6 X 10.5 Long Title.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-12600-7 - Lost in Transition: Youth, Work, and Instability in Postindustrial Japan Mary C. Brinton Index More information

Index

absences from school, 91–3 Basic Survey of Employment Structure , academic high schools. See general high 181 schools benefi ts, employment, 135–6 , 172 adult education, 17 births, 16 , 48 , 97 , 187 adulthood, transition to, 9–11 , 13–14 , 18 blanket recruitment, 48 , 68 advancement rates, university, 47 , 102 , blue-collar jobs, 27 , 48 , 66–8 , 134n12 , 177 176–8 age: at fi rst childbirth, 16 ; at fi rst marriage, bonus systems, 136 15–17 ; employment and, 22–3 , 28–9 , Bourdieu, Pierre, 9 172 , 179–80 ; Brinton, Mary, 35 , 51–4 of students, 17 Age Discrimination Act (1975), 17n16 capital, types of, 53–4 , 155 . See also social Americanization, 184 capital anomie, 183 career paths, 12 , 74 anshin , 2 , 19 , 31 , 87–8 Chauvel, Louis, 10 Aoki, Masahiko, 40 class. See social class apprenticeship systems, 38–40 , 171–2 clerical jobs, 134–5 arubaito . See employment, part-time cohort, 9–10 . See also generations attachment. See also ties, personal: stability Coleman, James, 8 , 173 of 184–6 ; to family, 31n19 ; to schools, colleges. See higher education 64 , 89–94 , 145–6 ; to social structures, commercial high schools , 40 , 80 , 138 . 31n19; to workplace, 11 , 19 , 50 , 64 , See also vocational high schools 66 , 88 , 163, 186 company person, 171 attendance, 91–3 comparative statistics: on government Austria, 171 spending, 40–1 ; on job training, 37–41 , 171 ; on labor markets, 20 , 23 , ba . See also ties, personal ; ties, school- 26–7 , 172 ; on vocational education employer: decline in centrality of, enrollment, 37–8 ; 31–2 , 64–5 , 88–9 , 94–6 ; defi nition of, on wages, 67 2–3 ; importance of, 4, 14 , 18 , 31–2 , competition between schools, 81–2 , 91 , 184–6 ; in United States, 4 ; of schools, 94–5 , 140–4 , 158 64–5 , 94–6 ; of workplace, 39 , 61–2 , comprehensive technical schools, 40 . 65 See also vocational high schools

197

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-12600-7 - Lost in Transition: Youth, Work, and Instability in Postindustrial Japan Mary C. Brinton Index More information

