is not optional but it doesn’t come easily to companies. Organizations that wish to be agile must transform their processes and decisions, embrace Visualization, motivation, rapid, adaptable integration, and have a flexible and efficient infrastructure. For example, in a recent report, and collaboration are the Gartner states that by 2015 more than 50% of organizations that manage innovation processes will “gamify” components of the solution to those processes—make them more accessible for adop- enable businesses to adapt tion by engaging and teaching executives, managers, and employees through game techniques.2 quickly and compete. In this article I explain how organizations can incorporate “serious games” to add value and agility in an increasingly complex environment. Game Playing to Enhance Business Processes Business simulations have been around for many Serious Games and Serious Solutions years. They allow inputs and, given a set of business Play is a universal language characterized by enjoy- rules, produce new outputs. What they lack is the col- ment, established rules, and tangible, clear goals. Digi- laborative environment that motivates people to opti- tal games can create deep, immersive experiences or mize. Keeping a business process locked up in a castle quick bursts of excitement. Serious games, designed for turret with fortified walls does no one any good. Busi- a primary purpose other than entertainment, focus on ness processes need to be vetted, stressed, and priori- clarifying goals, excising irrelevant information, and tized by the entire value chain to yield a meaningful developing tangible, measurable improvements in a return on investment. particular activity or task. They create realistic envi- Today’s 24/7 world is filled with large streams of data ronments for testing strategies, tactics, theories, and in previously unimaginable volumes. Approaches such ideas, leveraging the best aspects of games to make as serious games techniques allow data to be viewed in modeling, prototyping, experimenting, training, and different ways that nonexperts can understand, contrib- skill acquisition faster, cheaper, more enjoyable, and ute to, and act on. In the summer of 2011, thousands more visible. of people helped map the structure of an enzyme that Whether for a training exercise, supply chain, or could fight HIV and AIDS by playing a downloadable cyber defense scenario, smart games techniques can game called Foldit. Researchers were able to crunch data help participants visualize and understand complex sys- from players’ moves to quickly gain valuable insights tems through video and online gaming, engaging them into protein folding, critical to the development of through competition, teamwork, intrigue, curiosity, and treatment options. This project shows the power of col- problem solving. These features attract participation, lective intelligence when big data are harnessed and encourage creativity, and help establish a path to col- analyzed through games. laborative work and analysis. Serious games are increasingly used to test busi- Although technology has changed the appearance ness scenarios and conduct training in both public- and interactions associated with games, the experience and private-sector organizations and corporations around the world. Business gaming techniques are used

1 BTM Business Agility, BTM Corporation 2010 (www.btmcorporation. to motivate and lead large global, virtual teams and to com). encourage creative problem solving, load balancing, 2 “Gartner Says By 2015, More Than 50 Percent of Organizations That and complex system (e.g., supply chain) optimization. Manage Innovation Processes Will Gamify Those Processes.” Press Release, April 12, 2011; www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1629214. Cross-genre games and games with natural language The 36 BRIDGE interpretation3 are also growing popular as a means to interagency disaster response scenarios or scale skills aid critical thinking in the military. These new tech- training beyond the platoon level to tackle complex niques can save money, time, and resources while mak- strategy and operational use. The coordinated and ing departments and organizations more agile. cooperative nature of defense work requires team build- One of the key differentiators of a serious games ing and prepares for specific and highly synchronized approach to problem solving is a concentration on pro- missions. Potentially hazardous work benefits from sim- cess optimization. This focus involves examining the ulations in which mistakes can be made without causing most efficient and effective ways to improve procedures actual damage or endangerment and then evaluated for via iterative collaborative gameplay, applying Six Sigma future learning. principles. Business process improvement can reduce Serious games techniques can also help optimize mili- cost and cycle time by as much as 90% while improving tary supply chains. By creating real-time strategy games quality by more than 60% (Harrington 1991). Results that enable players to examine how unforeseen events can also include improvements in margin, capacity, and might affect real-world components, departments can capital reductions. help make their supply chains work more reliably and efficiently. Business or industry partners can also be included to tap insights from a wider network. The end- product becomes a new, executable supply chain process Real-time strategy games that has been prevetted by the broader value chain. enable players to examine In a cyber defense scenario, players benefit from competing in opposing roles on offense, defense, and how unforeseen events might network exploitation, playing as different entities such as countries and organizations. Strategic-level seri- affect real-world components ous games should mimic the mundane and repetitive and thus make their supply aspects of a scenario as well as information technology (IT) tasks, business processes, and attacks. chains work better. Direct representation of the decision process can be an instructive way to introduce new leaders to their roles and to allow key decision makers to focus on In a serious games approach, participants sort and anomalous incidents by automating the common. A understand real data, analyze real issues, and test cyber security game that includes the possibilities of real potential solutions, applying variables that can organizational policy, politics, operating costs, and be adjusted and readjusted for different approaches. social engineering will better prepare players for real- Game play preserves engagement while focusing play- world complexities. ers on important concerns and helping transform their With current advances in process optimization, assumptions, skills, and behaviors. cloud, analytics, and artificial intelligence capabilities, With cloud computing infrastructure, organizations the defense industry has the tools it needs to conduct can use serious games to improve business processes by strategy-level and process optimization gaming. These solving complex problems collaboratively through pre- approaches teach the kinds of abilities needed to solve dictive modeling and real-time visualization of methods complex problems, including leading and managing, to, for example, reduce costs and cycle times. Gaming sys- handling logistics and resources, prioritizing tasks, tems tap employee and citizen insights and promote col- making sense of rapidly changing data, and learning laboration with partners for greater organizational agility. from mistakes.

Game Playing to Enhance National Security Five Steps to Serious Gaming Military, security, and emergency services organiza- Game design and development are constantly under tions were early adopters of serious games to help test estimated. Many people assume that all they need to develop a serious game is interns with “game skills.” The assumption that someone who plays games would 3 This term refers to the means for artificial intelligence to interpret natural (i.e., human) language and respond accordingly. be able to design a good game is completely erroneous. WINTER 2012 37

From the development side, there are countless game Step 3: What kinds of puzzles or experiences are best engines on the market that require highly specialized suited to the information or lesson to be conveyed? coding skills. Simpler puzzles can also be used to explain complex Development of a serious game requires determina- systems such as molecular structures, as in the Foldit tion of the measures of its effectiveness, an architec- example cited earlier. ture, specifically designed puzzles and/or experiences, a This is the hardest step of the five, and unfortunately 4 genre, and a platform. Below are five steps for deter- few people realize just how hard it is. Most think they mining how to approach a serious games project. could design a great game. But matching the right puzzle/ experience(s) to the learning points documented in Step 1: Determine the measures that will prove the game Step 2 is difficult. Someone who knows games inti- was worth the investment. mately and across genres should help with this step. The very first question to answer concerns the purpose of the game. Is it to sell things? Is it to teach something? Is it to solve a problem? The game must then be designed in such a way that its effectiveness can be How an organization quantifiably measured. It is critical to start here. It may measures success may be tempting to do this last, but the answer to this can affect the entire architecture of the game so it is essen- directly affect the design tial to start here. If the game is to be used to improve sales skills, then of the game and the the design must include measurements to prove that architecture of the system. salespeople who played the game measurably understood their trade better than those who did not participate. If the game is meant to optimize strategy among a Step 4: Based on the puzzles/experiences, what is the group of participants, the results report must be able right genre for the game? to substantiate that the model created by the players is Now that the basic design of the game has been better than one that has been Six Sigma–certified by a determined, what genre does it fall into? Is it a city sim- consultant. ulation, first-person adventure, strategy game, simula- If the game is meant to teach physics to 6th graders, tion-style game, pattern-matching game? Careful study results must show that they learned at least as well as of “flow” (a mental state of operation in which the per- from traditional methods. son performing the activity is fully immersed in a feeling How an organization measures success may directly of energized focus; Csikszentmihalyi 1996) in games for affect the design of the game and the architecture of entertainment in that genre can yield tips about how the system. It may be helpful to do an “after-action” to proceed. review (i.e., to assess what players actually did during City sims, turn-based, and real-time strategy games the gameplay) in an automated fashion to facilitate real- have proven to be enormously powerful as genres to time insight. help explain complex systems. City-building games (city sims) are a genre of strategy computer game where Step 2: What is to be taught or conveyed? players act as the overall planner and leader of a city, Learning points should be documented in as much with responsibility for its growth and management. In detail as possible, as in the following examples: a turn-based strategy (TBS) game (usually a war game, • The car salesman’s 7 steps to a sale are . . . especially a strategic-level war game), players take turns, as distinct from a real-time strategy game, in which all • The best practice business model associated with a players participate simultaneously. disaster response scenario is . . . Step 5: Knowing the genre and audience, what is the right platform for the game? It is essential to know the intended audience well if 4 Definitions of terms relevant to serious games are provided in a glossary at the end of this article. the game is to be effective. How long are participants The 38 BRIDGE

likely to play? What will motivate them to play? Can 1. Do they “get” games? the game be standalone or does it need to be integrated Get the bios of the staff members who would work with other applications? Does the game need to be Web on your serious games project. Are they full of e-learn- playable? Mobile? Single or multiplayer? How often ing and instructional designers and no one else? What does the game’s content need to be refreshed? game engines do the staff have expertise with? Take a Once these questions are answered it is time to shop look at the games they have developed. Do they look around for the right platform and the right vendor to engaging? Did the staff correctly match the right kind of help with development, if in-house expertise is not game experience to what they are trying to teach, or did available. It will be key to know whether the platform they instead create chocolate-covered broccoli—merely is proprietary to the selected vendor. If it is, then future creating an attractive cover (gaming) for the necessary updates will have to come from this vendor unless it “nutrients” (the material to be learned)? Make sure the offers a “mod kit,” which allows noncoders to access and people on your project have an understanding of good modify surface components of the game (e.g., prices and game design. If they come from the entertainment gam- product descriptions in a sales game). ing industry, why did they leave? If they think a great game is a multiple choice questionnaire, run toward the Choosing the Right Game Studio to Partner exit sign. With to Make a Serious Game It is important at the outset to get to know games and 2. Do they get serious games? know them well. The ability to speak the language of The team members will need to have enough breadth games is essential to work with and gauge the efficacy of to take a complex idea and make it accessible and engag- the studio that will make the game. ing to the participants. If all they know is entertainment The best way to learn about games is by playing them games, they may not have the skill set needed to work across genres. The Game Developer’s Conference in with serious content. The team’s bios should reveal San Francisco, E3 (Electronic Entertainment Expo), whether the members have what it takes to understand, and the East Coast Game Conference in Raleigh, North for example, molecular biology well enough to design an Carolina, are fantastic venues to learn about innovation effective protein folding game. in entertainment games. Why start there instead of a serious games summit? Because entertainment features 3. What about the proximity of the vendor? the newest and most innovative ideas and is most likely The Internet makes working virtually a lot easier, to showcase examples of game play and techniques that but there will be times when it will be most helpful to can be adapted for a serious gaming purpose. look over the designer’s shoulder—literally—during the design process. The selected team must be able to understand your vision for the game throughout the entire Entertainment features the development process. most innovative ideas 4. What types of game genre does the vendor specialize in? that can be adapted for Does the game studio specialize in the genre that serious gaming. makes the most sense for your game? If you are making a next-generation city sim game to explain water management, it doesn’t make sense to choose a studio that Younger employees tend to be enthusiastic volunteers specializes in first-person shooters. for help in this area. Their aptitude can be assessed by asking them what their favorite games are and why, Conclusion especially if they play across genres and can critique Sophisticated information technology, abundant their favorite games well. Such employees can be very human capabilities, a growing appreciation of engage- useful resources in a new serious games program. ment, and the desire for discovery have created a foun- When trying to find the right game studio partner, I dation for utilizing games to tackle intractable problems recommend considering the following questions: and achieve big changes. But gaming requires more than WINTER 2012 39

business leaders interested in adding experience points Glossary and digital merit badges to individuals who answer architecture: how a game is designed the most emails. It requires an investment of time and experience: the flow of the game, what the user encoun- resources from a panoply of contributors—scientists, ters through gameplay researchers, visionaries, futurists, game designers, game genre: a category of game (e.g., puzzle, role play, strategy) developers, game testers, gamers themselves, citizens, platform: web-based, mobile, console, downloadable media, political leaders, informed business leaders, art- executable ists, science fiction writers, popular science writers, universities, academia, lobbyists, and educators. The References gaming community has a responsibility to advocate for Csikszentmihalyi M. 1996. Creativity: Flow and the Psy- games and provide educational opportunities; likewise, chology of Discovery and Invention. New York: Harper business leaders have a responsibility to look beyond Perennial. stereotypes and learn what games have become—a Harrington HJ. 1991. Business Process Improvement: The valuable tool for learning, communicating, and collabo- Breakthrough Strategy for Total Quality, Productivity, and rating around important goals. Competitiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill. When well designed, games can not only be extreme- Harry M, Schroeder R. 2000. Six Sigma: The Breakthrough ly adept at explaining complex systems but also moti- Management Strategy Revolutionizing the World’s Top vate people to play using a wide variety of game design Corporations. New York: Doubleday. tricks. These same tricks can also be used to motivate Hopkins MS, Kruschwitz N, LaValle S, Lesser E, Shockley and reward employees and partners who optimize the R. 2010. Analytics: The New Path to Value. MIT Sloan core components of the underlying business. Management Review Research Report, vol 52. Cambridge It’s up to each organization to grasp just how pow- MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. erful serious games are—and make the most of them. Game on! The successful regeneration of tissue-to-tissue interfaces through a bioinspired approach may enable the translation of tissue engineering technologies from bench to bedside.

Engineering Tissue-to-Tissue Interfaces and the Formation of Complex Tissues

Helen H. Lu

Two significant challenges in the field of tissue engineering are the simultaneous formation of multiple types of tissues and the functional assembly of these tissues into complex organ systems (e.g., the skeletal, muscular, or circulatory systems). These challenges are particularly important for orthopedic regenerative medicine, as musculoskeletal motion requires synchronized interactions among many types of tissue and the seamless integration of bone Helen H. Lu is an associate profes- with soft tissues such as tendons, ligaments, or cartilage. These tissue-to-tissue sor of biomedical engineering at interfaces are ubiquitous in the body and exhibit a gradient of structural and Columbia University. mechanical properties that serve a number of functions, from mediating load transfer between two distinct types of tissue to sustaining the heterotypic cellular communications required for interface function and homeostasis (Ben- jamin et al. 1986; Lu and Jiang 2006; Woo et al. 1988). But these critical junctions are prone to injury (from trauma or even exercise and daily activity) and unfortunately do not regenerate after standard surgical repair, thus com- promising graft stability and long-term clinical outcome (Friedman et al. 1985; Lu and Jiang 2006; Robertson et al. 1986). Consequently, there is a need for grafting systems that support biological fixation or integrative repair of soft tissues.

Background Through a combination of cells, growth factors, and/or biomaterials, the principles of tissue engineering (Langer and Vacanti 1993; Skalak 1988) WINTER 2012 41

FIGURE 1 Common orthopedic tissue-to-tissue interfaces. Significant structural and compositional homology exists in the orthopedic tissue-to-tissue interfaces of the tendon-bone (Benjamin and Ralphs 1998), muscle-tendon (Larkin et al. 2006), cartilage-bone (Hunziker et al. 2002), and ligament-bone junctions (Iwahashi et al. 2010). Regeneration of these complex junctions is essential for integrative soft tissue repair and treatment of massive, multitissue injuries. Tendon-to-bone interface: AC = articular cartilage, B = bone, CF = calcified fibrocartilage, CT = connective tissue, TM = tidemark, UF = uncalcified fibrocartilage. Cartilage-to-bone interface: BM = bone marrow space, CC = calcified cartilage, R = radial zone, S = superficial zone, T = transitional zone. have been readily applied to the formation of a variety and maintain tissue homeostasis. It is thus not surpris- of connective tissues such as bone, cartilage, ligament, ing that the transition between various tissue types is and tendon both in vitro and in vivo. More recently, characterized by a high level of heterogeneous structural emphasis has shifted from tissue formation to tissue organization that is crucial for joint function. function (Butler et al. 2000), with a focus on impart- As shown in Figure 1, ligaments and tendons with ing biomimetic functionality to orthopedic grafts and direct insertions into bone exhibit a multitissue transi- enabling their translation to the clinic. tion consisting of three distinct but continuous regions But clinical translation remains elusive as researchers of ligament, fibrocartilage, and bone (Benjamin et al. seek to understand how to achieve biological fixation or 1986; Cooper and Misol 1970; Wang et al. 2006). The functional integration of tissue-engineered orthopedic fibrocartilage interface is further divided into noncalci- grafts—of bone, ligaments, or cartilage—with each oth- fied and calcified regions. In light of this complexity, er and/or with the host environment. The challenge is effective tissue engineering must incorporate strategic rooted in the complexity of the musculoskeletal system biomimicry or the prioritization of design parameters in and the structural intricacy of both hard and soft tissues. order to regenerate the intricate tissue-to-tissue inter- These tissues, each with a distinct cellular population, face and ultimately enable seamless graft integration must operate in unison to facilitate physiologic function and functional repair. The 42 BRIDGE