198 Index

contingent labor. See employment, hiring preferences of, 56 , 58 , 79 , 89 , part-time 103 , 117–18 , 134n12 , 173 ; honesty contract employees, 24–5 , 71–5 , 163 of, 158–9 , 174 ; infl uences on, 158–9 , contract employers, 100 174 ; opinions of, about system, 19 , cooperation between schools, 141 43 , 58–61 , 64 , 78 , 94 , 97 , 99–100 , counterfactual probabilities, 113 117 , 170–1 , 177 ; recruitment by, crime rates, 182 44–6 , 111–16 , 137–44 ; relationship cultural capital, 155 of, to employees, 26–7 , 45 , 102 , 111 , cultural toolkit, 10n10 117–18 , 135–6 , 185 ; restrictions on, 12 , 19 , 24–6 , 44 ; role of, 64–5 , 96–7 dankai no sedai . See generations employment. See also employment, demand for labor, 5 , 100–2 , 105 , 113–15 , entry-level ; employment, full-time ; 119–20, 146 , 174 employment, part-time ; furītā ; job discouraged workers, 28–9 , 124–6 . openings ; job search: guaranteed and See also NEET lifetime, 12 , 13–14 , 19 , 48 , 69 , 104 , discrimination, gender, 56n19 , 169 179 ; historical trends in, 1–2 , 71 , disengagement of students, 89–93 , 145–6 . 73–5 , 176 ; legal aspects of, 17n16 , 24 , See also absences from school 42 , 44 ; lifetime, 69 , 179 ; of students, dropouts, 96 16 , 47 , 64–6 , 88–94 , 151–3 , 171–5 ; dual labor market, 69 , 169 , 180 of women, 13–14 , 17–19 , 25–7 , 30 , 31n19 ; rates of, 123–6 ; regular, 12 , early work experience, 70–5 , 77 , 154–65 , 19 , 24–5 , 71 , 73–5 , 176 ; regulation 174, 186 . See also Youth Survey and protection of, 24–7 ; restructuring earnings. See wages of, 6–7 ; temporary and irregular, economic conditions: changes in, 1–2 ; 5–6n4 , 25 , 27–30, 71–5 employment and, 20–2 , 25 , 101 , 146 ; employment security law, 24 school-to-work system and, 6–7 , 64 , employment system. See school-work 115 , 167 system economic growth. See high economic employment, entry-level: availability of, growth period 19 , 35 , 79 , 89 , 145–6 ; part-time, economic inequality, 25–6 , 67 , 178–82 104–5 ; recruitment for, 42 , 58 , educational attainment: by generation, 99 , 177 70–1 ; employment and, 53–4 , 67 ; employment, full-time: benefi ts of, 135–6 , levels of, 154n1 ; role of, in society, 163 , 187 ; decrease in, 64–5 , 71–3 , 2–4 , 11–12 , 74–6 89 ; expectation of, 16 , 18–19 , 30–2 ; educational reform, 39 , 42–4 , 171 , 177–8 factors affecting, 73–9 , 155 ; role effi ciency, 59 of schools in securing, 76 ; types of, eiky ū shūshoku . See employment, 116–17 guaranteed and lifetime employment, part-time: and ba , 32 ; employees. See also labor demand and benefi ts and drawbacks to, 89–92 , supply: attachment of, to workplace , 136 , 171 ; historical trends in, 27 , 71 , 11 , 19 , 117 , 175–6 ; contract, 24–5 , 74–8 ; increase in, 30 , 64–5 , 73 , 104 ; 71–5 , 163 ; irregular, 27–30 , 73 ; of students, 16 , 47 , 64–6 , 88–94 , regular, 71 , 73–5 , 176 ; relationships 151–3 , 171–5 ; restructuring and, 6 ; between, 60 ; satisfaction of, 153 , school ties and, 116–17 156–8 , 160–2 engagement in school, 89–93 , 145–6 employer policy, 35 entrance examinations, 83 Employer Survey, 55–8 , 96–7 , 110–111 , 117 entry-level jobs. See employment, entry-level employers. See also ties, school-employer: Esping-Andersen, Gösta, 10 benefi ts offered by , 38–9 , 135–6 , examination preparation, 95–6 172 ; descriptions of, 44 , 57 , 134–5 ; examination system, university, 96