Mechanisms of Interface Regeneration systematically investigate cell-cell interactions (Bhatia The mechanisms underlying the formation, repair, and et al. 1999; Hammoudi et al. 2010). maintenance of tissue-to-tissue boundaries are not well When ligament fibroblasts and osteoblasts were understood. In particular, it is not known how distinct cocultured using a model permitting both physical con- boundaries between different types of connective tissues tact and cellular interactions, it was observed that these are reestablished after injury. It is likely that mechanical controlled interactions altered cell growth and upregu- loading (Killian et al. 2012) as well as chemical and bio- lated the expression of interface-related matrix markers. logical factors play a role in this complex process. These cellular interactions have a downstream effect, It has long been observed that when tendon is resu- either inducing cell transdifferentiation or causing the tured to its original attachment site, cellular organi- recruitment and differentiation of progenitor or stem zation resembling that of the native insertion occurs cells for fibrocartilage formation. When this hypoth- in vivo (Fujioka et al. 1998). Investigators have also esis was tested in triculture, it was noted that under the reported that, although healing after ligament recon- influence of osteoblast-fibroblast interactions, stem cells struction does not lead to the reestablishment of the from the bone marrow began to differentiate toward a native insertion, a layer of interface-like tissue forms chondrocyte-like phenotype, producing a matrix similar in the bone tunnel (Blickenstaff et al. 1997; Grana et in composition to that of the interface. al. 1994; Rodeo et al. 1993). These observations sug- These intriguing findings suggest that heterotypic gest that when trauma or surgical intervention results cellular communications play a regulatory role in the in nonphysiologic exposure of normally segregated tis- induction of interface-specific markers in progenitor or sue types (e.g., bone or ligament), interactions between stem cells, and demonstrate the effects of these inter- the resident cell populations (e.g., osteoblasts in bone, actions in regulating the maintenance of soft tissue-to- fibroblasts in tendon, stem cells/progenitor cells in both bone junctions. The nature of the regulatory cytokines tissues) are critical for initiating and directing the repair secreted and the mechanisms underlying these interac- response that leads to reestablishment of a fibrocartilage tions are not known, but cell communication is likely interface between soft tissue and bone. to be significant for interface regeneration as well as homeostasis. Therefore the optimal interface scaffold must promote interactions between the relevant cell Effective tissue engineering populations residing in each interface region. Interface Structure-Function Relationship and must incorporate strategic Design Inspiration biomimicry to enable From a structure-function perspective, the complex multitissue organization of the soft tissue-to-bone junc- seamless graft integration tion is optimized to sustain both tensile and compressive and functional repair. stresses experienced at the ligament-to-bone junction. Numerous characterization studies (Benjamin et al. 1986; Bullough and Jagannath 1983; Matyas et al. Specifically, it has been hypothesized that osteoblast- 1995; Moffat et al. 2008; Oegema and Thompson 1992; fibroblast interactions mediate interface regeneration Ralphs et al. 1998; Spalazzi et al. 2004; Thomopoulos through heterotypic cellular interactions that can lead et al. 2003; Woo et al. 1988) have revealed remarkable to phenotypic changes or transdifferentiation of osteo- organizational similarities among many tissue-to-tissue blasts and/or fibroblasts (Lu and Jiang 2006). Moreover, interfaces (Figure 1). They often consist of a multitissue, these interactions may induce the differentiation of multicell transition and exhibit a controlled distribu- stem cells or resident progenitor cells into fibrochon- tion of mineral content that, along with other structural drocytes and thereby promote the regeneration of the parameters such as collagen fiber organization, results fibrocartilage interface. This hypothesis has been vali- in a gradient of mechanical properties progressing from dated using coculture and triculture models of interface- soft tissue to bone. relevant cell populations (Jiang et al. 2005; Wang et al. Direct measurement of interface mechanical prop- 2007), models that offer simple and elegant methods to erties has been difficult due to the complexity and WINTER 2012 43

relatively small scale of the interface, generally ranging mechanical properties are likely correlated to matrix from 100 μm to 1 mm in length. Instead, knowledge of organization and composition across the interface. insertion material properties has been largely derived Partition of the fibrocartilage interface into nonminer- from theoretical models. alized and mineralized regions likely has a functional Moffat and colleagues (2008) recently performed the significance, as increases in matrix mineral content first experimental determination of the compressive have been associated with higher mechanical proper- mechanical properties of the anterior cruciate ligament ties in connective tissues. (ACL)-bone interface in a neonatal bovine model. Evaluation of the insertion site using Fourier trans- They evaluated the incremental displacement field form infrared imaging (Spalazzi et al. 2007) and X-ray of the fibrocartilage tissue under the applied uniaxial analysis revealed an increase in calcium and phospho- strain by coupling microcompression with optimized rous content progressing from ligament to interface digital image correlation analysis of pre- and postload- and then to bone. A narrow exponential transition in ing images. Deformation decreased gradually from the mineral content, instead of a linear gradient of min- fibrocartilage interface to bone, and these changes eral distribution, was detected progressing from the were accompanied by a gradual increase in compres- nonmineralized to the mineralized interface regions. sive modulus. The interface also exhibited a region- Moreover, the increase in elastic modulus progress- dependent decrease in strain, and a significantly higher ing from the mineralized to the nonmineralized fibro- elastic modulus was found for the mineralized fibrocar- cartilage interface region was shown to be positively tilage compared to the nonmineralized region. These correlated (Moffat et al. 2008) with the presence of region-specific mechanical properties enable a gradual calcium phosphate. transition rather than a sudden increase in tissue strain These observations have yielded invaluable clues across the insertion, thereby minimizing the formation for the design of biomimetic scaffolds for engineer- of stress concentrations and enabling load transfer from ing tissue-to-tissue interface. Specifically, a stratified soft to hard tissues. or multiphased scaffold will be essential for recaptur- Given the structure-function dependence inher- ing the multitissue organization observed at the soft ent in the biological system, these regional changes in tissue-to-bone interface. To minimize the formation

FIGURE 2 Bioinspired stratified scaffold design for interface tissue engineering and integrative soft tissue repair. This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. The 44 BRIDGE of stress concentrations, the scaffold should exhibit sitionally distinct yet structurally continuous phases, all phase-specific structural and mechanical properties, designed to support the formation of multitissue regions with a gradual increase in the latter across the scaf- across the ligament-bone junction. fold phases. Spatial control of mineral distribution on To form the ligament, interface, and bone regions, a stratified scaffold can impart controlled mechanical fibroblasts, chondrocytes, and osteoblasts were seeded heterogeneity similar to that of the native interface. onto Phases A, B, and C, respectively. Interactions Compared to a homogeneous structure, a scaffold with between these cell types on the stratified scaffold were predesigned, tissue-specific matrix inhomogeneity can evaluated both in vitro (Spalazzi et al. 2008) and in vivo better sustain and transmit the distribution of complex (Spalazzi et al. 2006). Extensive tissue infiltration and loads inherent at the multitissue interface. abundant matrix deposition were observed, with tissue It is important to bear in mind that the phases of a continuity maintained across scaffold phases. Interest- stratified scaffold must be interconnected and preinte- ingly, matrix production compensated for the decrease grated with each other, to ensure the formation of com- in mechanical properties that accompanied scaffold positionally distinct yet structurally contiguous multitissue degradation, and three continuous regions of ligament, regions. Furthermore, interactions between interface- interface, and bone-like matrix were formed in vivo relevant cells serve important functions in the for- (Figure 2E). mation, maintenance, and repair of interfacial tissue. In addition to stratified scaffolds, there is tremendous Therefore, precise control over the spatial distribution interest in designing scaffolds with a gradient of proper- of these cell populations is also critical for multitissue ties—that is, with a relatively gradual and continuous formation and interface regeneration. Consideration of transition in either composition or structural organiza- these biomimetic parameters should guide and optimize tion, resulting in a linear gradient in mechanical prop- the design of stratified scaffolds for promoting the for- erties (Chatterjee et al. 2011; Harris et al. 2006; Seidi mation and maintenance of controlled matrix heteroge- et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2008). These novel scaffolds neity and interface regeneration. with either a compositional (Erisken et al. 2008; Li et al. 2009) or chemical factor (Phillips et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2010) gradient offer direct regional control and allow for scaffold heterogeneity that mimics the com- Functional and integrative plex native interface. They may thus address the need to repair may be achieved recapitulate the complex transition of mechanical and chemical properties that are characteristic of tissue-to- by coupling both cell- and tissue junctions. Design challenges in engineering biomimetic gradi- scaffold-based approaches. ents revolve around scale—how best to recapitulate the micro- to nanoscale gradients that have been reported at the tissue-to-tissue interface. The stratified scaffold Bioinspired Scaffold Design for Interface Tissue approach may represent a simpler strategy, whereby a Engineering gradation of key compositional and functional proper- Inspired by the native ACL-to-bone interface, Spalazzi ties is preestablished by focusing on forming specific tis- and colleagues (2006, 2008) pioneered the design of sue regions of interest and preintegrating them through a triphasic scaffold (Figure 2C) for the regeneration stratified design. In any case, it is necessary to adopt of this challenging interface. The scaffold’s three con- strategic biomimicry in functional interface scaffold tinuous phases are each engineered for a specific tissue design and to prioritize design parameters for interface region of the interface: Phase A is a polymer fiber mesh regeneration based on the type of interface to be regen- for fibroblast culture and soft tissue formation, Phase erated, the type and severity of injury, and the patient’s B consists of polymer microspheres and is designed for age and overall health. fibrochondrocyte culture, and Phase C is composed of In addition to scaffold design, it is expected that cel- sintered polymer-ceramic composite microspheres for lular contributions will play a pivotal role in mediating bone formation (Lu et al. 2003). The innovative design the regeneration and homeostasis of the gradation of is in essence a single scaffold system with three compo- compositional and mechanical properties at the inter- WINTER 2012 45

face. For example, Ma and colleagues (2009) used cell ronment and the precise effects of biological, chemi- self-assembly to form bone-ligament-bone constructs cal, and physical stimulation on interface regeneration by culturing engineered bone segments to ligament must be thoroughly evaluated to enable the formation monolayers. Paxton and colleagues (2009) also reported and homeostasis of the new interface. Physiologically promising results when evaluating the use of a polymer relevant in vivo models are needed to determine the clini- ceramic composite and RGD peptide to engineer func- cal potential of designed scaffolds. tional ligament-to-bone attachments. The successful regeneration of tissue-to-tissue interfaces through a bioinspired approach may promote Summary and Future Directions integrative and functional tissue repair and enable the The biomimetic interface tissue engineering approach clinical translation of tissue engineering technologies described in this paper is rooted in an in-depth under- from bench to bedside. Moreover, by bridging distinct standing of the inherent structure-function relationship types of tissue, interface tissue engineering will be at the tissue-to-tissue interface. The studies discussed instrumental for the development of integrated mus- indicate that controlling cellular response via coculture, culoskeletal organ systems with biomimetic complexity triculture, or growth factor distribution on multiphased and functionality. scaffolds is a critical emerging strategy to enable the development of local gradients on a physiologically rel- References evant scale. Benjamin M, Ralphs JR. 1998. Fibrocartilage in tendons and Many soft tissues connect to bone through a multi- ligaments: An adaptation to compressive load. Journal of tissue interface populated by multiple cell types that Anatomy 193 (Pt 4):481–494. minimize the formation of stress concentrations while Benjamin M, Evans EJ, Copp L. 1986. The histology of ten- enabling load transfer between soft and hard tissues. In don attachments to bone in man. Journal of Anatomy the event of injury or other disruption, reestablishment 149:89–100. of tissue-to-tissue interfaces is critical for the formation Bhatia SN, Balis UJ, Yarmush ML, Toner M. 1999. Effect of of multitissue systems and the promotion of integrative cell-cell interactions in preservation of cellular phenotype: tissue repair. Cocultivation of hepatocytes and nonparenchymal cells. Investigations into the mechanism of interface Journal of the Federation of American Societies for Experi- regeneration have revealed the role of mechanical mental Biology 13:1883–1900. loading as well as heterotypic cellular interactions in Blickenstaff KR, Grana WA, Egle D. 1997. Analysis of a semi- directing the formation, repair, and maintenance of tendinosus autograft in a rabbit model. American Journal the tissue-to-tissue interface. Moreover, functional and of Sports Medicine 25:554–559. integrative repair may be achieved by coupling both Bullough PG, Jagannath A. 1983. The morphology of the cell- and scaffold-based approaches. The vast potential calcification front in articular cartilage: Its significance in of stratified scaffold systems is evident as (1) they are joint function. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 65:72–78. designed to support multitissue regeneration by mediat- Butler DL, Goldstein SA, Guilak F. 2000. Functional tissue ing heterotypic cellular interactions and (2) they can engineering: The role of biomechanics. Journal of Biome- be further refined by incorporating well-controlled chanical Engineering 122:570–575. compositional and growth factor gradients as well as Cooper RR, Misol S. 1970. Tendon and ligament insertion: A the use of biochemical and biomechanical stimulation light and electron microscopic study. Journal of Bone and to encourage tissue growth and maturation. Joint Surgery (American volume) 52:1–20. Interface tissue engineering will be instrumental for Erisken C, Kalyon DM, Wang H. 2008. Functionally graded the ex vivo development and in vivo regeneration of electrospun polycaprolactone and beta-tricalcium phos- integrated musculoskeletal tissue systems with biomi- phate nanocomposites for tissue engineering applications. metic functionality. Yet there remain a number of chal- Biomaterials 29:4065–4073. lenges in this exciting area. These include the need for Friedman MJ, Sherman OH, Fox JM, Del Pizzo W, Snyder a better understanding of the structure-function rela- SJ, Ferkel RJ. 1985. Autogeneic anterior cruciate ligament tionship at the native tissue-to-tissue interface and of (ACL) anterior reconstruction of the knee: A review. Clin- the mechanisms that govern interface development ical Orthopaedics and Related Research 196:9–14. and regeneration. Furthermore, the in vivo host envi- Fujioka H, Thakur R, Wang GJ, Mizuno K, Balian G, The 46 BRIDGE

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Spalazzi JP, Boskey AL, Lu HH. 2007. Region-dependent vari- Wang IE, Mitroo S, Chen FH, Lu HH, Doty SB. 2006. Age- ations in matrix collagen and mineral distribution across dependent changes in matrix composition and organization the femoral and tibial anterior cruciate ligament-to-bone at the ligament-to-bone insertion. Journal of Orthopaedic insertion sites. Transactions of the Orthopaedic Research Research 24:1745–1755. Society (abstract 0891), San Diego. Wang IE, Shan J, Choi R, Oh S, Kepler CK, Chen FH, Lu Spalazzi JP, Dagher E, Doty SB, Guo XE, Rodeo SA, Lu HH. HH. 2007. Role of osteoblast-fibroblast interactions in the 2008. In vivo evaluation of a multiphased scaffold designed formation of the ligament-to-bone interface. Journal of for orthopaedic interface tissue engineering and soft tis- Orthopaedic Research 25:1609–1620. sue-to-bone integration. Journal of Biomedical Materials Woo SL, Maynard J, Butler DL, Lyon RM, Torzilli PA, Ake- Research A 86(1):1–12. son WH, Cooper RR, Oakes B. 1988. Ligament, tendon, Thomopoulos S, Williams GR, Gimbel JA, Favata M, Sos- and joint capsule insertions to bone. In Woo SL, Buckwal- lowsky LJ. 2003. Variations of biomechanical, structural, ter JA, eds. Injury and Repair of the Musculoskeletal Soft and compositional properties along the tendon to bone Tissues. Savannah GA: American Academy of Orthopedic insertion site. Journal of Orthopaedic Research 21:413–419. Surgeons. p. 133–166. Engineered 3D tissue systems can better mimic human biology and thus meet the growing need for more effective in vitro models.

Engineering 3D Tissue Systems to Better Mimic Human Biology

Matthew Gevaert

The scientific method—hypothesis-driven design and execution of an experiment—is great . . . except when it could kill you (or me). That’s why, for example, there are extensive legal requirements to investigate new pharmaceutical agents using proxies before testing drug toxicity in a human clinical trial. The US Food and Drug Administration requires a combination of nonliving techniques (biochemical assays and in silico analysis), in vitro Matt Gevaert is Chief Executive models (i.e., cell culture), and animal studies before new compounds may be Officer of KIYATEC Inc. (Greenville, administered to humans. South Carolina) and an adjunct Although pharmaceutical and regulatory industries are doing the best they can in the current paradigm, to be blunt it’s not going very well. professor of bioengineering at According to recent publications, of all drugs that enter clinical trials, Clemson University. only 12% are eventually approved for use in humans (Paul et al. 2010). In other words, despite best efforts to predict those drug candidates’ efficacy and toxicity during preclinical testing, 88% of them fail—usually in terms of their lack of efficacy or unacceptable toxicity—when put to the test in humans. A new paradigm is needed! And the biggest opportunity lies in cell culture, which typically is still done in a Petri dish (or its derivative, the multiwell plate). This ubiquitous scientific container, first described well over a hundred years ago in the late 19th century (Petri 1887), was already commonplace when cells were first widely cultured in the WINTER 2012 49

mid-20th century and remains the standard of cell vivo physiology. Aside from the desire to model human culture today. beings and the need to minimize the very serious con- The vast majority of human cell types are adhesion sequences of the scientific method for certain kinds of dependent, and after fluid transfer to a Petri dish or well questions, better in vitro systems have enormous impli- plate they attach to the bottom. Once attached, they cations as both manufacturing methods for implants normally proliferate and cover the entire bottom surface (e.g., in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine) without stacking, forming a confluent, flat monolayer and as process steps for cell therapy. (shorthanded as “2D” cell culture). As evidenced by usage patterns, normal limitations of this experimental mode (the environment is static, diffusion is passive, constant evaporation alters solute concentrations, fre- Better in vitro systems have quent media changes are necessary, cell numbers plateau enormous implications as at confluence, the cell experiences stimuli largely unre- lated to those it experiences in vivo) are viewed as less manufacturing methods for important than benefits (cells grow well, the approach is cost effective, 2D planes are easily imaged with inex- tissue-engineered implants pensive microscopes, existing body of data is 2D, grant- and as process steps ing agencies still fund it, and the method enables high throughput). for cell therapy. Yet, as I put it in a recent talk to a group of high school STEM whiz kids, “Your Petri Dish Is So 1887.” Engineering Cell Shape Through Material Significance Interaction Few people ask (and fewer answer) these basic ques- As a living entity, each cell has the potential to sense tions: Do the results of Petri dish–type cell culture and respond to physical stimulus at each point in all experimentation mean anything? Are they at all rel- its transecting planes—i.e., its entire surface in three evant to the intent of the experiment, which in most dimensions. cases is to model a process that occurs in the human When an adhesion-dependent cell is presented with body? Although the assumption is “yes,” in an increas- a flat surface to which it can favorably attach, it tends to ing number of demonstrated cases the answer to these maximize its adhesion and adopts a primarily flat mor- important questions is actually “no.” phology. Cells in a 2D paradigm tie up approximately A quantitative way to measure the “behavior” of a 50% of this interaction capacity with the bottom sur- cell in culture is its gene expression. In a beautiful dem- face of the well plate, approximately 50% with the liq- onstration that answers the questions above, a compari- uid environment above the flat cell, and a very small son was made of key gene expression profiles of primary amount in lateral cell-cell interactions. human cancers with comparative immortalized epithe- The fundamental value proposition of “3D” cell cul- lial cells in 2D (Ridky et al. 2010). Tellingly, the cor- ture is to provide a microenvironment in which the relation coefficient between the two datasets was 0.0. potential for physical interaction is distributed in a bio- But there are much easier and cheaper ways to obtain logically relevant fashion across the entire surface of the datasets with exactly zero correlation to the behavior cell. This is normally achieved by culturing cells in a one is trying to characterize than to conduct 2D cell scaffold or matrix material, which can span gels, fibers, culture experiments! or porous solids, among others. Cells in a 3D culture The tremendous opportunity for improvement lies in matrix adopt a more complex morphology (e.g., roughly the fact that cells are living organisms and can respond ellipsoid) that is typically much closer to their morphol- dynamically to local stimuli provided by and in their ogy in their native state—that of a cell in tissue in a environment. The solution is to provide a different envi- living organism. ronment with more of the “right” physical, mechanical, and Does this matter? Again relying on gene expression as biochemical stimuli. Developments that address this chal- a way to measure cell behavior, researchers have docu- lenge will affect much more than in vitro modeling of in mented significant changes in gene expression profiles The 50 BRIDGE

FIGURE 1 (Left) Immunofluorescent images and fluorescent heatmaps of cells in flower (top) and star (bottom) shapes, demonstrating differential cell response to nuanced physical constraints that influence the differentiation pathway. Reprinted with permission from Kilian et al. (2010). (Right) Schematic representation of focal adhesion visualization (stars on cell surface) in live HT-1080 cells cultured at increasing distances (a-d) from the dish bottom, characterizing edge effect in 3D matrix. Reprinted with permission from Fraley et al. (2011). This figure appears in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx.

(recently genomewide) of multiple cell types as a result Unfortunately, effectively engineering the 3D of 3D relative to 2D cell culture conditions. These microenvironment is not as simple as providing physi- changes have been shown to be associated with key bio- cal interactions in three dimensions. Topography and logical processes such as tissue development, cell adhe- mechanical stiffness are among biophysical cues in a sion, immune system activation, and defense response 3D context that affect cell function. This is proven via (e.g., Zschenker et al. 2012). Thus, cell morphology is either the addition of 3D topography (e.g., grooves, pil- fundamentally deterministic of some important aspects lars, posts, pyramids, pits) to an otherwise flat surface such as cell behavior, signal transduction, protein-pro- via microfabrication techniques (wherein the cell is cul- tein interaction, and responsiveness to external stimuli. tured on the material) or the incorporation of controlled Gene expression profiles in 3D are also shown to have topography internally and culturing of the cell in the much more relevance to those measured in vivo (Birg- material (Nikkhah et al. 2012). Topography can also ersdotter et al. 2005; Martin et al. 2008). induce effects that determine stem cell differentiation In addition to the value of a 3D microenvironment pathways (Kumar et al. 2012). that more effectively models in vivo realities, this form- Mechanical stiffness affects cell behavior and func- function relationship is also subject to manipulation tion, as exemplified by the presence of an “edge effect” toward less “natural” ends. Stem cells’ differentiation in 3D gel scaffolds. Fraley and colleagues (2011) pathway has historically been controlled by soluble fac- characterized focal adhesions of cells embedded in a tor interactions, either from a second “feeder” layer cell 3D collagen gel and reported that tension in the gel type or as a result of soluble factors added to the cells’ decreased with increasing distance from the container media. Surprisingly, forcing a cell into a particular shape surface. Cellular focal adhesions, associated with each (e.g., the stars and flowers shown in Figure 1) by physi- cell’s cytoskeletal structure, decreased as well. As cal confinement can also affect its differentiation path- shown in Figure 1, the authors were able to loosely way even in the absence of soluble factor manipulation qualify 2D (cell on surface), 2.5D (cell partially on sur- (Kilian et al. 2010). face), “3D near” (cell within 250 μm of surface), and WINTER 2012 51

“3D far” regions based on the number of focal adhe- Depending on the density of both the 3D matrix sions per cell. and other cells, a particular cell’s soluble environment Just how “3D” an environment is has very important interactions can be severely compromised and result in implications for applications other than modeling. In a muted function or eventually cell necrosis, particularly recent paper with profound ramifications for cell thera- in the middle of the construct. The window for effec- py, investigators demonstrated that a complex response tive density management is significantly smaller if the (immunomodulation, e.g., the recruitment of mono- in vitro model relies only on the passive diffusion that cytes to an inflamed endothelial monolayer) of cells in occurs with use of 3D scaffolds in static multiwell plates. 3D was reduced fivefold compared to the same cells on The use of perfusion culture systems or bioreactors can 2D surfaces (Indolfi et al. 2012). The authors observed minimize or alleviate the deleterious effects and stabilize that the 3D cells had markedly altered cytoskeletal the soluble environment by avoiding feast-to-famine structure with rearranged focal adhesion proteins. changes in nutrient availability and maintaining pH. Compared with static conditions, perfusion cell culture Engineering the Soluble Environment has been shown to affect culture morphology and orga- In addition to the interaction of a given cell with nization (Tomei et al. 2009), increase key enzyme activ- the materials and other cells surrounding it, the soluble ity (Goldstein et al. 2001), increase mineral deposition environment has a considerable effect on cell behavior. and production of protein and cytokines (Gomes et al. At the most basic level, it is through the soluble envi- 2003; Mercille and Massie 1999), increase cell pen- ronment that cells receive nutrients and perform basic etration into and distribution throughout the scaffold functions such as respiration and waste elimination. (Cimetta et al. 2007; Goldstein et al. 2001; Gomes et Interference with these basic needs over time compro- al. 2003), increase cell viability especially at the center mises the viability of the cell culture. Cells cultured on of cell-scaffold constructs (Cimetta et al. 2007; Mercille a 2D surface have nearly 50% of their surface area inter- et al. 1999), and thus extend the effective duration of acting with the soluble environment and simple, passive the culture experiment. diffusion is usually more than sufficient to enable these processes. With frequent media changes to compensate for evaporation, depletion of nutrients, and generation of wastes, compromised viability of 2D cell cultures due Gene expression profiles in to insufficient soluble environment interaction is rarely 3D are shown to have much a concern. However, inherent in soluble environment interac- more relevance to those tions and the frequent replacement of cell media is a cyclic change in the media pH and a “feast to famine” measured in vivo. dynamic with respect to nutrient access. Media pH in typical 2D cell culture decreases over time (Wu and Kuo 2011) and differing pH levels have been shown to affect Incorporating Biological Systems Effects with cell function (Wu et al. 2007). The removal of “spent” Multiple Cell Types media, containing relatively fewer nutrients and more Consideration of a particular cell’s interactions waste, also removes nonwaste excretions (e.g., pro- with other cells is essential to increasing the corre- teins), an environmental change that may be directly lation of its in vitro functions and behavior to an in related to the observable phenomenon that confluent vivo organism. These interactions can take the form of cells in 2D culture do not typically stack but occur as direct cell-to-cell contact or of soluble factor interac- monolayers. In one experiment, researchers began with tions mediated by the environment. Human biology cells in a typical 2D culture environment and, using a relies on both modes of interaction. Culture-based specialized bioreactor that allowed nutrient and waste intercellular interactions among cells of the same type exchange but preserved insoluble extracellular matrix (monocultures) in 3D have been implicitly included in secretions, created mineralizing, collagenous tissue up the discussions above, and are at least partially respon- to 150 μm thick with as many as 6 cell layers (Dhurjati sible for the morphological changes and functional et al. 2006). benefits described. The 52 BRIDGE

A second type of intercellular interaction can be negative consequences are perhaps the largest reason modeled via coculture of different types of cells, which these promising innovations have not achieved the wide can occur in the same culture chamber and create direct use and rapid commercial uptake initially expected. Yet, cell-to-cell contacts (a mixed coculture) or in multiple, in the absence of their purposed integration into drug separate chambers with a connected soluble environ- delivery processes, correlation of in vitro models to in ment through the exchange of soluble factors (a seg- vivo results is poor, 88% of drug candidates fail in clini- regated coculture). A coculture and the multicellular cal trials, and each successful drug costs approximately biological feedback loop it represents are necessary to $1 billion to develop and launch (Deloitte 2011). reproduce many complex in vivo effects, which is not There are nonetheless strong indications of progress surprising given the many interacting physiological sys- toward a new era of in vitro models. With biologically tems that combine to result in complex human biology. derived gel matrices having led the way, there are now Coculture provides yet another opportunity to engi- many commercially available scaffolds specifically mar- neer greater relevance into an in vitro model. As previ- keted for 3D cell culture. Commonly used in multiwell ously described, stem cell differentiation pathways are plates to maintain throughput (but simultaneously lim- one of the best known multiple cell type interactions, ited by their static format), these scaffolds are primed whereby the differentiation of stem cell “A” is directed for layering the additional complexities of a stabilized, (or suppressed) by the presence of soluble factors from actively perfused soluble environment and for the clev- cell “B.” Rivaling and perhaps surpassing stem cell er use of coculture, potentially with multiple matrices cocultures for scientific activity are cancer cocultures, matched to cell type. particularly cancer-stroma cocultures: it is increasingly Basic segregated coculture has become widespread being demonstrated that the incorporation of a second through the use of inserts fitted into the wells of mul- cell type materially affects cancer cells in culture (Kho- tiwell plates and more recently through mixed but darev et al. 2003) and boosts their relevance to the in spatially controlled cocultures made possible by 2D vivo pathology (Chung et al. 2005; Mahadevan and Von microfabrication techniques. Limitations of the first Hoff 2007). iterations of these innovations include the static nature of multiwell plate culture and (for inserts) a limited Layering Complexity range of materials suitable as membranes, but they have Incorporation of any of these themes—3D matrix established important baselines that will be expanded microenvironment, actively stabilized soluble environ- with the integration of more and better 3D physical and ment, mixed and segregated cocultures—in an in vitro soluble microenvironments. system represents an increase in complexity compared to Finally, early bioreactor systems have demonstrated standard 2D cell culture. Increased complexity is often the clear benefits of perfusion, but their adoption is associated with increased cost and time and decreased hampered by high costs per experiment, a requirement efficiency (often measured by throughput). These for atypical cell culture equipment, and low throughput.

FIGURE 2 Examples of microfluidics (left, printed with permission from the Wyss Institute) and mesofluidics (right, KIYATEC Inc.) “layered complexity” in vitro systems. Both are perfusion based and incorporate 3D microenvironments and coculture interactions, but they differ in scale, manufacturing techniques, potential applications for cell-scaffold constructs, cost, and throughput. These images appear in color in the online posting of this article at www.nae.edu/publications/bridge.aspx. WINTER 2012 53

Microfluidic and Mesofluidic Approaches structure for 2D cell culture processes,1 lower through- These first examples of successfully integrating a put in mesofluidic systems remains a tradeoff. single innovation theme that acceptably increases Impacts of Economic and Social Factors complexity (i.e., is worth the tradeoff) have laid the foundation for “layered complexity” approaches that Nontechnical factors are aligning with the emergence may break new ground in adoption and use. In the of layered-complexity technological approaches. The United States, recent National Institutes of Health economic and political environments have changed (NIH) and Defense Advanced Research Projects such that there is an increased focus on the societal Agency (DARPA) grant solicitations themed around value derived from the expenditure of granting agen- modeling three and ten (respectively) interacting phys- cies’ (and ultimately the public’s) research monies. It is iological systems were awarded to microfluidics “lab- becoming less acceptable to fund or conduct research on-a-chip” submissions (Figure 2, left). that can be demonstrated to have a low, or zero, corre- The microfluidics approach embraces perfusion sys- lation to the biology being modeled when alternatives tems at a micrometer scale (the scale of the cells them- with higher correlation exist, even though they are selves), while layering the complexity of cocultures at more complex. Funding agencies are increasingly sup- various points in the fluidic channels. Benefits include portive of initiatives that mandate the incorporation of a smaller footprint for the culture chamber device, layered complexities. reduced flow circuit volumes, and the use of micro- manufacturing techniques for device manufacturing. This approach has most effectively been demonstrated Funding agencies increasingly when modeling flat biological barrier models (e.g., gut, lung luminal interfaces) where perfusion takes the form support initiatives that of laminar-type flow over a dense, flat, cell-membrane construct. Technical challenges can include the inabil- mandate the incorporation of ity to load and recover scaffolds, “edge effects” of soft layered complexities. matrices, management of cell/matrix density over time in gel matrices, and successful maintenance of constant flow in channels with small dimensions. Contractions in the global pharmaceutical indus- Another approach that successfully achieves the try have resulted in emphasis on new approaches that desired layered complexity may be thought of as “meso- both drive down development costs and point toward fluidic,” with culture chamber dimensions on the scale new understanding of complex biology (and new tar- of millimeters rather than micrometers (Figure 2, right). gets, mechanisms, and pathways). Successful regenera- In contrast to microfluidics, this approach has focused tive medicine and cell therapy business models have on modeling tissues rather than barriers, and perfusion emerged, heightening the demand for improved in vitro can take the form of interstitial-type flow through a 3D manufacturing and quality control processes compliant cell-scaffold construct. with Current Good Manufacturing Processes (cGMP). The mesofluidic approach inherits the benefits of And finally, increasing societal interest (particularly in more traditional bioreactors, including the highest cell the European Union) is also driving broader and faster viability over time, best potential to model complexity, adoption of more complex in vitro models and tech- and broadest incorporation and recovery of diverse 3D niques that show promise for refining, reducing, and scaffold materials, the latter being an important bridge replacing the use of animals. to biomanufacturing applications such as regenera- Conclusions tive medicine, tissue engineering, and some forms of cell therapy. Layered complexity is achieved through Perception of the value of in vitro models is slowly inherent accommodation of both mixed and segregated changing to both embrace the need for more relevance cocultures and more controlled management of the soluble environment through active perfusion. Although 1 cost may be mitigated to the extent that these small- This cost structure encompasses the costs of commoditized supplies, equipment, instruments, and general infrastructure of traditional cell er bioreactor systems can leverage the existing cost culture methods. The 54 BRIDGE

TABLE 1 Evolving Paradigm Through which the Value of In Vitro Models Is Perceived

Traditional Paradigm New Paradigm

2D static monolayer cell More complex cell culture: 2D static monolayer cell Layered complexity cell culture 3D or perfusion or coculture culture culture (e.g., 3D perfused coculture)

• High throughput • Lower throughput • Higher throughput but • Higher relevance but lower relevance lower throughput

• Acute cost minimization • Costs more than 2D • Cost and value of data • Overall cost reduction both matter potential

• Synch with past data • Past data disconnect • Oversimplified • Managed complexity

• Convenience • Interesting but impractical • Use when can get away • Use when value justifies with cost

NET EFFECT: Very heavy reliance on 2D static monolayer NET EFFECT: Balanced approach that recognizes methods with emphasis on throughput and acute cost throughput/relevance tradeoffs and integrates both minimization. options. Ultimately reduces overall costs by decreasing late-stage failures (drugs) and/or increasing performance (cell therapy, regenerative medicine).

and accept the tradeoffs of lower throughput and simultaneously translating to substantial health and increased complexity (Table 1). This change is driven cost benefits. by multiple, related dynamics: (1) scientific literature demonstrating the increased relevance of more complex Financial Disclosure (e.g., 3D, perfused, coculture) cell cultures to in vivo Dr. Gevaert is the CEO of, and owns stock in, biology, especially that of humans, compared to the low KIYATEC Inc., a company focused on in vitro models relevance of 2D monolayer cultures; (2) the increasing with higher correlation to in vivo results via convenient adoption of approaches incorporating single-factor com- and cost-effective perfused 3D cell-based assays. plexity (e.g., 3D environment only), albeit for a limited number of applications; (3) the emergence of “layered References complexity”–type approaches whose combined dynam- Birgersdotter A, Sandberg R, Ernberg I. 2005. Gene expres- ics have begun to enable the modeling of organism-level sion perturbation in vitro: A growing case for three-dimen- interactions, with potentially broad application; (4) the sional (3D) culture systems. Seminars in Cancer Biology unfavorable failure rate and high costs of clinical trials 15:405–412. for the pharmaceutical industry, especially given the Chung LWK, Baseman A, Assikis V, Zhau HE. 2005. Molecular dearth of new blockbuster drugs; (5) the emergence of insights into prostate cancer progression: The missing link viable business models in related industries (regenera- of tumor microenvironment. Journal of Urology 173:10–20. tive medicine, cell therapy) that require and can coopt Cimetta E, Flaibani M, Mella M, Serena E, Boldrin L, De cell culture innovation for cell maturation and process- Coppi P, Elvassore N. 2007. Enhancement of viability of ing; and (6) aligned nontechnical trends, including muscle precursor cells on 3D scaffold in a perfusion bioreac- increased emphasis on funding clearly relevant research tor. International Journal of Artificial Organs 30:415–428. and on further refining, reducing, and replacing the use Deloitte. 2011. Measuring the return from innovation: Is of animals. R&D earning its investment? Deloitte Annual Review of The combination of these factors results in unprec- How the Life Sciences Industry Is Performing in Generat- edented opportunity and provides the required founda- ing Value from R&D:5. tion to usher in a new era of better in vitro models. As Dhurjati R, Liu X, Gay CV, Mastro AM, Vogler EA. 2006. they are implemented, these models will significantly Extended-term culture of bone cells in a compartmentalized advance understanding of human physiology while bioreactor. Tissue Engineering 12:3045–3054. WINTER 2012 55

Fraley SI, Feng Y, Wirtz D, Longmore GD. 2011. Reply: Mercille S, Massie B. 1999. Apoptosis-resistant E1B-19K-ex- Reducing background fluorescence reveals adhesions in 3D pressing NS/0 myeloma cells exhibit increased viabil- matrices. Nature Cell Biology 13(1):5–7. ity and chimeric antibody productivity under perfusion Goldstein AS, Juarez TM, Helmke CD, Gustin MC, Mikos culture conditions. Biotechnology and Bioengineering AG. 2001. Effect of convection on osteoblastic cell growth 63:529–543. and function in biodegradable polymer foam scaffolds. Bio- Nikkhah M, Edalat F, Manoucheri S, Khademhosseini A. materials 22:1279–1288. 2012. Engineering microscale topographies to control the Gomes ME, Sikavitsas VI, Behravesh E, Reis RL, Mikos AG. cell-substrate interface. Biomaterials 33:5230–5246. 2003. Effect of flow perfusion on the osteogenic differentia- Paul SM, Mytelka DS, Dunwiddie CT, Persinger CC, Munos tion of bone marrow stromal cells cultured on starch-based BH, Lindborg SR, Schacht AL. 2010. How to improve three-dimensional scaffolds. Journal of Biomedical Materi- R&D productivity: The pharmaceutical industry’s grand als Research Part A 67A:87–95. challenge. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 9:203–214. Indolfi L, Baker AB, Edelman ER. 2012. The role of scaffold Petri RJ. 1887. Eine kleine modification des koch’schen plat- microarchitecture in engineering endothelial cell immuno- tenverfahrens. Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Para- modulation. Biomaterials 33:7019–7027. sitenkunde 1:279–280. Khodarev NN, Yu JQ, Labay E, Darga T, Brown CK, Mau- Ridky TW, Chow JM, Wong DJ, Khavari PA. 2010. Invasive ceri HJ, Yassari R, Gupta N, Weichselbaum RR. 2003. three-dimensional organotypic neoplasia from multiple Tumour-endothelium interactions in co-culture: Coordi- normal human epithelia. Nature Medicine 16:1450–1455. nated changes of gene expression profiles and phenotypic Tomei AA, Siegert S, Britschgi MR, Luther SA, Swartz MA. properties of endothelial cells. Journal of Cell Science 2009. Fluid flow regulates stromal cell organization and 116:1013–1022. CCL21 expression in a tissue-engineered lymph node Kilian KA, Bugarija B, Lahn BT, Mrksich M. 2010. Geometric microenvironment. Journal of Immunology 183:4273–4283. cues for directing the differentiation of mesenchymal stem Wu M-H, Kuo C-Y. 2011. Application of high throughput cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of perfusion micro 3-D cell culture platform for the precise the United States of America 107:4872–4877. study of cellular responses to extracellular conditions: Kumar G, Waters MS, Farooque TM, Young MF, Simon CG Effect of serum concentrations on the physiology of articu- Jr. 2012. Freeform fabricated scaffolds with roughened struts lar chondrocytes. Biomedical Microdevices 13:131–141. that enhance both stem cell proliferation and differentia- Wu M-H, Urban JPG, Cui ZF, Cui Z, Xu X. 2007. Effect of tion by controlling cell shape. Biomaterials 33:4022–4030. extracellular pH on matrix synthesis by chondrocytes in 3D Mahadevan D, Von Hoff DD. 2007. Tumor-stroma interac- agarose gel. Biotechnology Progress 23:430–434. tions in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Molecular Zschenker O, Streichert T, Hehlgans S, Cordes N. 2012. Cancer Therapeutics 6:1186–1197. Genome-wide gene expression analysis in cancer cells Martin KJ, Patrick DR, Bissell MJ, Fournier MV. 2008. reveals 3D growth to affect ECM and processes associ- Prognostic breast cancer signature identified from 3D ated with cell adhesion but not DNA repair. PLoS ONE culture model accurately predicts clinical outcome across 7:e34279. independent datasets. PLoS ONE 3(8):e2994. The 56 BRIDGE NAE News and Notes NAE Newsmakers