Index 199

exploitation, 176 Hello Work, 42–5 , 42n9 , 161 external labor market, 33 , 40 , 154 , 168–9 high economic growth period, 17–18 , 34 , 70 , 146 family system. See also parents: life of , 97 ; high school graduates: continuing postwar, 13–19 , 30 ; structure of, education of, 126–30 , 154n1 ; 103–4 employment trends of, 91 , 117–18 , feeder schools, 132n10 176–7 ; idleness among, 121–30 , fertility rates, 48 , 97 , 187 144–5 ; job search of, 53–4 , 126–30 ; fi rm-internal labor markets, 48 , 67–9 opinions about, 111 ; opportunities fi rm-school networks. See ties, available to, 79 , 89 , 101–3 , 116–17 , school-employer 145–6 , 177 fi rm-specifi c work experience, 48, 67–9 high school students: attendance fi xed-term contracts, 24–5 and persistence of, 91 , 95–6 ; Fukuzawa, Rebecca, 95n9 characteristics of, 45–6 , 89 , 103–4 ; fur ītā, 5–7 , 71–5 , 180 competition among, 99 ; employment of, 16 , 47 , 64–6 , 89–94 , 151–3 , Genda, Yūji, 6–7, 25–6 , 180–2 , 186 171–5 ; engagement of, with school, gender. See also women: and fur ītā , 89–93 , 145–6 , 174–6 ; opinions 5–6n4 ; discrimination, 56n19 , 169 ; about, 46–7, 171 ; relationship of, to irregular employment and, 30 ; employers, 45 ; training and goals of, recruitment and, 139 ; roles, 13–14 87 , 108 , 150 , 152 general high schools: competition between, high schools. See also school-work system; 140–1 ; description of, 39 , 106–9 ; teachers, role of ; ties, school-employer: idleness rates of, 144 , 146 ; opinions as ba , 64–6 , 89 , 91–6 ; curricula in, about students in, 90 , 111 , 117 , 150 ; 37–9 , 99–100 ; descriptive data on, opportunities for graduates of, 89 , 106–9 ; employers’ opinions about, 102 , 140–4 , 156–64, 176 ; recruitment 58–60 ; enrollment in, 2n2 , 39 , 47 , from, 111 , 117, 137–9 , 141–4 ; student 71 ; hierarchy of, 80–4 , 88 , 91 , 94–6 , attachment to, 91 , 94–5 ; teachers and 99–100 , 129–30 , 136–9 , 141–6 , guidance at, 81 , 92–3 ; ties of, 104 , 158 ; infl uence of, 150 , 158–9 , 174 ; 110 , 113–16 recruitment at, 82 , 138–40 ; types of, generations, 9–11 , 14 , 70–1 40 , 111 ; value of degree from, 70 , 74–6 Germany, 36 , 171 high schools, high-ranking: ba of, 94–6 ; Gini coeffi cient, 179–80 culture of, 81–3 , 95–6 ; job placement golden eggs, 48 , 79 , 151 at, 93–5 , 136–9 ; students and government expenditures, 40–1 graduates from, 83–4 , 92–4 , 103–4 , government policy, 35 129–30 ; ties of, 115 Granovetter, Mark, 49–50 high schools, low-ranking: ba of, 94–5 ; Great Britain, 67 culture of, 81–4 ; job placement at, guaranteed employment. See employment, 72 , 85–6 , 136–9 , 158 ; students and guaranteed and lifetime graduates from, 90–4 , 103–4 , 129–30 , guidance departments. See also teachers: 141–6 ; ties of, 115 challenges of 81 ; perspectives of, 45 , high schools, mid-ranking: activities at, 89; 47 , 84–6 ; role of, in job placement, graduates of, 129–30 , 141–4 ; 44 , 46 , 59 , 92–3 , 123 , 158–9 , 174–6 ; ties of, 115 structure of, 85–6 ; students’ use of, higher education: employment and, 117 , 92–4 , 162, 164 177 ; enrollment in, 47 , 71 , 83–4 , 91 , guidebooks, high school, 80–1 102 , 127–30 , 132 , 177 ; examination system in, 96 ; fi nancial aspects of, 36 , habitus , 9 103 , 162 ; graduates of, 70–1 , 102 , Hara, Junsuke, 178 151–5 ; students in, 17

200 Index

hikikomori , 183 Japan Educational Association, 176 Hirata, Shūichi, 90 Japan Employment Guidance Association, hiseiki koyō . See irregular employment 43 , 45 historical trends: in education, 70–2 , 76–9 ; Japan Federation of Economic in employment, 51–4 , 70–2 , 75–9 , Organizations (Keidanren), 185 105, 121–2 ; in school-work system, Japan Institute of Labour Policy and 37 ; in social ties, 112–13 Training, 48–9 , 177 hitori isshasei system, 59 Japanese Employment Security Law Holzer, Harry, 49 , 172–3 (1949), 42–5 , 161 Honda, Yuki, 7 , 48 , 104 Japanese Society (Nakane), 3 housing, company-owned, 134 jisseki kankei . See ties human capital: development of, 39–40 , 48 , job announcements, 44 , 55–7 , 150 , 159 , 170 ; lack of, 161 ; measurement of, 66 ; 174 types of, 39 , 155 job changing, 149–53 human capital development system, 35–7 , job openings: availability of, 64 , 116 , 65 120 ; communication of, 44–5 , 55–7 , 86 , 131–2 , 142–6 , 150 , 159 , 174 ; idleness: causes of, 120 ; defi nition of, historical trends in, 78–9 , 100–2 ; 29 , 108, 127 ; rates of, 119 , 121–30 , quality of, 86 ; types of, 134–6 144–6 job placements, 105 , 131n6 income. See wages job search: dropping out of, 124 ; process individual versus structure, 8–9 , 35–6 of, 45–6 , 51–4 , 72–4 , 104 , 123 , 160 , industrial high schools. See also vocational 163–4 ; role of satisfaction in, 87–8 ; high schools: competition between , 82 , use of technology in, 153 141 ; enrollment in, 40 , 80 ; examples job security, 167–8 . See also employment, of, 84 , 133 , 136–8 ; opportunities for guaranteed and lifetime graduates from, 107 , 118 ; recruitment job-opening-to-applicant ratios, 78–9 , 101 , from, 111 , 117 , 138–9 , 143 ; students 121–2 , 141 in, 80 , 107 , 117 ; teachers and guidance juku , 95 in, 92–4 , 105n5 ; women in, 107 junior colleges, 47 , 91 , 107 , 126–30 , Institute of Labour, 48–9 , 177 133 institutional change: consequences of, junior high schools: curriculum at, 95n9; 104 , 111–13 , 159–67 ; factors in, 35 , enrollment in, 71 ; graduates from, 101–3 , 113–15 ; future of, 117–18 ; 47 , 48 , 53–4 , 70–1 , 149 , 181 ; types of, 8–9 guidance in, 81 ; recruitment from, institutional social capital: alternatives 42 , 44 to, 151 ; use of, 51–4 , 96–7 ; value of, 58–61 , 88 , 99 , 145 , 148 , 150 , 174 , kaishain , 171 184 kakusa . See economic inequality insurance, 136 Kanagawa prefecture, 80–2 , 126–31 , internal labor markets, 48 , 67–9 131n7 internships, 38–40 , 171–2 Kariya, Takehiko, 43–4 , 51–4 , 100 , 103 , interviews, employment, 46 , 58 , 59 , 85–6 , 108 , 179 123 , 142–3 Keidanren, 185 introductions, school. kin no tamago , 48 , 79 , 151 See recommendations, school Koike, Kazuo, 40 , 68 irregular employment, 27–30 , 73 . Kosugi, Reiko, 6–7 , 181 See also employment, part-time Kumon, Shumpei, 3n3 Ishida, Hiroshi, 104 ky ūjin bairitsu . See job-opening-to- isolation, social, 157 , 160 , 183 applicant ratios Italy, 15 , 16 ky ūjinhyō . See job announcements