B. Jayant Baliga, director, Power Connecticut Institute for Clini- Academy of Engineering on Octo- Semiconductor Research Center, cal and Translational Science, and ber 19, 2012. The Academy confers North Carolina State University, director, Institute for Regenerative fellowship on Indian and foreign has received the 2012 North Caro- Engineering, University of Con- nationals who have demonstrated lina Award for Science, the state’s necticut, was recently recognized by their eminence and achieved out- highest civilian honor, sometimes the Connecticut General Assem- standing accomplishments in engi- called the “Nobel Prize of North bly. An official citation signed by neering and technology. Carolina.” The award was presented legislative leaders and Secretary of The Institute of Electrical and on October 30 at the North Caro- the State Denise Merrill thanks Dr. Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has lina Museum of History in Raleigh. Laurencin for his many contribu- awarded Terrence J. Sejnowski, Dr. Baliga is recognized for his tions to the state during his time as Francis Crick Professor and head, groundbreaking work in electron- University of Connecticut Health Computational Neurobiology ics engineering and is included Center vice president for health Laboratory, Salk Institute for Bio- among the “Eight Heroes of the affairs and dean of the University logical Studies, and professor and Semiconductor Revolution” by of Connecticut and for his endur- head of the Salk Institute’s Compu- Scientific American. While working ing leadership in bioscience inno- tational Neurobiology Laboratory, for General Electric he invented, vations and research. the 2013 IEEE Frank Rosenblatt developed, and commercialized Asad M. Madni, retired presi- Award. Dr. Sejnowski was selected the insulated gate bipolar transistor dent, chief operating officer, and in recognition of his outstanding (IGBT), a device used in consumer, CTO of BEI Technologies Inc., and contributions to computational electrical, medical, renewable, and independent consultant, has been neuroscience. A leader in the field, other products. His work has saved selected to receive the 2012 IEEE his trail-blazing work helped spark consumers more than $15 trillion Aerospace and Electronic Systems the neural networks revolution and now helps form the basis for the Society’s Pioneer Award for his in computing in the 1980s. He is emerging smart grid. groundbreaking contributions and also recognized for his important Pradman P. Kaul, president and accomplishments that have stood contributions to artificial and real CEO, Hughes Communications the test of time. Dr. Madni’s award neural network algorithms and Inc., has been honored with the citation reads “for seminal and pio- applying signal processing models to first-ever Lifetime Achievement neering contributions to the devel- neuroscience. Award at the COMSYS VSAT2012 opment and commercialization of Ponisseril Somasundaran, direc- Annual Global Industry Confer- aerospace and electronic systems.” tor, NSF/IUCR Center for Surfac- ence, presented on September 12, The Pioneer Award has been given tants, and La Von Duddleson Krumb 2012, at the Lancaster London annually since 1949 to an individual Professor, School of Engineering Hotel, UK. The award recognizes or team for “contributions signifi- and Applied Science, Columbia Mr. Kaul’s significant contributions cant to bringing into being systems University, was elected a Foreign and dedication to the industry over that are still in existence today.” Fellow of the Royal Society of a career spanning four decades. Kaushik Rajashekara, Distin- Canada. Out of a class of 73 fellows, Cato T. Laurencin, University guished Professor of Electrical Engi- Dr. Somasundaran was the only for- Professor, Albert and Wilda Van neering and Endowed Chair, Erik eign fellow named this year. He was Dusen Distinguished Professor of Jonsson School of Engineering and recognized for his “groundbreak- Orthopaedic Surgery, Professor of Computer Science, University of ing contributions towards unravel- Chemical, Materials, and Biomo- Texas at Dallas, was elected a For- ing complex nanoscale structures lecular Engineering, and CEO, eign Fellow of the Indian National and energetics of surfactant WINTER 2012 57

self-assemblies and polymer-surfac- Charles H. Thornton, chairman, laboration between universities and tant hybrid at interfaces.” Charles H. Thornton & Company industry, and for providing exem- Gregory Stephanopoulos, Willard LLC, and Richard L. Tomasetti plary leadership and service to the Henry Dow Professor of Biotechnol- have received the Council on Tall IGTI. The award was presented ogy and Chemical Engineering, Mas- Buildings and Urban Habitat’s during the ASME Turbo Expo 2012 sachusetts Institute of Technology, (CTBUH) 2012 Fazlur R. Khan held in Copenhagen, Denmark, in was awarded the Siegfried Medal by Lifetime Achievement Medal for June. Dr. Wisler retired from GE Siegfried AG. The award, presented their collective contribution to the Aviation after a career spanning 38 on October 5 during the 5th Sieg- advancement of tall buildings. This years, during which he held posi- fried Symposium in Zurich, Swit- is the first time the CTBUH Board tions of increasing responsibility for zerland, cites Dr. Stephanopoulos’ of Trustees has awarded the prize to conducting and managing advanced contributions to efficient biotechno- two individuals jointly. The medal technology programs. His work to logical processes for pharmaceutical recognizes demonstrated excellence improve airfoil shapes and under- API production. He is renowned for in technical design and/or research stand complex flow fields in the his work in metabolic engineering that has made a significant contri- rotating components of gas turbine and the development of microbes bution to a discipline for the design engines has been instrumental in for the production of specific essen- of tall buildings and the built urban reducing losses (reducing fuel burn) tial biological molecules like amino environment. The award was pre- and improving performance. acids or secondary metabolites like sented at CTBUH’s 11th Annual On October 4, 2012, University terpenes. His work has been imple- Awards Dinner at the Illinois Insti- of Houston president Renu Khator mented toward the “on scale” syn- tute of Technology in Chicago on and Joseph Tedesco, dean of Cul- thesis of the AIDS drug Crixivan October 18. len College of Engineering, hosted and the anticancer drug Taxol. Vijay Vittal, Ira Fulton Chair, a National Academy of Engineer- Esther S. Takeuchi, SUNY Dis- Department of Electrical Engineer- ing Wall of Fame dedication cer- tinguished Professor, Materials Sci- ing, Ira A. Fulton School of Engi- emony for those associated with ence and Engineering Chemistry, neering, Arizona State University, the university either by education Stony Brook University, has been has been selected to receive the or professorship. NAE members selected as the 2013 recipient of the IEEE Herman Halperin Electric were celebrated for their significant E.V. Murphree Award in Indus- Transmission and Distribution impact on engineering research, trial and Engineering Chemistry Award for his accomplishments in education, and the profession. Each from the American Chemical Soci- power systems engineering. The is recognized as a role model for ety. Professor Takeuchi, known for award specifically recognizes his the next generation of engineer- developing the technology for the contribution to “development of ing students and faculty, challeng- power source used in implantable power system stability assessment ing, encouraging, and enlightening cardiac defibrillators and for hold- methods leading to the maximum newcomers to the dynamic world ing 153 patents—more than any utilization and increased reliability of 21st century engineering. woman in the United States—will of transmission lines.” Those honored were Charles Cut- receive this prestigious award at the David C. Wisler, GE Aviation, ler, president, Cutler Technol- 245th American Chemical Society retired, received the 2012 R. Tom ogy Inc.; Bonnie Dunbar, Dunbar National Meeting and Exposition Sawyer Award given by the Inter- International LLC; and, from the in New Orleans, Louisiana, April national Gas Turbine Institute University of Houston, Neal R. 7–11, 2013. Sponsored by the Exx- (IGTI) of ASME (founded as the Amundson, Cullen Professor of on Mobil Research and Engineer- American Society of Mechanical Chemical Engineering and pro- ing Co., the E.V. Murphree Award Engineers). He is being recognized fessor of mathematics (deceased); is designed to stimulate research in for his career-long innovative tech- Benton Baugh, adjunct professor of industrial and engineering chemis- nical contributions to advance the mechanical engineering; Abraham try, the development of chemical performance of gas turbine engines, Dukler, Distinguished University engineering principles, and their for national and international ini- Professor of Chemical Engineer- application to industrial processes. tiatives to encourage research col- ing (deceased); Fazle Hussain, The 58 BRIDGE

Cullen Distinguished Professor of Cullen Professor of Engineer- Distinguished Professor of Civil Mechanical Engineering; W. John ing; Michael Pao, Distinguished Engineering Emeritus; Anestis S. Lee, Cullen Distinguished Univer- Research Professor of Engineering; Veletsos, Distinguished Adjunct sity Chair; John Lienhard, M.D. Allen F. Rhodes, adjunct profes- Professor; and Kaspar Willam, Cul- Anderson Professor of Technology sor of mechanical engineering len Professor of Engineering. and Culture Emeritus; Dan Luss, (deceased); James Symons, Cullen

C.D. (Dan) Mote Jr. Nominated to Be Next National Academy of Engineering President

The National Academy of Engi- gap, Mote helped UMD achieve in neering is part of the National 2007 the fourth highest graduation Academies, which also include the rate for underrepresented minori- National Academy of Sciences, ties at public research universities. Institute of Medicine, and National He has testified before Congress and Research Council. These indepen- been featured in the news media on dent, nonprofit institutions advise issues ranging from education fund- the government and the public on ing models to visa barriers for inter- issues related to science, engineer- national students to deemed export ing, and medicine. NAE members control issues. are the nation’s premier engineers, Internationally recognized for elected by their peers for their dis- his research on the dynamics of C.D. (Dan) Mote Jr. tinguished achievements. Estab- gyroscopic systems, including high- The National Academy of Engi- lished in 1964, NAE operates under speed translating and rotating sys- neering (NAE) 2013 nominating the congressional charter granted to tems, and the biomechanics of snow committee1 has unanimously rec- the National Academy of Sciences skiing, Mote has authored or coau- ommended C.D. (Dan) Mote Jr., in 1863. The NAE president is a thored more than 300 publications, past president and Regents Profes- full-time employee of the organiza- holds patents in the United States, sor of the University of Maryland tion at its headquarters in Washing- Norway, Finland, and Sweden, and (UMD), to stand as the sole can- ton, DC, and also serves as vice chair has mentored 58 PhD students. didate2 for the NAE presidency. of the National Research Council Mote was elected to the NAE in NAE members will vote in March (NRC), the principal research arm 1988 “for analysis of the mechan- 2013 to elect a new NAE president of the National Academies. ics of complex dynamic systems, to a six-year term beginning July 1. From 1998 to 2010, Mote served providing results of great practical If elected, Mote will succeed as UMD president and Glenn L. importance in vibrations and bio- Charles M. Vest, whose term ends Martin Institute Professor of Engi- mechanics,” and is the current NAE June 30, 2013. neering. Under his leadership, UMD treasurer and a member of the NRC “I am thrilled that Dan has accept- research funding increased by more Governing Board Executive Com- ed the nomination for the NAE than 150 percent and the university mittee. In addition, he cochairs presidency,” said NAE council chair greatly expanded partnerships with the NRC Government-University- Charles O. Holliday Jr., retired corporate and federal laboratories. Industry Research Roundtable and chairman of the board and CEO of Mote also negotiated establishment Committee on Science, Technol- DuPont. “His passion for engineer- of the University of Maryland–Chi- ogy, Engineering, and Mathemat- ing excellence and his experience na Research Park, connecting Mary- ics Workforce Needs for the US advancing the profession make him land and Chinese companies for Department of Defense and the US the ideal person to build upon the joint ventures. Stressing the impor- Defense Industrial Base. His past leadership of Chuck Vest.” tance of closing the achievement NRC service includes membership WINTER 2012 59

on the Committee on Science, and home secretary serve ex officio, Arogyaswami J. Paulraj Engineering, and Public Policy and and the chair of the previous year’s Stanford University chairmanship of the Committee on nominating committee also serves. Arun G. Phadke Global Science and Technology No member may be elected to serve Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Strategies and Their Effect on US on the nominating committee more State University National Security. than once in six years. The members Mote received his BS, MS, and of the committee were as follows: Prabhakar Raghavan PhD in mechanical engineering Google Inc. John L. Anderson (chair) from the University of California, Illinois Institute of Technology David A. Whelan Berkeley, where he served on the The Boeing Company faculty for 31 years and held posi- Rudolph Bonaparte tions as chair of the Department of Geosyntec Consultants Julia Phillips Mechanical Engineering, president NAE Council representative; James A. Brierley of the UC Berkeley Foundation, and Sandia National Laboratories Brierley Consultancy, LLC vice chancellor. He has received Thomas Budinger (ex officio) three honorary doctorates and the Bruce R. Ellingwood NAE home secretary; Lawrence Berkeley Citation, an award from Georgia Institute of Technology Berkeley Laboratory and University the university similar to an honor- Zvi Galil of California, Berkeley ary doctorate. Georgia Institute of Technology Maxine Savitz (ex officio) Notes Arthur H. Heuer NAE vice president; 1. The members of the NAE nomi- Case Western Reserve University Honeywell Inc. (ret.) nating committee represent each Fazle Hussain Ann L. Lee (immediate past chair) of the 12 sections of the Academy University of Houston Genentech Inc. and are elected by the members of each section. The three largest sec- Karl G. Kempf 2. According to the NAE bylaws, tions place two members on the Intel Corp. a candidate may be added to the committee, resulting in an elected ballot for any position by petition. Frances S. Ligler membership of 15. The chair of the Such petition must be signed by 5 Naval Research Laboratory nominating committee is selected percent of the active members of from among these 15 members by Kuo-Nan Liou the Academy, representing at least the NAE Council, the governing University of California, 10 different institutions, and must body of the NAE. In addition, one Los Angeles be submitted by January 15 of the member of the council serves as its election year. Debasis Mitra representative on the nominating Bell Labs, Alcatel-Lucent committee, the NAE vice president The 60 BRIDGE

Highlights of the 2012 NAE Annual Meeting

offered “three simple tests” to guide ethical decisions (see p 63). President Charles M. Vest then delivered his annual address to the members and guests. In his speech “What Are We Waiting For? Sput- nik? An Explanation of Today’s World? New Ways of Working? National Strategy?” he cited the need for bold vision and leadership as the United States confronts a new era of national and global challenges. (The speech is printed Anniversary members (l to r): Front row: Ronald F. Probstein, Melvin F. Kanninen, William D. Nix; Back row: Yvonne in this issue [see p 65] and posted Brill, Arthur W. Westerberg, Raymond Viskanta, James J. Duderstadt, Richard M. Christensen. online at www.nae.edu.) The induction of the NAE Class of 2012 fol- NAE members, foreign associates, Council dinner in the Great Hall of lowed President Vest’s address, with and guests gathered in Washington, the NAS Building. introductions by NAE Executive DC, in September for the 2012 NAE NAE chair Charles O. Holli- Officer Lance Davis. Annual Meeting, which was held in day Jr. opened the public session The program continued with the the newly restored National Acad- on Sunday, September 30, with presentation of the 2012 Found- emy of Sciences (NAS) Building on remarks congratulating new mem- ers and Bueche Awards. The 2012 Constitution Avenue. The meeting bers and calling on them, as they Founders Award was presented to began on Saturday afternoon, Sep- consider a new realm of choices now Nicholas A. Peppas, Fletcher Pratt tember 29, with an orientation ses- before them, to practice the highest Chair of Chemical Engineering, Bio- sion for new members. That evening ethical standards. He illustrated the medical Engineering, and Pharmacy 66 new members and 10 new foreign value of his own experiences when at the University of Texas at Austin, associates were honored at the NAE faced with ethical challenges, and for “contributions to biomedical and

NAE Class of 2012. WINTER 2012 61

drug delivery applications of poly- Frontiers of Engineering Education mer networks and hydrogels and Symposium. for leadership in the bioengineer- The business session was followed ing community” (see p 69). James by a forum on “Educating Engi- Duderstadt, president emeritus and neers: Preparing 21st Century Lead- university professor of science and ers in the Context of New Modes engineering at the University of of Learning.” Ali Velshi, Anchor Michigan, was presented the Arthur and Chief Business Correspon- M. Bueche Award for “leadership in dent, CNN, moderated a discussion academe and national service to sup- exploring many facets of contempo- port innovative science and tech- rary engineering education. Speak- nology policies” (see p 72). ers addressed opportunities and The Bernard M. Gordon Prize responsibilities made available by Lecture featured the three 2012 win- advances in educational modalities, ners: Clive L. Dym, Fletcher Jones Subra Suresh, director of the National Science Foun- including new institutional struc- Professor of Engineering Design and dation, delivering keynote address. tures, new IT-based capabilities, Director of the Center for Engineer- and new approaches to team-based, ing Design Education; M. Mack Lecture on a “New Era of Global hands-on learning. The panelists Gilkeson, Professor of Engineering Science and Engineering.” The day were Anant Agarwal, President, Emeritus; and J. Richard Phillips, ended with a reception for members edX, and Professor, Massachusetts Professor of Engineering Emeritus, and their guests. Institute of Technology; Linda P. all from Harvey Mudd College. The At the annual business session Katehi, Chancellor, University of speakers described engagement and for members on Monday morning, California, Davis; Salman Khan, innovation in the college’s engi- Dr. Vest provided a quick summary Founder, Khan Academy; Richard neering curriculum, with a focus on of the organization of the NAE, its K. Miller, President, Olin College; engineering design, hands-on expe- relationship with the NAS, IOM, Richard D. Stephens, Senior Vice rience, and workshops. and NRC, and its finances. He dis- President for Human Resources and After a break, Dr. Vest intro- cussed the need for independent Administration, the Boeing Com- duced the Armstrong Endowment funds and thanked the members pany; and Tuula Teeri, President, for Young Engineers—Gilbreth for their personal philanthropy of Aalto University, Finland. The vid- Lecturers, outstanding young engi- giving to the NAE. He highlight- eo of the forum is available on the neers who have made presentations ed recent NAE program activi- NAE website (www.nae.edu) and a at the NAE’s Frontiers of Engineer- ties, including newly emerging summary of the forum will be pub- ing symposia. John Ochsendorf, joint activities with the IOM, the lished early in 2013. Associate Professor of Civil and ongoing Grand Challenges proj- On Monday afternoon, members Environmental Engineering, Mas- ect, the Frontiers of Engineering and foreign associates participated sachusetts Institute of Technology, symposia series, and the upcoming in NAE section meetings at the spoke on “Challenges and Oppor- tunities for Low-Carbon Buildings.” Hod Lipson, Associate Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engi- neering and of Computing and Information Sciences, Cornell University, spoke on “The Shape of Things to Come: Frontiers in Addi- tive Manufacturing.” Dr. Subra Suresh, Director, National Science Foundation, delivered the Distinguished Guest Forum panelists and moderator. The 62 BRIDGE

NAS Building and Keck Center. The meeting concluded with the annual reception and dinner dance, held at the JW Marriott with music by the Odyssey Band. The next annual meeting is scheduled for October 6–7, 2013, in Washington, DC. Please save the date!