Index 201

labor demand and supply, 5 , 48 , 100–2 , Ochiai, Emiko, 13–14 105 , 113–15 , 119–20 , 146 , 174 OECD countries, 20–5 , 27 , 37–41 , 179–80 , labor market: comparative, 26–7 ; external, 182n8 33 , 40 , 154, 168–9 ; internal, 48 , 68–9 ; on-the-job training, 37–40 , 64 , 67 , 89 , 100 , regulation of, 25 ; segmentation of, 30 , 149 , 152–3 , 163 , 171–2 169–70 ; transformation of, 1 , 7 one person, one company system, 59 labor, distribution of, 13–14 Osterman, Paul, 26–7 laws versus norms, 45 layoffs, 24, 186 parasaito shinguru , 5–7 , 181 legislation, 17n16 , 24 , 42 , 44 Parasite Shinguru no Jidai (Yamada), 5 life course, standardization of, 13–14 , 17–19 parasite singles, 5–7 , 181 lifelong education, 17 parents, role of, 5 , 87 , 161–2 , 170 lifetime employment model. Parnell, Allan, 16 See employment, guaranteed and part-time jobs. See employment, part-time lifetime peers, role of, 161–3 Lifson, Thomas, 50 pension system, 186–7 lost generation, 2 , 11 , 29 , 70–8 , 91 periodic blanket recruitment, 48 , 68 low-income households, 90 , 179–82 , 183 permanent employment system. low-ranking high schools. See high schools, See employment, guaranteed and low-ranking lifetime loyalty, 36n1, 117 personal social capital, 51–4 , 88 , 97 , 174 policy, 35 Mannheim, Karl, 9–11 postsecondary education. See higher manufacturing sector, 101–2 , 110 , 116 education marriage: age at, 15 , 164 , 183 , 187 ; life postwar family system, 13–19 , 30 sequence and, 17–18 ; NEET and, 29 , power of schools, 150 , 158–9 , 174 181 ; rates of, 97, 187 ; social role of, 4 , privacy concerns, 105 13–16 , 18 , 152 ; women’s role in, 19 , promised employment, rate of, 121–2 30 , 31n19 public employment security offi ces: data matching, job. See also recruiting ; school- from, 78 , 123 , 131–2 ; description work system: complexity of, 79 , 87–8 , of, 55–6 ; perspectives of, 79 ; role of, 150 ; inequity in, 143 ; rationale for, 42–6 , 71 , 160 , 174–6 ; schools 45–6 ; schools’ role in, 64 , 87–8 and, 85–6 men, marrying age of, 15n13 mental health of employees, 157 , 160 , 183 rankings of schools. See high schools, high- middle class, 13 , 17 , 19 , 29 , 167 , 179 ranking ; high schools, low-ranking ; Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, high schools, mid-ranking 124–5 rational choice theory, 8–9 mobility. See job changing rationale for study, 7–8 , 30 Morgan, S. Philip, 16 recession, economic: effects of, on job Murakami, Yasusuke, 3n3 , 178 market, 20–5 , 101 , 146 ; effects of, on school-to-work system, 115 , 167 naitei , 121–2 recommendations, school: frequency of, Nakane, Chie, 3–4 71 , 73–5 ; history of, 42 ; in United NEET: causes and characteristics of, 144 , States, 49 ; process of, 59 , 85–8 , 123 ; 180–2 ; defi nition of, 1n1 , 28–9 , 181 ; value of, 45–6 , 65 , 76–8 rates of, 108 , 121 , 149 , 180–1 recruiting: blanket, 48 , 64 , 68 ; by school Netherlands, 171 level, 42 , 44 , 82 , 138–40 ; companies networks. See ties, personal ; engaged in, 134–6 ; employers’ ties, school-employer satisfaction with, 111 ; examples norms versus laws, 45 of, 106–11 ; expenditures on, 40–1 ;