Special Events NAE Hosts Estate Planning Brunch During Annual Meeting New Einstein Society members with their statuettes. This year’s estate planning semi- nar was well received by over 30 example, setting up charitable gift friends at this year’s Golden Bridge NAE members and guests. Held annuities and charitable remainder Society Dinner held at the United annually, this session gives members unitrusts—while urging members to States Institute of Peace. The Sun- a chance to learn about tax-savvy consult their financial advisors to day evening event in honor and financial strategies and to hear see whether taking advantage of the appreciation of NAE’s best donors about incorporating philanthropy current tax code may be beneficial drew members participating in the into their long-term plans. Cindy for their unique financial situation. NAE Annual Meeting and friends Sterling, an independent financial If you were not able to attend the who partake in what has become an expert, discussed how the presiden- brunch and would like the materi- annual tradition. tial election, the expiration of the als from the session, please contact Donors are recognized in several Bush administration tax cuts, and Radka Nebesky, NAE’s Director of categories for their level of giving. other political changes might affect Development, at [email protected] An unprecedented five new donors people’s taxes in 2013. As of Septem- or 202.334.3417. were welcomed into the Einstein ber 30 Congress had not determined Society, which celebrates members whether tax cuts would be extended, 2012 Golden Bridge Society Dinner and friends who have given over and Ms. Sterling warned that there Honoring NAE’s Most Generous $100,000 in their lifetime, and pre- will likely be sweeping changes to Donors sented with an Einstein statuette as the tax code. She shared creative NAE President Dr. Charles M. a token of NAE’s gratitude for their ideas for bundling philanthropy into Vest and his wife Becky hosted 70 of contributions. Dr. Vest also wel- financial planning—including, for NAE’s most generous members and comed new members of the Golden Bridge Society, celebrating donors who have given between $20,000 and $99,999 over their lifetime, and of the Heritage Society, celebrating donors who have made provisions for future gifts to NAE through their estates or other planned giving vehicles. New Einstein Society members recognized at this year’s dinner were NAE Chairman Chad Holliday and his wife Ann, NAE member Robin McGuire and his wife Rose, NAE member Erich Bloch, NAE mem- Estate Planning Brunch ber George Bugliarello’s widow WINTER 2012 63

Virginia, and Lawrence Finegold. Several donors were eligible for Society. NAE member Joseph NAE Council member Arnold Stan- NAE’s cumulative giving societies Goodman is a new member of the cell and his wife Connie, and NAE as of September 30, 2012, but were Heritage Society. member Asad Madni, his wife Taj, not able to make it to the dinner. Many of these donors were and their son Jamal were recognized NAE member Gary Tooker, NAE spurred to increase their giving in for making commitments to reach member Robert Wertheim, NAE anticipation of NAE’s 50th Anni- the Einstein Society level of giving. member Lewis Branscomb, and versary in 2014. Increased member- NAE’s Foreign Secretary Venkatesh John McDonnell are all new mem- ship in all three cumulative giving “Venky” Narayanamurti and his bers of the Einstein Society. NAE societies is a key goal of the 50th wife Jaya were welcomed into the Council member Alice Agogino, Anniversary fundraising effort, and Golden Bridge Society, and Einstein NAE member Linda Sanford, NAE Dr. Vest expressed his appreciation Society member Tobie Fink, widow member Narayana Murthy and his and enthusiasm for the positive of deceased NAE member Dan wife Sudha, NAE member David response from members and friends Fink, was welcomed into the Heri- Shaw, and Yoon-Woo Lee are all who are excited to help NAE cel- tage Society. new members of the Golden Bridge ebrate this milestone.

Remarks by NAE Chair Charles O. Holliday Jr.

advance our profession, you help the Professional Engineering code society understand what we do for of conduct, that’s exactly what it the world. I hope, as you make your says. That’s the standard I believe selections going forward, you will you operate to or you wouldn’t be find that time and time again you here today. But that’s the standard will want to pick some new things I’m asking you to make the choice off the menu. I think you’ll find they to advance considerably as a life- taste pretty good. time member of the National Acad- But today I’m not talking about emy of Engineering. those choices. I’m talking about Let me share a couple of experi- just one choice that I sincerely and ences from my career at DuPont personally hope you will make, and that help me stay calibrated about Charles O. Holliday Jr. that is to be a standard bearer for the how to do that. I was serving Thank you, and let me offer highest ethical standards. DuPont in Southeast Asia. I was my congratulations to all the new As you enter any new organiza- taking a team to potentially build a members. tion, you look around and say, What plant in a country I won’t name, a I have a few brief comments this are the standards of this place? I medium-size country in Southeast morning, directed to the new mem- have never seen an organization that Asia. We were leaning toward doing bers, but the rest of you can listen if didn’t say they had ethical standards. this venture. As part of our normal you want to. What about high ethical stan- due diligence, we went to see the Yesterday you had a set of choic- dards? Well, Enron had high ethical US ambassador. I went in with two es. You had a long menu—because standards until they suspended their of my colleagues, he had two of his of what you have done in your life code of conduct to do what they staff. We were sitting in his office. and what you have accomplished— wanted to do. How many times do They were very happy because this of how you could spend your time, people with high ethical standards would be the biggest plant DuPont your talents, and your resources. do a mathematical calculation on had built in that country. After today, that menu is going to the cost, that being a factor in their But partway into the conversation, be a bit longer. Now, as a member standards? the ambassador leans over and says, of the National Academy of Engi- What we must have are the high- “Chad, I understand you like roses. neering, you serve the nation, you est ethical standards. As you read I want to show you my rose garden.” The 64 BRIDGE

I’ve been accused of liking a lot of Southeast Asia. This was in Hong had 100 ethics lessons, and it never things, but never roses before, as my Kong, before it rejoined the main- would have communicated what wife can attest. land. DuPont had its operating that article did. We had so many So we walk down the hall, and headquarters in Hong Kong, and people—because people remem- I’m a little bit suspicious about what we had a plant across the border in bered it for a year or two—who this is really about. We look out the Shenzhen, if you are familiar with wanted to work for DuPont because window at the three scrawniest rose the geography. We would send a of that standard. bushes I have ever seen in my life. courier back and forth several times What I share by this story is That took away any doubt—we a week to transport various things. that, in the short term, you may weren’t there to talk about roses. The government of China and the be able to make a calculation that He said, “That company you’re government of Hong Kong had got- shows it’s a good business decision. talking to—yes, it’s one of the five ten together and had special license But I would dare you to show me largest companies here locally. But, plates you could get so you didn’t a point in the long term where it as I understand their standards, here have to wait in line—sometimes the ever turns out to be a good business is what they’re going to ask you to lines could be an hour or two long. decision. Sometimes you won’t get do within weeks.” Then he listed You had to apply for this license the payback in 14 months, but I’m both the local and US laws the com- plate and you had to have good rea- confident your ethical decision pany’s requests would violate. sons for it. We thought we fit; we will pay off in financial terms to I looked at him and said, “Well, applied. About two months after we what you are doing, as well as in thank you very much. That’s very applied, we realized we hadn’t heard ethical terms. helpful. But why couldn’t you tell anything from them. So we went in If you look at the Professional me down the hall?” to check and we found out that our Engineering code of conduct, it is He said, “Because I can’t prove application was in order and we met long. There is a lot of detail. It’s it. My ability to serve as ambas- all the requirements—but we hadn’t very useful. But sometimes you are sador here would be gone if I put paid the $50 bribe. They called it going to be out and you’ll have to out rumors about companies that I something much nicer, but a bribe make an ethical decision. You can’t couldn’t back up.” is a bribe. get online, you can’t see the code, I said, “Why did you tell me now? Our folks came back, and we said, and you can’t study it. Let me share Why did you suddenly tell me here?” “Okay, we’ll just wait our turn in with you the three things that I use He said, “Because I understand line.” We do not pay bribes, no mat- all the time, and have for several DuPont operates to the highest eth- ter what the case might be. decades, to help me when I can’t get ical standards, and you would use This dragged on for 14 months, on the website. this information appropriately.” with our drivers waiting in line. If I’m making a decision and I’m I had never met this ambassa- And people would kid them— proud to tell one of the colleagues I dor before. But the reputation of “What a dumb company you have. work with that this is my decision, the company I worked for went Look at the economics of just paying that passes the first test. before me and set that standard and the bribe. Your time in one month If I’m proud to go home and tell allowed me to move up. would just pay for the $50.” It got my family of this decision, it passes As you join the National Acad- so much talk that a reporter for the the second test. emy of Engineering, you are joining South China Morning Post, the Hong If I’m okay if you print it in the an organization with the highest Kong newspaper, heard about it and newspaper accurately—I don’t have ethical standards. Perhaps you are printed on the front page of the to like it, but okay—it passes the moving up a bit. But the message paper a list of all the companies that third test. in this is, any time you are thinking had gotten their license plates after I would challenge you to use about who else you might want to we had applied. We got our license those three simple tests. In my expe- associate yourself with, always have plate about three days later. rience, if a decision passed all three the highest ethical standards. But what we got so much more of those tests, it also passed the code The second story is a little far- of was the feeling our employees of conduct of the organization I was ther north from where we were in had about ethics. We could have a part of. WINTER 2012 65

In closing, you have a lot of zation of members. ethical standards and seize every choices to make in your work with I really hope you will make a lot opportunity you have to move other the National Academies. You will of choices from the new items on members of our profession to do the get out of this organization exactly your menu. And one of your choic- same thing. what you put in. We are an organi- es should be to practice the highest Thank you very much.

What Are We Waiting For? Sputnik? An Explanation of Today’s World? New Ways of Working? National Strategy? Annual Address by NAE President Charles M. Vest

cal season has reinforced something the road.” One of the great lessons that has bothered me for some time: of the second half of the 20th centu- For many years now, as a nation and ry is that central planning does not as a body politic, we have been wait- work. The private sector and espe- ing. Waiting when we should have cially entrepreneurial communities been acting and leading. I don’t get will beat central government plan- it. What are we waiting for? ning every time. But, having said If I hear one more person say that, in my view many of the great that our educational, scientific, and national and global challenges we technological enterprises are wait- face today require the government ing for another “Sputnik moment” I and society to establish and sustain fear that I will react in some bizarre, goals, directions, and policies that Charles M. Vest illogical manner unbefitting this describe “rules of the road” accord- What Are We Waiting For? office. ing to which the private sector can I want to begin my remarks today But there are some things that I find optimum solutions. by expressing my appreciation for am waiting for, and I suspect that Waiting for Sputnik the honor and privilege of serving I am waiting for them in the good as your president. It has been a very company of all or most of you. I am When I was a high school stu- rewarding experience, and I hope waiting for our political and cor- dent, America woke up one day that I have added some value to the porate leaders to honestly explain and learned that the Soviet Union NAE and to the greater causes that today’s world…clearly and continu- had placed a satellite named Sput- we serve. ally in their public dialogue and nik into orbit about the Earth. This There is one thing that the outgo- through their strategies and actions. injured our national pride, raised ing leader of an important organiza- I also think that far too much of national security and geopolitical tion values above all else…that is our nation is waiting for new ways concerns, and led fairly quickly to a that he or she will be succeeded by of working to arrive. We hear lots focus on the importance and qual- a new leader whom he or she deeply of rhetoric about how the nature of ity of our science and mathematics respects. Although I appropriately work will change, as if it relates to education. It inspired many young played no role whatsoever in the some unknown distant future. The people, including me, and in due work of the Nominating Commit- fact is that it is happening now, and course provided us with better tee, I could not be more pleased we need a broader recognition of teaching materials and with major than to have Dan Mote nominated this fact and policies and education increases in financial aid, from both to be our next president. We could that reflect it. corporations and government, for not possibly do better. Finally, I am waiting for national advanced studies in engineering But there are areas in which we strategies around the fundamen- and science, and new career oppor- could do better. For example, the tal issues of our time. By “national tunities. Like Pearl Harbor, it was a embarrassing silliness of this politi- strategy” I generally mean “rules of single, crystallizing moment of the The 66 BRIDGE kind to which our nation is good at blocking immigration, and glorify- other colleagues. Cooperation and responding. ing and rewarding careers that add competition are the yin and yang of But waiting for a new Sputnik no value. the modern world. moment in 2012 is folly. This gen- And sharing is the enabling eration already has its challenges, Waiting for Leaders to Explain mechanism—sharing of knowl- and they are far more fundamental Our New World edge, sharing of talents, sharing of and far more important than was Virtually everyone in this room is education. This is the new world of a Soviet satellite. And most—per- engaged in industry and commerce, open innovation and of new ways of haps all—of this generation’s chal- in higher education, in research and working. lenges are global. They are global development, or in national securi- During our 2011 NAE National because our world is straining to ty. Each of us lives, works, and learns Meeting, we held a forum on Manu- support 7 billion people who share in a highly integrated, networked facturing, Design, and Innovation. a single environment, finite natural world. Our colleague Rod Brooks was one resources, knowledge, economy and Do you recognize this world in our of the panelists. Suggesting that we commerce, and, above all, a com- political rhetoric? Do you hear our concentrate too much on the most mon humanity. corporate leaders working explicitly sophisticated technologies and As you know, the NAE commis- and in a sustained manner to help environments, he laid out a case sioned a committee of 18 superbly our people understand this? Maybe for focusing on small, easily pro- creative and innovative men and you do, but I don’t. grammable robots to help humans women to establish a set of Engi- The world has changed. We need perform fundamental manufactur- neering Grand Challenges that, if to get on with it. ing operations. Such devices could met, would improve life on earth R&D investments by both the “democratize low-end manufactur- and that they believed could be private and public sectors are ing.” Fast forward to last month, and accomplished if we set our minds increasingly spread around the note these words in Tom Friedman’s and resources to them. These Grand globe. Currently they are approxi- August 26, 2012, NYT column Challenges fall into four large buck- mately one-third in North America, describing Rod’s newest venture, a ets: Sustainability, Security, Health, one-third in Europe, and one-third company called Rethink Robotics: and Joy of Living. Mostly through in Asia. And the level of educa- The Rethink design team includes the voluntary efforts of many lead- tion is rising all around the world, Bruce Blumberg, the product man- ers of higher education, these NAE especially in the STEM disciplines. ager of the Apple LaserWriter, as Engineering Grand Challenges These new global distributions are well as 75 other experts from Rus- have led to numerous education and good things. But we can’t sit on sia, Georgia, Venezuela, Egypt, outreach programs and have entered our thumbs and watch much of Australia, India, Israel, Portugal, the national dialogue among busi- the rest of the world approach and Sri Lanka, the United States and ness, government, and academia. then surpass us in these important China. What I have observed through investments. In my view, our most “It is all made in America,” says our Grand Challenges work, and important national comparative Brooks, but by “the best talent” through many campus visits and advantages are democracy, free gathered “from around the world.” gatherings of entrepreneurs, is that enterprise, diversity, and excellence this generation of young people is and inventiveness in higher educa- So here, in one package, are com- eager to engage. They aren’t wait- tion and research. petition, cooperation, and new ways ing for Sputnik. So let’s all work I think our leaders owe us more of working. together to provide them with the straight talk about the nature of Waiting for New Ways of opportunities and resources to start today’s world. In particular, we all Working meeting these Grand Challenges. must understand that, now and in Let’s stop dampening their well- the future, we must compete but Yet I keep reading about new ways informed enthusiasm and efforts also cooperate with others all over of working that are going to happen by choking back funding of higher the world—other countries, other in some distant future. In fact, they education, stalling research support, companies, other universities,… are happening now, and we need to be preparing more people for them. WINTER 2012 67

A few decades ago, we talked erative way of working. research and analysis projects that about brain drain. This generally Douglas Thomas and John Seeley we hope will be useful to the nation. referred to the movement of highly Brown explore the same concept of There is an exciting world out talented young people, especially harnessing massively multiplayer there involving additive manufac- scientists and engineers, to the online games for purposes of learn- turing, biologically based manufac- United States to study and subse- ing in the interesting book A New turing, design for sustainability, and quently contribute richly to our Culture of Learning. But in this case, advanced robotics. There is plenty nation as faculty members, entre- my use of the word “harnessing” of great and important R&D to be preneurs, and business leaders. But shortchanges the concept of brain done in these fields, but the over- “drain,” of course has a negative integration because the players and all picture, and especially the issue connotation because to some extent communities themselves develop of jobs, is much broader than just America’s gain was a loss to these the culture of learning; it is not a advances in these individual tech- individuals’ home countries. new way of doing traditional teach- nologies. Today, especially for young peo- ing and learning. Things are stirring. Our commit- ple, we are more in an age of brain Finally I should note that devel- tee observed that, “While overall circulation, with students, entre- oping such new ways of working US manufacturing employment has preneurs, and corporate person- and problem solving is the object decreased by 5 million jobs since nel living and working in multiple of intense research at places such as 1980, manufacturing employment countries during their careers. the MIT Center for Collective Intel- requiring at least a college degree But I believe we are rapidly enter- ligence, which is devoted to answer- has increased by approximately 1 ing the age of brain integration. By ing a core research question: How million jobs.” That should make us this I mean integrating people’s can people and computers be connected sit up and pay attention. minds with each others’ and with so that—collectively—they act more The framework we are working computers. Here is a simple example intelligently than any person, group, or toward is centered on making value. of what I mean: computer has ever done before? By this, we imply that it is not just Think about the game of chess. Now let me turn briefly to the about making things, nor is it just A well-programmed computer can manufacturing sector. Our nation is about creating services. It certainly consistently defeat a human chess perplexed about the future of manu- is not just about making money in opponent. This was most famously facturing in the US and about what ways that add little value to custom- demonstrated several years ago manufacturing jobs have changed or ers or society, and it is not just about when IBM’s Deep Blue defeated will change. Too frequently, discus- making anything confined solely to Gary Kasparov. But it turns out that sions about manufacturing revolve US geographic boundaries. a team of humans and a computer around a nostalgic view that the old In our developing framework, can be expected to beat any other jobs may return. In fact, we need to making value requires an integrat- human or any computer. understand what the new jobs will ed system of activities—including One of the most exciting exam- be and how to prepare young people understanding customers, research, ples of brain integration is by the for them. development, design, manufactur- website Foldit. Foldit is basically a During the last several months, ing, and services—necessary to computer game developed by faculty the NAE, with the guidance of an deliver value to customers. Making at the University of Washington. It informal advisory committee head- value requires a holistic system of not only chains together many per- ed by the visionary former General these activities that must be devel- sonal computers around the world, Motors executive Larry Burns, has oped and optimized in the national it also chains together many minds, helped us begin developing a new interest. because the thousands of people framework for thinking about the If all of this sounds suspiciously playing this game are in fact coop- nexus of manufacturing, design, like gobbledygook, just stop and erating to solve complex protein- and innovation. We have held one think about what the iPhone and its folding problems. Although, to the major workshop of leaders from busi- progeny have done. For sure, they individual players, this is a new way ness, academia, and government, integrated innovation, design, and of playing, in fact it is a new, coop- and are developing a fast-track set of manufacturing. But they also created The 68 BRIDGE an entire new industrial ecosystem, you an example of why I worry. “Don’t you know that we have especially the “app” industry. For A few years ago, I visited a sprawl- been fighting wars in the Middle sure, they made money—but they ing facility of one of our largest East?” also created opportunity for base- companies. It had invested huge “How can we summon bold vision ment software developers, provided amounts of money and engineer- and leadership in such a time?” new platforms for business and for ing in several forms of alternate or Here is a thought: 150 years ago, education, and either harnessed or renewable energy production— in the midst of the utter devasta- unleashed creativity and innovation wind, solar, biomass, and the like. tion of the American Civil War, our all over the world. They created and These had been carried to the large- leaders conceived and passed the enabled a new ecosystem of people scale demonstration level. Morrill Act. The Morrill Act estab- and activities. We believe this gen- But the machines were just sit- lished our great system of land-grant eral framework of making value will ting there. When I asked what their universities to invest in the educa- extend far beyond the IT device plans were for bringing these huge tion of young people from all social industry. devices to market, the answer was strata. I would guess that most of us I hope that in the coming months “We have no plans for commercial- in this room were educated in land- our NAE work will meet three basic ization. Our investment is ending grant universities. objectives: because the government has set no And 150 years ago, in the midst energy policy and they have set no of the utter devastation of the 1. Analyze existing best practices carbon policy. Until that happens, American Civil War, our leaders in holistic enterprises that make we have no idea what the markets conceived and created the National value; will be.” Academy of Sciences because they 2. Learn all we can about the like- Government is not going to do understood that “science and art” ly ecosystem that will support the things that are required for us were fundamental to the develop- future work, including the skills, to have a vibrant economy, health, ment and expansion of our nation. education, infrastructure, and security, and quality of life. Until or unless such bold vision government policies to enable Business is not going to address comes again, we must unleash our and support new work; and the things that are required for us innovation system as best we can. to have a vibrant economy, health, This is a nonlinear, loosely orga- 3. Determine the necessary and security, and quality of life. nized system that is still the best in sufficient conditions to make Academia is not going to address the world. the United States the ideal the things that are required for us And we need to be at the fore- place to make value. to have a vibrant economy, health, front of other emerging models of Waiting for National Strategy security, and quality of life. innovation: inducement prizes; The fact is that we have to have new, reorganized universities; vir- I worry a lot about the seeming all hands on deck. Each of these tual communities.… inability of the nation to set strate- sectors must play its proper role and But we must remember that it all gy, in the broad sense of establishing forge an alliance to meet today’s begins with education. and sustaining “rules of the road.” challenges. And something big is about to In fact, in the dark recesses of the What we are missing is bold happen in education. We will explore night, I sometimes become afraid vision and leadership. this tomorrow in our Forum on the that this could be an Achilles’ heel “Well,” you might ask, “don’t you Future of Engineering Education. of democracy itself. I know that this know that we have a big financial Thank you. is overly pessimistic, but let me give problem?” WINTER 2012 69