202 Index

recruiting: (cont.) senmon gakkō . See two-year training frequency of, 59–61 , 64 , 104 , 115 ; schools future of, 116–17 ; gender and, 56 , senpai-k ōhai relationships, 60–2 139 ; in United States, 49 ; regulations service sector jobs: availability of, 64 , 79 , on, 44 , 79 , 148–9 ; strategies for, 101–4, 134 , 176–7 ; conditions of, 66 , 58–62 , 85–6 , 100–1 , 111 , 115 , 136–9 , 160 ; recruitment for, 115–17 , 135 , 141 , 143 139 ; satisfaction with, 144 ; students referrals, school. See recommendations, and, 99 school seven-fi ve-three pattern, 149 regular employment. See employment, shakaijin , 2–4 , 171 regular shichi-go-san , 149 retail jobs. See sales jobs Shigoto no Naka no Aimai na Fuan Rindfuss, Ronald R., 16 (Genda), 6 r ōnin , 83 , 127, 130 , 144 shinrai kankei . See trust Rosenbaum, James, 100 , 104 shinro no tebiki , 105 Ryan, Paul, 87–8 shinro shidōbu . See guidance departments shokugy ō anteijo . See public employment sales jobs: availability of, 104 , 110 , security offi ces 116–17, 135 , 176 ; earnings from, social background, 67–8 66 ; recruitment for, 88 , 115 , 139 ; social capital. See also ties, personal ; ties, satisfaction with, 64 , 117 , 160 school-employer: defi nition and types satisfaction of employees, 87–8 , 150 , 153 , of, 49 , 51–4 ; institutional, 51–4 , 156–8 , 160–3 58–61 , 88 , 96–8 , 145 , 148–51 , 174 , Satō, Seizaburo, 3n3 184 ; personal, 51–4 , 88 , 97 , 174 ; Satō, Toshiki, 179 value of, 49–50 , 58 , 61 , 84–5 , 88–9 Satō, Yoshimichi, 90 social class, 103–4 , 155 , 161 , 178 , 180–1 school-employer ties. See ties, school- social class dynamics, 9 employer social class reproduction, 103–4 , 180 , school-work system. See also ties, school- 182 employer: breakdown of 98–104 , social closure, 173 115 ; complexity of, 42–5 , 123–4 ; social generations, 69–70 critiques of, 70–2 , 88 , 120–1 , 144–6 , social institutions, role of, 2 , 167 184 ; employer perspectives on, social location. See ba 57–61 , 96–7 ; family role in, 18 , 170 ; social norms, 8–9 , 45 generalizability of, 177–8 ; history of, social person, 171 7 , 35 , 37 ; school role in, 47–9 , 89–90 ; Social Stratifi cation and Mobility (SSM) social capital and, 51–3 ; teacher Survey, 69–78 , 154–5 perspectives on, 84–6 ; value of, 12 , social-generational divide, 11 29 , 159 society of security, 2 , 19 , 31 school-work transition, 4 , 19 , 34 , 37 , 42 , society, postwar, 13–19 , 30 73–4 , 170 socioeconomic status. See social class schools. See under specifi c types of schools s ōgō kagaku , 40 scientifi c high schools, 40 Solga, Heike, 102 secondary education. See high schools Spain, 15–16 security, employment, 27 , 48 , 62 , 69 , 99 , spare time of students, 89 172, 182 statistics, diffi culty interpreting, 123–6 , security, society of, 2 , 19 , 31 142n13 segmentation of labor market, 30 , strong ties, 49–51 169–70 structure versus individual, 8–9 , 35–6 Seiyama, Kazuo, 178 students. See high school students ; higher senior-junior relationships, 60–2 education