2012 Founders Award Acceptance Remarks by Nicholas A. Peppas

environment was fertile and eventually chemistry prevailed. Upon taking national examinations, as was the norm, I entered the Chemi- cal Engineering Department of the National Technical University of Athens, at that time the most prestigious department in Greece. As students at NTU in the middle and late sixties in Athens, we were all fascinated by novel mathematical techniques, advanced transport phenomena, and chemical reaction engineering, courses taught by a Left to right, NAE chairman Charles O. Holliday Jr., Founders Award recipient Nicholas A. Peppas, NAE President Charles M. Vest, and Matthew O’Donnell, 2012 NAE Awards Committee chair. group of young faculty members who had arrived from the United States. It is a great honor for me to receive Rousopoulos, a teacher of French When the time came for me to the Founders Award of the National literature. I was brought up in a lov- continue my studies toward a PhD Academy of Engineering today. The ing home in the suburbs of Athens degree, I had the fortitude—audacity Founders Award is not only recogni- and in the early days I was taught to would be a more appropriate word— tion of an individual’s achievements read and admire the classics. Classics to deviate from the mathematical but also an acknowledgement of the in our household did not mean only norm and study biomedicine, some- hard work and contributions of all a love for Greek and Latin history thing that was unheard of in Europe- the collaborators who contributed and literature, but also an apprecia- an engineering circles at that time. to this work. I am touched by the tion for European traditions and the So, I arrived in Cambridge, MA, in generosity of the Academy and work of German, French, British, August 1971 and I was enrolled in its Awards Committee and I am Italian, and Russian authors. A lov- chemical engineering at MIT. At humbled to be included among ing circle of relatives had a major MIT, we all had the great fortune to the giants of engineering who have influence on me and I was sure I be students of this great pioneer of received this award before. wanted to study archaeology like biomedical engineering, one of the My contributions over the past my great-grandfather Athanassios fathers of the field, Edward Wilson 42 years have been in the fields of Rousopoulos, who was a professor Merrill. Ed instilled in all of us the biomaterials science, polymer sci- of archaeology at the University of idea that the principles of engineer- ence, drug delivery, and biomedical Athens. But I also loved chemistry ing and physiology could be applied engineering. But when I arrived in and I had inherited all the books of to the solution of important medical the United States, in Boston, on a my grandfather Peter Rousopoulos, problems. Those were the days when hot and humid late afternoon of July a chemistry professor at the Com- medical scientists from the Harvard 1971, I could not imagine what a mercial Academy of Athens, who Medical School and the main hos- turn my life would take. Indeed, my did his doctorate at the University pitals of Boston would cross the aspirations in the early years were of Göttingen under the supervision Charles River to collaborate with quite different. of Otto Wallach, a 1910 Nobel lau- MIT professors on medical problems I was born in Athens, Greece, reate in chemistry. requiring modeling, rheology, new in August 1948. My father, Atha- History, archaeology, and Italian materials, and innovative technical nassios Peppas, was an economist opera kept me busy as I was growing solutions. I was fortunate to be in and playwright, my mother, Alice up in the sixties. But the educational the same class and laboratories with The 70 BRIDGE other ambitious young men, notably ed by Ed Merrill to MIT and was I must admit with pride I continue Bob Langer of MIT, who became a Visiting Professor in ChE at the having. (Acceptance of biomedi- a giant in the biomedical field and time we were all doing our PhDs. cine into the chemical engineering preceded me as an NAE Founders You can imagine the impact he had field was equally questionable with Award recipient in 2010; Michael on our thinking about biopolymers other researchers making state- Sefton, now of the University of and cross-linked structures. A year ments such as “this is not chemical Toronto and member of the Royal later I had the opportunity to work engineering.”) Society; and even a young under- as a postdoctoral fellow at the Arte- But by 1978 we had started graduate chemist, David Tirrell, riosclerosis Center of MIT under addressing important new areas of who was helping us in the lab and the direction of Clark Colton and drug targeting, drug delivery, par- is now a distinguished member of all Ken Smith, another NAE member. enteral and oral delivery, mucosal three Academies. They both taught me to appreciate targeting, cell transport, and so on. Those were truly wonderful days engineering and science but also to My students and I became passionate for biomedical education. Along strive for advanced modeling and about providing solutions to signifi- with many friends, we embarked biological understanding. cant medical problems. We believed upon the study of biomedical engi- Soon thereafter, I joined the that the treatment of diabetes, osteo- neering, biomaterials science, and faculty of chemical engineering at porosis, asthma, cardiac problems, allied fields, with the enthusiasm Purdue University. As I was starting and cancer should not be based only and dedication that only the young my independent career there in July on conventional pharmaceutical for- innocent generation of the early 1976 I realized how “open” the bio- mulations. Indeed, I believe that a seventies could exhibit. We worked medical engineering field was to new key problem of biology and medicine on the development of new non- ideas. I recall a summer meeting in this century has been to reduce the thrombogenic biomaterials for arti- Boston when Bob Langer and I met problems of disease to problems of ficial organs, valves for artificial at a delicatessen in Boylston Street molecular science. Many of the asso- hearts, new membranes for artificial and over a long dinner we decided ciated methodological advances in kidneys, contact lenses, and pros- that we could “save the world” with biomedical sciences are the result of theses, but also on a fundamental novel biomaterials and drug delivery earlier investments in the basic sci- understanding of the causes of dis- systems. We decided to work on the ences. I believe that breakthroughs eases from thrombosis to arterio- solution of important biomedical in molecular science have led to new sclerosis. These were the wonderful and pharmaceutical problems. So in opportunities for curing disease. In days when NIH funding was plenti- my laboratories at Purdue Univer- the last few years, Phil Sharp of MIT ful. I will always be grateful to this sity I started working on hydrogels has been promoting the idea of “con- country for allowing a young engi- as biomaterials, first for artificial vergence in biomedical sciences.” Of neer like me to delve into impor- vocal cords, then for articular carti- course, this is a paramount idea in tant medical problems and make an lage replacement, followed by work bioengineering and has been a stan- impact in the field. on contact and intraocular lenses, dard in my laboratory in the last 30 At MIT I had the opportunity to nonthrombogenic biomaterials, and years and especially at the University meet many giants of the field. Sev- new artificial kidney membranes. of Texas at Austin. These interac- eral made an impact on me, such These were also the early days of tions have led to collaborations with as the late Robert Reid and Elias drug delivery, a subject we started biologists, pharmacists, and practic- Gyftopoulos, both NAE members, pursuing in 1977. In the beginning ing physicians. who taught us to be responsible there were some obstacles but fund- I was fortunate to have had some scientists and engineers. The leg- ing came early, first with Research great doctoral students in all my endary Warren K. “Doc” Lewis at Corporation and NSF grants in years at Purdue and the Univer- the age of 91 taught us a short IAP 1977, and a PETC grant on three- sity of Texas at Austin—close to course on anemometry in January dimensional cross-linked structures 100 PhDs, 42 of them now pro- 1973, the same year he received the in 1978. NIH funding was not easy fessors in academia. Two of them NAE Founders Award. Paul Flory for engineers, but by 1981 I had were particularly instrumental in (Nobel Prize 1974) had been invit- secured my first R01 grant, one that biomedical research in those days WINTER 2012 71

and they are both here today, as Calcitonin may be directed to bypass lyte concentration. The pioneer in they were inducted to the National the stomach and be delivered only in this work was Lisa Brannon-Peppas, Academy of Engineering as new the upper small intestine of women with whom we developed not only members about an hour ago. Dr. suffering from osteoporosis, from some of the early pH-sensitive Richard Korsmeyer, a senior fel- which it will be absorbed and pass hydrogels but also the associated low of Pfizer and internationally into the blood. Finally, large molec- theories for swelling behavior and known leader in development of ular–weight, genetically engineered diffusion through ionic networks. I new pharmaceutical formulations, molecules can be delivered across thank her for being a wonderful and was a PhD student in my laboratory tissues at acceptable rates. For exam- highly innovative scientist—and with whom we applied transport ple, we have exciting new results on also for being a great partner in life. theory to understand drug transport oral delivery of interferon beta-1a for As I close I want to say that for in controlled release systems and in treatment of multiple sclerosis. me this NAE Founders Award is tissues. Those pioneering studies of These biomedical developments not the end of a career. I was for- 1979–1982 have led to an equation and inventions use intelligent, tunate enough to have wonderful and a theory (the Korsmeyer-Peppas hydrophilic, biomedical polymers, colleagues, great collaborators, and theory) that is now the basis for the often hydrogels or networks, as carri- brilliant, innovative graduate stu- design of new drug delivery system. ers. The structure of these materials dents and postdoctoral fellows who The other newly inducted NAE plays a key role in their diffusional shared my vision to do research member is Antonios Mikos of Rice behavior and the molecular stability based on the principles of my field University, with whom we studied of the incorporated bioactive agents. but also with an immediate appli- targeting to specific sites and devel- In my scientific career we have also cation and a concern for patients. oped advanced theories of bioadhe- advanced fundamental aspects of I am glad the medical and pharma- sion in tissues. Dr. Mikos went on materials science and polymer gel ceutical industry used these ideas for to become one of the brilliant engi- theory. Some of the major develop- important medical products. I share neers and scientists in tissue engi- ments in the field of rapid photopo- the feelings of my friend and 2010 neering and regenerative medicine. lymerizations came from the PhD NAE Founders Award recipient Bob My career in the 1980s, 1990s, work of my former students Alec Langer that “by the end of the next and especially this past decade at Scranton, now Dean of Engineering century disease as we know it today the University of Texas at Austin at the University of Iowa, and Chris- will no longer pose a major threat has allowed me to design, study, topher Bowman, Head of Chemical to human life and that highly effec- and utilize advanced biomaterials Engineering at the University of tive methods to diagnose disease, and advanced drug delivery formu- Colorado. Dr. Bowman and I had prolong life, and relieve suffering lations. These formulations do not the fortune to meet and work with will have been created.” I believe simply release the drug, peptide, or a brilliant young student at different that the convergence in biomedi- protein at some characteristic rate stages of her career: Kristi Anseth, a cal sciences, chemistry, biology, and but do so in a way that we design member of both the NAE and IOM, engineering will allow us to under- them to do. [Thus] pulsatile swelling/ has become a major contributor to stand how diseases and genetic deswelling of polymer carriers and the field of biomaterials and tissue defects occur; develop new chemi- the associated drug delivery are con- engineering. She was the nominator cals, biomaterials, and drugs to treat sequences of significant changes of for the NAE Founders Award that these diseases; engineer delivery the physiological environment. For I am receiving today and I want to systems that will target drugs and example, in collaboration with my thank her for her support and col- genes to the correct tissues, cells, former PhD student Anthony Low- laboration over the years. or cell components; noninvasively man, now Vice Provost at Temple Among other hydrogel-based for- diagnose diseases; and create new University, we have developed new mulations, we have also studied new replacement tissues and organs. systems with which insulin may be polymers that can respond to chang- I thank you for this great honor delivered to diabetic patients only es of the physiological environment, you are bestowing to me today and I when the glucose concentration in especially changes of the pH, tem- am grateful to all those who helped the blood is above the normal level. perature, ionic strength, and ana- me pursue and achieve a dream. The 72 BRIDGE

Tilting at the Windmills of Public Policy: Some Lessons Learned from an Engineering Perspective 2012 Arthur M. Bueche Award Acceptance Remarks by James J. Duderstadt

and dozens of various studies, com- missions, boards, and the like over the years, some successful, some frustrating, but all quite interesting. Perhaps of most importance to the National Academy of Engineering was my role in chairing the nomination committee that persuaded Chuck Vest to become your president! Most recently, I have enjoyed reporting to Chad Holliday in his role as chair of the National Acade- mies committee on the future of the American research university. Charles O. Holliday Jr., Bueche Award recipient James J. Duderstadt, Charles M. Vest, and Matthew O’Donnell. So, what are the lessons learned from almost a half-century of these The 2012 Arthur M. Bueche Award I would offer a few observations on experiences as an engineer ventur- was presented to James J. Duderstadt, this occasion. ing into the thicket of public policy? President Emeritus and University First, a bit of personal background. Some of these lessons are obvious; Professor of Science and Engineering, As a nuclear engineer, I have spent others are worrisome: University of Michigan, for “leadership almost 50 years in the nuclear power • Lesson 1: There are two flavors of in academe and national service policy wars, usually losing more bat- S&T policy. The first involves sci- to support innovative science and tles than winning them, although ence and technology for policy—that technology policies.” the war is still not lost. As a faculty is, how science and technology member, dean, provost, and presi- It is indeed an honor to receive are used to develop public poli- dent of a major research university, the 2012 Arthur M. Bueche Award cies in a broad array of domains there have also been many battles of the National Academy of Engi- such as national security, public concerning higher education poli- neering for “leadership in academe health, economic competitive- cy. Fortunately, most of these have and national service to support ness, and environmental sustain- been won—except for my total fail- innovative science and technol- ability. The second involves policy ure in making a dent in the rampant ogy policies,” particularly since I for science and technology—how commercialization of big-time col- have long regarded the National policies are developed to promote lege sports! Academies as setting the gold stan- beneficial scientific and techno- My activities in federal policy dard for expertise, integrity, and logical development at the inter- have been more of a mixed bag— impact in science and technology national, national, state, and local over a decade on the National Sci- policy. In fact, much of my own levels, such as the allocation of ence Board (including as chair); the policy education and experience research funding and the regula- NRC Committee on Science, Tech- have been shaped by leaders of the tion of research and technology nology, and Public Policy; the NAE National Academy complex. It is development. Executive Council (two terms); in this spirit of “lessons learned” currently chairing the Policy and • Lesson 2: There are two groups from years of tilting at the wind- Global Affairs Division of the NRC; of participants involved in S&T mills of public policy that I thought WINTER 2012 73

policy: The scientists and engi- are different from scientists! Of a very real sense, we are continuing neers serving on key advisory course, they are quite different to educate 21st century engineers and executive committees who in perspective, in the sense that using a 20th century curriculum in understand science and technol- while scientists are focused on 19th century institutions. ogy but not always the policy understanding nature and the way It has long been apparent that process, and the elected officials, things are, engineers are involved the education for practice in knowl- staff, and academics who under- in manipulating nature to create edge-intensive professions needs to stand well the policy process but things that have never been. The be broadened considerably if stu- less so the scientific context for more pragmatic approach engi- dents are to have the opportunity to their actions. Here, part of the neers take to policy issues can be adapt to the rapidly changing needs problem is the wide gap that usu- very valuable, since they tend to of a global society. Essentially all ally exists between “those who avoid endless debates and instead other learned professions (e.g., law, know what to do but not how demand action. medicine, business, architecture) to get it done” and “those who long ago moved in this direction, But there is also one significant know how to get things done but requiring a broad liberal arts bac- weakness that engineers sometimes not what to do”! calaureate education as a prereq- bring to the table in policy discus- uisite for professional education at • Lesson 3: There are many dif- sions that arises as a consequence of the graduate level. Yet engineering ferent approaches to both the our current approach to engineering educators and employers continue substance and the objectives of education. to resist most efforts to elevate engi- science and technology policy Ironically, although engineer- neering education to the postgradu- activities. While those of us ing is one of the professions most ate practice-based programs that from technical backgrounds are responsible for and responsive to characterize other learned profes- most comfortable with scientific the profound changes in our society sions. In fact, looking through the evidence and reasoning, policy driven by rapidly evolving technol- University of Michigan catalogue, discussions also involve other ogy, its characteristics in practice, I find that the only two remaining belief systems such as political research, and education have been professional degrees still taught at pragmatism, faith-based belief, remarkably constant—some might the undergraduate level are engi- public misunderstanding, and even suggest stagnant—relative to neering and dental hygiene! occasionally more sinister agen- other professions. The current para- Ironically, most engineering edu- das designed to thwart and con- digm for engineering education—an cation occurs in comprehensive uni- fuse more rational policy efforts. undergraduate degree in a particular versities spanning a broad range of engineering discipline, occasionally • Lesson 4: Largely because of academic disciplines and professions augmented with workplace training the cacophony of backgrounds, characterized by unusually broad through internships or co-op expe- beliefs, and agendas of those learning communities of students riences—seems increasingly suspect involved in policy activities, and faculties. Hence, we certainly in an era in which the shelf life of there is an unpredictable, indeed have the opportunity to augment taught knowledge has declined to a a mysterious character to policy engineering education with the few years and the challenges faced development that requires great exposure to the humanities, arts, by engineers continue to grow in patience, an ability to listen care- and social sciences that are abso- complexity and diversity. To be sure, fully, an openness to not only lutely essential to building both the the engineering curriculum has add- other points of view but quite creative skills and cultural aware- ed more scientific content as well as different thought and value sys- ness necessary to relate to a globally emphasis on engineering activities tems, and a tolerance for frequent integrated society. By embracing such as design and systems integra- failure if one is to make progress a paradigm for engineering education, but this has been done within a in science and technology policy tion that takes full advantage of the four-year undergraduate curriculum development. comprehensive nature and unusu- increasingly overwhelmed by both ally broad intellectual span of the • Lesson 5: This brings me to my the breadth and depth of knowledge American university, we can create last lesson learned: Engineers required by professional practice. In The 74 BRIDGE a new breed of engineer, capable of the diverse and challenging envi- ability to relate to the broad inter- adding much higher value in a glob- ronment that characterizes most of ests and experiences of both gov- al, knowledge-driven economy. today’s policy issues. ernment leaders and the public The key is to reaffirm the funda- The leadership of the National they serve has reestablished engi- mental purposes of a college educa- Academy of Engineering has dem- neering as a vital national priority; tion and its foundation based on onstrated quite convincingly how and Dan Mote, whose leadership in the concept of a liberal education. influential engineers can be in higher education, engineering, and Our colleague Bill Wulf used to shaping public policy if equipped Academy matters provides strong quote Thomas Jefferson’s concept with the appropriate breadth of confidence in the future of this of a college education: “To develop experience, interests, and under- important institution. the reasoning faculties of our youth, standing necessary to relate to the Once again, let me express my enlarge their minds, cultivate their great diversity of viewpoints and deep gratitude for being honored morals, and instill in them the pre- experiences of others involved in with the 2012 Arthur Bueche cepts of virtue and order.” Note policy development. I have had the Award. Let me also convey my great how appropriate this view of the privilege of working closely with respect for and confidence in the purpose of liberal education seems three such leaders: Bill Wulf, whose unique role that the National Acad- today as preparation for the profes- skill and determination united the emy of Engineering will continue to sion of engineering. Such breadth membership of the National Acad- play in addressing the challenges would also produce engineers more emy in a common vision for the faced by our nation. capable of shaping public policies in future; Chuck Vest, whose great

Charles M. Vest President’s Opportunity Fund

actions to secure American com- with the US Institute of Peace; petitiveness and leadership in the and established a unique, forward- world economy and fostered global looking initiative on US manufac- collaboration to address 21st cen- turing, design, and innovation. In tury engineering grand challenges. addition, both before and during his During his tenure NAE initiated presidency, Dr. Vest was an active Frontiers of Engineering Education, proponent of two important Acad- a program aimed at building col- emies reports—America’s Energy laboration and innovation in engi- Future and Rising Above the Gather- neering education; conducted the ing Storm. He served on the com- definitive technical analysis of the mittee that produced the latter, and Macondo Well–Deepwater Hori- also cochaired the cross-disciplinary Charles M. Vest zon explosion and oil spill and committee that produced the report In June of 2013, Dr. Charles M. developed recommendations to Protecting Individual Privacy in the Vest will complete his term as NAE improve the safety of offshore drill- Struggle Against Terrorists: A Frame- president. To honor his service, and ing; announced and promoted the work for Program Assessment. to build a stronger and more proac- Grand Challenges for Engineering The new President’s Opportu- tive NAE, members and friends are as a way to engage young people in nity Fund being established in Dr. establishing the Charles M. Vest engineering; initiated steps, with Vest’s name will support explorato- President’s Opportunity Fund, Dr. Vest as committee cochair, to ry studies and seed new initiatives, with a goal of raising $10 million by implement Changing the Conver- as directed by future NAE presi- June 30, 2013. sation, an effort to change the way dents, and will thus empower NAE Elected in 2007 as the 10th presi- people perceive and talk about engi- to be proactive in identifying and dent of the National Academy of neering; initiated a joint roundtable leading initiatives to benefit the Engineering, Dr. Vest has promoted on technology and peacebuilding nation and profession. NAE cannot WINTER 2012 75

afford to lose precious momentum, honor Dr. Vest and ensure a strong dent’s Opportunity Fund will also or simply be late to the table, NAE. To learn more about how you help NAE celebrate its 50th Anni- because of the time required—as can help, or to make a gift to the versary in 2014 and meet our fund much as two or three years—to President’s Opportunity Fund, con- raising goals to ensure that NAE secure project funding. tact Radka Nebesky, NAE’s Director is positioned for future success. To To meet the ambitious $10 mil- of Development, at 202.334.3417 or learn more about the 50th Anni- lion goal, NAE needs help from [email protected]. versary campaign, please visit www. members and friends who want to Any gift you make to the Presi- nae.edu/50thgiving.

2012 US Frontiers of Engineering Held at GM Technical Center

event gave them an opportunity to get to know more about each other relatively early in the program. On the second afternoon, GM hosted a “Ride-n-Drive” event where attend- ees could drive or ride in advanced vehicles such as the plug-in hybrid Volt and concept cars such as the two-seat EN-V that can operate autonomously. This was followed by dinner at the GM Heritage Center, where some 200 vehicles from GM’s Heritage Collection are on display. NAE member Alan I. Taub, professor of materials science US FOE participants take rides in the urban electric concept car, EN-V. (Photo courtesy of GM.) and engineering at the University of Michigan and retired vice president On September 13–15, 100 earlier- through mechanical or natural of global R&D at GM, gave the din- career engineers attended the 2012 means; research in improved mag- ner address. US Frontiers of Engineering (US netic materials used in electric Participants at this year’s meeting FOE) symposium hosted by Gen- machine drives, including reduc- will be eligible to apply for Grainger eral Motors at the GM Techni- tion of critical materials such as rare Foundation Frontiers of Engineer- cal Center in Warren, Michigan. earth elements; the use of serious ing Grants that were initiated last NAE member Kristi S. Anseth, games such as Foldit to advance sci- year. These grants provide seed Distinguished Professor and HHMI ence; and identification and modu- funding for US FOE participants Investigator, Department of Chem- lation of biophysical signals that who are at US-based institutions ical and Biological Engineering, control stem cell function and fate. and enable the pursuit of important University of Colorado Boulder, In addition to the seven papers fea- new interdisciplinary research and chaired the organizing committee tured in this issue, a book with all projects stimulated by the US FOE and the symposium. of the featured presentations will be symposia. The presentation topics this year published in early 2013. Dr. Anseth will continue as chair were climate engineering, vehicle On the first afternoon of the for the 2013 US FOE, which will be electrification, serious games, and meeting, participants gathered in hosted by DuPont in Wilmington, engineered materials for the bio- small groups for “get-acquainted” Delaware, September 19–21. The logical interface. Talks in these sessions where they presented and 2013 topics are social media, flex- areas described the removal of car- answered questions about their ible electronics, renewable energy, bon dioxide from the atmosphere research or technical work. This and smart manufacturing. The 76 BRIDGE

Funding for the 2012 US Fron- bilateral programs with Germany, own, an opportunity that is increas- tiers of Engineering symposium Japan, India, China, and the Euro- ingly important as engineering has was provided by General Motors, pean Union. A Frontiers of Science become more interdisciplinary. The The Grainger Foundation, Air and Engineering meeting with Bra- meeting also facilitates the estab- Force Office of Scientific Research, zil will be held in 2014. The meet- lishment of contacts and collabora- Department of Defense ASDR&E ings bring together outstanding tion among the next generation of Research Directorate–STEM Devel- engineers from industry, academia, engineering leaders. opment Office, National Science and government at a relatively For more information about the Foundation, Microsoft Research, early point in their careers (partici- symposium series, visit the FOE Cummins Inc., and numerous indi- pants are 30–45 years old). Fron- website at www.naefrontiers.org or vidual donors. tiers provides an opportunity for contact Janet Hunziker at the NAE NAE has been hosting an annual them to learn about developments, Program Office at (202) 334-1571 US Frontiers of Engineering sym- techniques, and approaches at the or [email protected]. posium since 1995, and also has forefront of fields other than their

NAE Welcomes Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy Fellows

Award, and the Roberto Rocca Award for Student Excellence in Engineering. Gina also received a BA in public administration in Romania and has contributed to a number of projects related to Romanian higher education and research policy. These experiences sparked her interest in the intersection of education, jobs, and policy. More particularly, she is interested in reforms of engineering Gina Adam Ryan Shelby education in cultural contexts, the GINA ADAM is a Mirzayan S&T ship at the University of California, transfer of engineering education policy fellow at NAE, where she is Santa Barbara, with the financial research findings into classrooms, working with Dr. Katie Whitefoot support of the International Ful- and academia-industry partnerships to develop a new approach for ana- bright Science and Technology to improve education. Gina can be lyzing national statistics data about Award. Her PhD research is related contacted at adam.gina.cristina@ manufacturing and related sectors. to neuromorphic hybrid circuits, gmail.com. In her spare time at NAE, Gina which could provide computer wrote four articles on career plan- chips capable of ultrafast process- RYAN SHELBY is working on the ning for the EngineerGirl! website ing of information and advanced development of policy briefs related and volunteered for the JobSquad. machine learning. to the application of operational Through the Mirzayan Fellowship, A native of Romania, Gina system engineering techniques for she gained a hands-on understand- received her BS in applied electron- peacebuilding endeavors in Libya, ing of US policymaking and con- ics from Politehnica University of Kenya, and Haiti. Additional focus nected with professionals around Bucharest. She has received several areas of his fellowship include a pre- Washington. international awards: the General liminary review related to the align- Gina is pursuing a PhD in elec- Electric Foundation Scholar-Lead- ment of US-based undergraduate trical and computer engineering ers Award, NanoInitiative Munich and graduate programs with the rec- and an MA in educational leader- International Student Research ommendations in the NAE reports WINTER 2012 77

The Engineer of 2020 and Educating engineering, policy, and society. American nations such as the the Engineer of 2020. The main outcome is a method- Pinoleville Pomo Nation of Ukiah, Ryan received his MS in ological framework that allows California. mechanical engineering from the engineers and members of Native Ryan’s research interests include University of California, Berkeley, American nations to create a shared sustainability, engineering educa- in 2008 and his BS in mechanical understanding of the social perfor- tion, renewable energy, energy sci- engineering from Alabama Agricul- mance metrics in sustainability sys- ence policy, public engagement tural and Mechanical University in tems associated with the codesign with engineering, design theory, 2006. His PhD in mechanical engi- and implementation of housing and indigenous knowledge, coproduc- neering from the University of Cal- renewable energy systems that meet tion of knowledge, and user needs ifornia, Berkeley, will be completed the cultural sovereignty, economic, assessment. in January 2013. His dissertation environmental, and tribal sover- To learn more about Ryan Shelby, research lies at the intersection of eignty needs and goals of Native please visit www.ryanlshelby.com.

Calendar of Meetings and Events

December 28, 2012– Election of new NAE February 6–7 NAE Council Meeting March 28 NAE Regional Meeting January 30, 2013 Members and Foreign Irvine, California Georgia Institute of Associates February 7 NAE National Meeting Technology, Atlanta January 2–April 1 Call for nominations for Irvine, California April 4 NAE Regional Meeting the 2014 Draper and February 17–23 National Engineers Week Carnegie Mellon University, Gordon Prizes and the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania February 19 NAE Awards Forum and 2013 Founders and April 7–13 National Institute for Bueche Awards Award Dinner/Ceremony (by invitation only) Energy Ethics and Society January 15 Deadline for submission of Arizona State University, petition candidates for NAE March 1 Deadline for submission Phoenix Officers and Councillors to the EngineerGirl essay contest “Engineering: April 22 NAE Convocation of the January 29–30 Climate Change and Essential to our Health” Professional Engineering America’s Infrastructure: (EngineerGirl.org) Societies Engineering, Social, and April 26–28 German-American Frontiers Policy Challenges March 1–31 Election of NAE Officers and Councillors of Engineering Arizona State University, Irvine, California Phoenix March 5 NAE Regional Meeting Palo Alto, California April 29 NAE Regional Meeting January 31– Membership Policy University of Minnesota, February 1 Committee Meeting March 11–13 Grand Global Challenges Minneapolis Irvine, California Summit London, England All meetings are held in National Academies facilities in Washington, DC, unless otherwise noted. The 78 BRIDGE

In Memoriam

NEIL A. ARMSTRONG, 82, RICHARD C. CHU, 79, IBM DAVID M. LEDERMAN, 68, Chairman of the Board Emeritus, Fellow Emeritus, International managing director, Analytical LLC, EDO Corporation, died on August Business Machines Corporation, died on August 8, 2012. Dr. Leder- 25, 2012. Mr. Armstrong was elected died on September 8, 2012. Mr. man was elected to NAE in 2002 for to NAE in 1978 for “contributions Chu was elected to NAE in 1987 “designing, developing, and com- to aerospace engineering, scientific for “pathfinding contributions and mercializing heart failure assist and knowledge, and exploration of the creative technical leadership in the heart replacement devices, and for universe as an experimental test development of cooling technology leadership in engineering science pilot and astronaut.” and thermal systems for electronic education.” equipment.” JACK E. CERMAK, 89, co-found- LAWRENCE M. MEAD JR., 94, er and retired president of Cermak BENSON J. LAMP, 86, president, retired senior vice president, Grum- Peterka Petersen, died on August BJM Company Inc., died Septem- man Corporation, died on August 21, 2012. Dr. Cermak was elected to ber 14, 2012. Dr. Lamp was elected 23, 2012. Mr. Mead was elected to NAE in 1973 for “development of to NAE in 1998 for “research and NAE in 1988 for “outstanding tech- experimental facilities and research development of harvesting machin- nical accomplishment and leader- contributions concerning wind forc- ery and commercialization of agri- ship in the design and development es on structures.” cultural equipment worldwide.” of naval aircraft.” WINTER 2012 79

Publications of Interest

The following reports have been specialty in the United States. On that can facilitate student success published recently by the National June 11–12, 2012, the National in STEM; efforts to expand partici- Academy of Engineering or the Academy of Engineering hosted a pation of students from historically National Research Council. Unless workshop to discuss the new world underrepresented populations in otherwise noted, all publications are of manufacturing and how to posi- undergraduate STEM education; for sale (prepaid) from the National tion the United States to thrive in and the impacts of certain subjects, Academies Press (NAP), 500 Fifth it, with a focus not just on making such as mathematics, as gateways or Street NW, Keck 360, Washington, things but on making value, the qual- barriers to college completion. DC 20001. For more information ity that will underlie high-paying NAE member Karl S. Pister, or to place an order, contact NAP jobs in America’s future. This report chancellor emeritus, University of online at www.nap.edu or by phone summarizes the workshop and the California, Santa Cruz, and Dean at (888) 624-8373. (Note: Prices topics discussed. & Roy W. Carlson Professor of quoted are subject to change without NAE members on the workshop Engineering, Emeritus, Department notice. Online orders receive a 20 per- steering committee were Lawrence of Civil and Environmental Engi- cent discount. Please add $4.50 for D. Burns (chair), professor of neering, University of California, shipping and handling for the first book engineering practice, University of Berkeley, was a member of the study and $0.95 for each additional book. Michigan; Nicholas M. Donofrio, committee. Paper, $41.00. Add applicable sales tax or GST if you IBM fellow emeritus and retired live in CA, DC, FL, MD, MO, TX, executive vice president, Innova- Blueprint for the Future: Framing the or Canada.) tion and Technology, IBM Corpora- Issues of Women in Science in a Global tion; and Jonathan J. Rubinstein, Context—Summary of a Workshop. Making Value: Integrating Manufactur- former executive chairman and Given the growing worldwide con- ing, Design, and Innovation to Thrive in CEO, Palm Inc. Paper, $28.00. nectivity of scientific disciplines, the Changing Global Economy. Manu- it is important to recognize the facturing is in a period of dramatic Community Colleges in the Evolving impacts of social, political, and transformation. But in the United STEM Education Landscape: Summary economic mechanisms on women’s States, public and political dia- of a Summit. This report, based on a participation in the global scien- logue focuses almost entirely on the national summit supported by the tific enterprise. Although sociocul- movement of some manufacturing National Science Foundation and tural factors vary among countries jobs overseas to low-wage countries. organized by the National Research and regions, studies within and Yet there has been a recent uptick in Council and National Academy of across nations consistently show US manufacturing employment and Engineering, highlights the impor- inverse correlations between lev- output, and manufacturing is chang- tance of community colleges, espe- els in the scientific and technical ing in ways that may favor Ameri- cially in emerging areas of STEM career hierarchy and the number can ingenuity. Rapid advances in (science, technology, engineering, of women: the higher the positions, biomanufacturing, robotics, smart and mathematics) and in prepara- the fewer the women. Understand- sensors, cloud-based computing, tion of the STEM workforce. Com- ing these complex patterns requires and nanotechnology put a premium munity colleges are essential in interdisciplinary and international on continual innovation and highly accommodating growing numbers approaches. In April 2011, a com- skilled workers. In addition, smaller of students and retraining displaced mittee overseen by the National runs and custom-designed products workers in skills needed in the new Academies’ standing Committee on favor agile and adaptable workplac- economy. Community Colleges in the Women in Science, Engineering, es, business models, and employ- Evolving STEM Education Landscape and Medicine (CWSEM) convened ees, all of which have become a focuses on partnerships and processes a workshop entitled “Blueprint The 80 BRIDGE for the Future: Framing the Issues in partnership with the National among these areas are not rigid of Women in Science in a Global Academy of Engineering in June and that there is some overlap Context” in Washington, DC. The 2009, after which a UIUC research among them). Based on its assess- workshop focused on women’s par- team conducted a survey-based ment, the panel formed the obser- ticipation in chemistry, computer assessment of the issues identified vations and recommendations science, mathematics, and statistics. at the workshop. This monograph detailed in this report. Presenters were scholars and profes- reflects the opinions of the authors NAE members on the study panel sionals active in documenting, ana- based on the UIUC team’s survey were Kanti Jain (chair), professor, lyzing, and interpreting the status of analysis and learning from the work- Department of Electrical and Com- women in selected technical fields shop discussions. puter Engineering, University of Illi- around the world. Lessons learned NAE members on the advisory nois at Urbana-Champaign; Hadi from this examination of selected committee were Nicholas M. Dono- Abu-Akeel, president, Amteng disciplines may yield insights appli- frio, IBM fellow emeritus and retired Corporation; Thomas W. Eagar, cable to other fields. executive vice president, Innovation professor of materials engineering NAE member Johanna M.H. and Technology, IBM Corporation; and engineering systems, Massa- Levelt Sengers, scientist emeritus, James J. Duderstadt, president chusetts Institute of Technology; Material Measurement Laboratory, emeritus and university professor of Barry C. Johnson, retired dean, Thermophysical Properties Divi- science and engineering, University College of Engineering, Villanova sion, National Institute of Standards of Michigan; and C.D. (Dan) Mote University; Lawrence L. Kazmer- and Technology, was a member of Jr., regents professor and Glenn L. ski, executive director, Science and the study committee. Paper, $39.00. Martin Institute Professor of Engi- Technology Partnerships, National neering, University of Maryland, Renewable Energy Laboratory; Lyle Lifelong Learning Imperative in Engi- College Park. Free PDF. H. Schwartz, senior research asso- neering: Sustaining American Com- ciate, Department of Materials Sci- petitiveness in the 21st Century. The A Review of the Manufacturing-Related ence and Engineering, University of United States is facing a crisis in Programs at the National Institute of Maryland, College Park, and retired its engineering workforce just as Standards and Technology: Fiscal Year director, Air Force Office of Scien- global competition is becoming 2012. The mission of the National tific Research; and F. Stan Settles, very intense. As the pace of tech- Institute of Standards and Tech- professor and codirector, Systems nological change accelerates, the nology (NIST) is to provide broad Architecture and Engineering Pro- United States has one of the low- support for the advancement of US gram, University of Southern Cali- est rates of graduation of bachelor- manufacturing. Research and ser- fornia. Free PDF. level engineers in the world—just vices supporting manufacturing are 4.5 percent—and in coming years intended to be an important com- From Science to Business: Preparing there will be massive retirements of ponent in all of the NIST laborato- Female Scientists and Engineers for skilled and experienced engineers. ries. The director of NIST requested Successful Transitions into Entrepre- The Lifelong Learning Imperative that the National Research Coun- neurship—Summary of a Workshop. (LLI) project brought together lead- cil (NRC) assess NIST’s manufac- Scientists, engineers, and medical ers in US industry, academia, gov- turing-related programs in 2012. professionals are vital to the 21st ernment, and professional societies The NRC review panel considered century science and technology to assess the current state of lifelong manufacturing research at NIST enterprises that will create solutions learning for engineers; examine the broadly, with emphasis on the fol- and jobs critical to solving large, need for, and nature of, lifelong lowing areas: nanomanufacturing complex, and interdisciplinary learning going forward; and explore (including biomanufacturing and problems in energy, sustainabil- the responsibilities of and potential flexible electronics); smart manu- ity, the environment, water, food, actions for primary stakeholders. A facturing (including robotics); and disease, and health care. And as a project-framing workshop was orga- next-generation materials measure- growing percentage of the scientific nized by the University of Illinois ments, modeling, and simulation and technological workforce, wom- at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) (recognizing that the boundaries en need to participate fully both in WINTER 2012 81