Index 203

suicide, 157 , 183 unemployment rates, 20–3 , 26–7 , 67 , 155 , supply of labor, 48 172–3 , 180 Swidler, Ann, 10n10 United States: education in, 17 , 38–9 , 48–9 , 173; employment in, 26–7 , 67 , Tachibanaki, Toshiaki, 66–7 , 179 172–3 ; human capital development Tang, Zun, 113 system in, 35–6 ; personal ties in, teachers. See also guidance department: 174 ; policy in, 17n16 , 41 ; social relationship of, with employers , 87 ; demographics in, 15–16 role of, 42–3 , 45 , 72 , 84–6 , 95 universities. See higher education technology in job search, 153 university advancement rates, 47 , 102 , temporary employment, 5–7 , 71–5 , 180 . 177 See also fur ītā university examination system, 96 tenure of employees, 26–7 , 117 urban areas, 79 tertiary education. See higher education ties, personal: between employees, 97 ; vocational education, 37–40 , 107 , 111 , strength of, 49–50 ; to employers, 84–5 ; 177–8 use of, in job search, 160–4 , 172–4 vocational high schools: absentee rates at, ties, school-employer. See also employers ; 91 ; descriptions of, 40 , 80 , 106–9 ; school-work system: by school type, enrollment in, 37–9 , 99 ; idleness at, 105–8 , 136–8 ; characteristics of, 144–5 ; opportunities for graduates 45–9 , 53–4 , 87–8 , 108–10 ; decrease from, 107–8 , 132 , 176–7 ; recruitment in, 94–5 , 99 , 104 , 111–13 , 153 , 159 ; from, 104–6 , 114–15 , 138–9 ; students future of, 113–18 ; historical aspects at, 80 , 91–3 ; teachers and guidance at, of, 71–7 , 112–13 , 184 ; inequalities in, 72 , 93 ; ties of, 108–15 146 ; infl uences on, 113–16 ; stability and measurement of, 31 , 108–10 ; wages: components of, 136 , 186–7 ; factors teacher roles in, 84–5 ; value of, to infl uencing, 50 , 66–9 , 88 , 149–50 , employers, 58–62 , 99–100 , 175–6 ; 153 , 179 ; from part-time work, 92; value of, to graduates, 49–51 , 53 , 64 , inequality in, 67 , 179 , 182 ; lower, 102 ; 71 , 73–9 , 89 , 92–4 NEET and, 181–2 ; value placed upon, ties, strong, 49–51 152–3 ties, weak, 49–51 , 99 , 162–4 , 172–4 Watanabe, Shin, 50 T ōyō Keizai , 166 weak ties. See ties, weak tracking, academic, 99 What Employers Want (Holzer), 172 training. See also two-year training women: discrimination against, 56n19 , schools: comparative data on , 38–41 ; 169 ; economic conditions of, 25–6; fi rm-specifi c, 31–2 ; government education of, 17 , 80 , 107 ; employment spending on, 40–1 ; on-the-job, 37–40 , of, 13–14 , 17–19 , 25–7 , 30 , 31n19 ; 64 , 67 , 89 , 100 , 149 , 152–3 , 163 , recruitment of, 56 ; social statistics on, 171–2 ; value of, 111 ; vocational, 99 , 15 , 16 ; stereotypes of, 5 , 6n4 141 work ethic, 5 trust: culture of, 12 ; importance of, in work experience, value of, 48 , 67–9 , recruiting, 59–61 , 173 ; in American 173 society, 173 ; in school-employer ties, workers. See employees 116–17 ; structure and development of, working conditions, 156–7 , 159 , 161 , 50–1 , 186 176 , 182–3 , 186 . See also satisfaction two-year training schools: as back-up, of employees 123–4 ; employment outcomes from, 72–3 ; enrollment in, 70–2 , 105 , Yamada, Masahiro, 5–6 , 178 107 , 126–7 , 133 ; graduates of, 155 , Yamagishi, Toshio, 12 , 31 , 51 158 Youth Survey, 90 , 103 , 151–64 , 186