finding solutions to these problems L. Estrin, professor, University such as irrigation, industrial use, and and in building organizations that of California, Los Angeles; James drinking water augmentation could will create jobs and bring solutions T. Kajiya, distinguished engineer, significantly increase the nation’s to market. This report, the summary Microsoft Corporation; Prabhakar total available water resources. of an August 2009 workshop on the Raghavan, vice president of engi- Water Reuse describes treatment status of entrepreneurial women in neering, Google, Inc.; and Andrew options to mitigate water quality technical fields, makes the case that J. Viterbi, president, Viterbi Group, issues in reclaimed water. The report women need experience and train- LLC. Paper, $27.00. also presents new analysis suggesting ing to acquire the skills that will that the risk of exposure to certain enable them to move from academia Rising to the Challenge: US Innovation microbial and chemical contami- to entrepreneurship and to assume Policy for the Global Economy. Amer- nants from the consumption of leadership roles in dynamic new ica enjoyed economic vitality and reclaimed water does not appear to business enterprises. military power in the postwar era be any higher than the risk expe- NAE member Alice M. Agogino, and became the source of much rienced in some current drinking Roscoe and Elizabeth Hughes Pro- of the world’s innovation. But US water treatment systems, and may fessor of Mechanical Engineering, preeminence is no longer assured be orders of magnitude lower. This University of California, Berkeley, as the rest of the world improves its report recommends adjustments to was a member of the study commit- capacity to generate new technolo- the federal regulatory framework to tee. Paper, $32.00. gies and products, attract and grow enhance public health protection industries, and build positions in for both planned and unplanned (or Continuing Innovation in Information the high-technology industries of de facto) reuse and to increase pub- Technology. A 1995 report of the tomorrow. Rising to the Challenge: lic confidence in water reuse. National Research Council’s Com- US Innovation Policy for the Global NAE member R. Rhodes Trus- puter Science and Telecommuni- Economy describes the rapid trans- sell, president, Trussell Technolo- cations Board (CSTB), Evolving formation of the global innovation gies Inc., was chair of the study the High-Performance Computing landscape and the resulting chal- committee. Hardcover, $64.00. and Communications Initiative to lenges and opportunities for the Support the Nation’s Information United States. This report argues International Science in the National Infrastructure, included a graphic for more vigorous attention to cap- Interest at the US Geological Survey. (often called the “tire tracks” dia- turing the outputs of innovation— Science at the US Geological Sur- gram because of its appearance) commercial products, industries, vey (USGS) is intrinsically global, that linked government invest- and particularly high-quality jobs to and the USGS has a history of suc- ments in academic and industry restore full employment—to ensure cessful international projects that research to the creation of sizable America’s economic and national serve US national interests and new IT industries (i.e., with more security future. benefit the USGS domestic mis- than $1 billion in annual revenue). NAE member Mary L. Good, sion. Over the next 5–10 years The figure dispelled the assumption dean emeritus, Special Advisor to opportunities abound for the USGS that the commercially successful the Chancellor for Economic Devel- to strategically pursue international IT industry is self-sufficient. It has opment, University of Arkansas at science that bears on growing world- since been updated and is included Little Rock, and former under secre- wide problems that directly affect in Continuing Innovation in Informa- tary for technology, US Department the United States—climate and tion Technology together with brief of Commerce, was a member of the ecosystem changes, natural disas- text based in large part on the 1995 study committee. Paper, $72.00. ters, the spread of invasive species, and other prior CSTB reports. and diminishing natural resources, NAE members on the study Water Reuse: Potential for Expand- to name a few. A more coherent, committee were Mark E. Dean, ing the Nation’s Water Supply through proactive agency approach to inter- vice president, WW Strategy and Reuse of Municipal Wastewater. national science would help the Operations, IBM Thomas J. Wat- Expanding the reuse of treated USGS participate in international son Research Center; Deborah wastewater for beneficial purposes science activities more effectively. The 82 BRIDGE

NAE member Jean-Michel M. responsible for thousands of deaths Council decadal survey called for Rendu, mining consultant, Santa in Bhopal, India, in 1984. After the a renewal of the national commit- Fe, New Mexico, was a member of Institute accident, an investigation ment to a program of Earth obser- the study committee. Paper, $29.75. by the US Chemical Safety and vations, and NASA embraced the Hazard Investigation Board found survey’s recommendations for Earth Research for a Future in Space: The that flying debris could have struck observations, missions, technology Role of Life and Physical Sciences. Dur- a relief valve vent pipe and caused investments, and priorities for the ing its more than 50-year history, the release of MIC into the atmo- underlying science. As a result, the NASA’s success in human explora- sphere. The Board’s investigation science and applications communi- tion has depended on the agency’s also highlighted weaknesses in the ties have made significant progress ability to effectively address a wide Bayer facility’s emergency response over the past five years. However, range of challenges in the bio- systems. In light of these concerns, the Committee on Assessment of medical, engineering, and physi- the Board asked the National NASA’s Earth Science Program cal sciences and related areas. This Research Council to convene a found that the survey vision is being success is rooted in NASA’s strong committee to examine the use and realized at a far slower pace, for rea- and productive commitments to life storage of MIC at the facility. This sons ranging from budget shortfalls and physical sciences research for report evaluates analyses of alterna- to launch failures and delays and human space exploration as well as tive production methods for MIC substantial increases in mission its use of human space exploration and carbamate pesticides performed costs. This report recommends steps infrastructures for scientific discov- by Bayer and the previous owners of to better manage existing programs ery. Research for a Future in Space the facility. It also presents a frame- and to implement future programs, explains how unique characteristics work to help plant managers choose and highlights the urgent need for of the space environment can be alternative processing options— the Executive Branch to develop used to address complex problems considering factors such as environ- and implement an overarching in the life and physical sciences. mental impact and product yield as multiagency national strategy for This booklet also presents both new well as safety—to reduce risks asso- Earth observations from space, a knowledge and practical benefits for ciated with a chemical manufactur- 2007 recommendation that remains humankind as the agency embarks ing system. unfulfilled. on a new era of space exploration. NAE members on the study com- NAE members on the study com- NAE member Vijay K. Dhir, mittee were Elsa Reichmanis, pro- mittee were Lee-Lueng Fu, JPL dean, Henry Samueli School of fessor, Department of Chemical and fellow, Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Engineering and Applied Science, Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Dennis P. Lettenmaier, Robert and University of California, Los Ange- Institute of Technology, and Jeffrey Irene Sylvester Professor of Civil les, was a member of the study com- J. Siirola, retired technology fel- and Environmental Engineering, mittee. Paper, $1.00. low, Eastman Chemical Company. University of Washington; and Paper, $55.00. Thomas H. Vonder Haar, direc- The Use and Storage of Methyl Iso- tor emeritus, Cooperative Institute cyanate (MIC) at Bayer CropScience. Earth Science and Applications from for Research in the Atmosphere, In 2008, an explosion at the Bayer Space: A Midterm Assessment of and university distinguished profes- CropScience chemical produc- NASA’s Implementation of the Decadal sor of atmospheric science, Colo- tion plant in Institute, West Vir- Survey. Understanding human- rado State University, Fort Collins. ginia, resulted in the deaths of two induced changes in Earth’s interior Paper, $45.00. employees, a fire in the production and their implications requires a unit, and extensive damage to near- foundation of integrated observa- Challenges in Chemistry Graduate Edu- by structures. The facility manufac- tions of land, sea, air, and space on cation: A Workshop Summary. Gradu- tured and stores methyl isocyanate which to build credible information ate education in chemistry is under (MIC), a volatile, highly toxic products, forecast models, and other considerable pressure. Pharmaceuti- chemical used in the production of tools for making informed deci- cal companies, long a major employ- carbamate pesticides and the agent sions. A 2007 National Research er of synthetic organic chemists, WINTER 2012 83

are drastically paring back their the existing munition and hazardous But after the Government Account- research divisions to reduce costs. substance cleanup programs. One ability Office (GAO) raised con- Chemical companies are open- focus of this report is the current and cerns about DHS’s analysis of the ing new research and development future status of the Non-Stockpile potential spread of foot-and-mouth facilities in Asia to take advantage Chemical Material Project, which disease virus, Congress directed of growing markets and trained now plays a central role in RCWM DHS to conduct a site-specific risk workforces there. Universities face remediation. In addition, the report assessment (SSRA) for the NBAF, fiscal constraints that threaten their reviews both supporting technolo- instructed the National Research ability to hire new faculty members. gies for cleanup of CWM sites and Council to evaluate the SSRA, Future funding of chemical research organizations involved in reme- and prohibited obligation of NBAF may decrease as the federal budget diation of suspected CWM sites construction funds until the NRC tightens. The Board on Chemical to determine current practices and review was complete. Congress Sciences and Technology held a coordination. The report identifies then mandated that DHS address workshop on Graduate Education potential deficiencies in operational shortcomings of the 2010 SSRA, in Chemistry in the Context of a areas and options for research and directed the NRC to evaluate the Changing Environment, in January development to mitigate potential updated SSRA (uSSRA), and again 2012, bringing together leaders and problems. prohibited obligation of construc- future leaders of academia, industry, NAE member Edward L. Cussler tion funds until the completion of and government across the chemi- Jr., distinguished institute professor, the second review. The scope for cal enterprise. Participants discussed Department of Chemical Engineer- both SSRA reports concerned acci- critical issues affecting chemistry ing and Materials Science, Univer- dental release of pathogens from the graduate education, such as the sity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, was proposed NBAF (excluding terror- attraction and retention of stu- a member of the study committee. ist acts and malicious threats). This dents, financial stressors and their Paper, $45.00. report is the evaluation of the final implications, competencies needed uSSRA. in the changing job market for PhD Evaluation of the Updated Site-Specific NAE members on the study com- chemists, and competencies needed Risk Assessment for the National Bio- mittee were Gregory B. Baecher to address societal problems such as and Agro-Defense Facility in Manhattan, (chair), Glenn L. Martin Institute energy and sustainability. Kansas. Safeguarding US agriculture Professor of Engineering, University NAE member Charles T. Kresge, from foreign animal diseases and of Maryland, College Park; Ahsan vice president, research and devel- protecting the food system require Kareem, Robert M. Moran Professor opment, The Dow Chemical Com- cutting-edge research and diagnos- of Engineering, University of Notre pany, was a member of the study tic capabilities. The Department Dame; and Ali Mosleh, Nicole J. committee. Paper, $38.00. of Homeland Security (DHS) and Kim Professor of Engineering and the US Department of Agricul- director, Center for Risk and Reli- Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare ture (USDA) have embarked on ability, University of Maryland, Materiel. Approximately 250 sites in an important mission to replace College Park. Paper, $40.00. 40 states, the District of Columbia, the aging Plum Island Animal Dis- and 3 US territories are known or ease Center with a new National Evaluating the Effectiveness of Offshore suspected to have buried chemical Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility Safety and Environmental Management warfare materiel (CWM). Of great- (NBAF), which would serve as a Systems (Transportation Research est concern are sites in residential world reference laboratory for iden- Board Special Report 309). This report areas and large sites on legacy mili- tifying emerging and unknown recommends that the Department tary installations. The Army asked disease threats and would thus of the Interior’s Bureau of Safety the National Research Council to be a critical asset in securing the and Environmental Enforcement examine its mission for the remedia- health and security of the nation. (BSEE) take a holistic approach tion of recovered chemical warfare DHS selected Manhattan, Kansas, to evaluating the effectiveness of materiel (RCWM), which is turn- as the site for the new NBAF after offshore oil and gas industry opera- ing into a program much larger than an extensive site-selection process. tors’ Safety and Environmental The 84 BRIDGE

Management Systems (SEMS) scientific, business, programmatic, safety culture are necessary to inte- programs. According to the report, social, and policy factors as well as grate the concepts of resilience into such an approach should include public concerns. Ranking Vaccines: dam and levee safety programs. inspections, audits by the operator A Prioritization Framework describes NAE member Ross B. Corotis, and BSEE, key performance indica- a decision support model and the Denver Business Challenge Pro- tors, and a whistleblower program. blueprint of a software called Stra- fessor, Department of Civil, Envi- SEMS promotes a proactive, risk- tegic Multi-Attribute Ranking Tool ronmental and Architectural based, and goal-oriented approach for Vaccines, or SMART Vaccines. Engineering, University of Colo- to improve safety and reduce the SMART Vaccines 1.0 is expected to rado Boulder, was a member of the likelihood of recurrence of events be released at the end of the second study committee. Paper, $47.00. such as the April 2010 Macondo phase of this study as a fully opera- well blowout. According to this tional tool to guide discussions Exposure Science in the 21st Century: report, successful implementation about prioritizing the development A Vision and a Strategy. From the of SEMS requires that its tenets and introduction of new vaccines. use of personal products to con- be fully accepted and actively sup- NAE members on the study com- sumption of food, water, and air, ported throughout the organization. mittee were Paul Citron, retired people are exposed to a wide array The report also notes that BSEE can vice president, Technology Policy of agents each day—many with the encourage and aid industry in the and Academic Relations, Medtron- potential to affect health. Expo- development of a culture of safety ic Inc., and Vinod K. Sahney, sure science improves understand- by the way it measures and enforces retired senior vice president and ing of how stressors affect human SEMS. chief strategy officer, Blue Cross and and ecosystem health, contributes NAE members on the study com- Blue Shield of Massachusetts. Paper, to efforts to prevent or reduce con- mittee were Kenneth E. Arnold $54.00. tact with harmful stressors, and can (chair), senior technical advi- help inform environmental regula- sor, WorleyParsons, and Raja V. Dam and Levee Safety and Commu- tion, urban and ecosystem planning, Ramani, professor emeritus, George nity Resilience: A Vision for Future and disaster management. Recent H. Jr. and Anne B. Deike Chair in Practice. Advances in engineer- advances in tools and technolo- Mining Engineering, Pennsylvania ing can reduce but not completely gies (e.g., sensor systems, analytic State University, and independent eliminate the risk of dam and levee methods, molecular technologies, consultant. Free PDF. failures, which have impacts on computational tools, and bioinfor- social and physical infrastructure matics) have provided the potential Ranking Vaccines: A Prioritization that extend far beyond the flood for more accurate and comprehen- Framework—Phase I: Demonstration zone. Collaboration among dam sive exposure science data. This of Concept and a Software Blueprint. and levee safety professionals at all report investigates the implications As a number of diseases emerge or levels, persons and property own- of contact with chemical, physical, reemerge, stimulating new vaccine ers directly at risk, members of and biologic stressors and provides a development opportunities, deci- the wider economy, and the social roadmap to take advantage of tech- sion makers need tools that can and environmental networks in a nological innovations and strategic assist and inform their vaccine pri- community would allow all stake- collaborations to move exposure sci- oritization efforts. In this report, holders to understand risks, shared ence into the future. the Institute of Medicine offers a needs, and opportunities, and make NAE member Leroy E. Hood, framework and proof of concept more informed decisions related to president, Institute for Systems to account for various factors that dam and levee infrastructure and Biology, was a member of the study influence vaccine prioritization— community resilience. This report committee. Paper, $47.00. demographic, economic, health, explains that fundamental shifts in Providing for the future…

Smart Reasons for Including the NAE in Your Will 1. You value the mission of the NAE. You want to ensure that the NAE maintains its ability to provide expert advice to the nation in engineering and technology. 2. It’s simple to do. It can be as easy as inserting language such as “I give 10% of the net value of my estate to the National Academy of Engineering.” 3. You can change your mind. During your lifetime, you can amend anything you choose (e.g., beneficiaries, amounts, etc.). 4. There may be tax benefits. Gifts to qualified charitable organizations such as the NAE reduce the value of your estate for estate tax purposes. 5. It’s an easy way to support the NAE without affecting your current income. 6. Your gift will help the NAE celebrate 50 years of engineering leadership and service. By helping us reach our 50th Anniversary goal of 50 new planned gifts by 2014, you can help position the NAE to thrive for the next 50 years. 7. We’ll be grateful for your gift. To show our appreciation, you’ll become a member of the Heritage Society; your name will be added to the donor wall at the National Academy of Sciences building in Washington, DC; and you will be recognized in NAE publications and invited to donor appreciation events such as the Golden Bridge Society Dinner.

…and securing the future.

Members and friends of the NAE can honor their commitment to engineering and to their belief in the power of engineering to provide solutions to the world’s challenges.

For more information, please contact: Radka Nebesky at 202-334-3417 or [email protected] www.legacy.vg/engineering

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