Esanland in the Context of Modern Development Planning in Nigeria

Williams Ehizuwa Orukpe

Department of History and International Studies, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria Telephone: 08030666367; 08026277547, E-mail: [email protected]

KEYWORDS Development Economics. Historiography. Rural. Integration. Nationalism ABSTRACT This paper examines Esanland in the context of modern development planning in Nigeria. It interrogates the problem of planning without development in Esanland and Nigeria. The paper adopts the qualitative research method to explain the phenomenon of rural underdevelopment obstructing Nigeria’s economic development. It finds that, since Nigeria attained independence in 1960, there has been no scarcity of development planning in the country. But there is a stark paradoxical absence of commensurate economic development. This critical review of planning in Nigeria identified economic dysfunctionalism, resources diffusionism and ethnic politics as the bane of plan implementation and rural development. Therefore, using the economy of Esanland as a case study, this paper engages with how these factors interface to undermine and disconnect rural economies. It concludes that rural economic development-oriented planning and dispassionate implementation of plans are developmental imperatives for pre-empting development planning in Nigeria from being a waste of time.

INTRODUCTION in Nigeria and other Less Developed Countries (LDCs). It highlights how the application of eco- By 2020, Nigeria will have a large, strong nomic principles can help salvage underdeveloped diversified, sustainable and competitive economy societies. To this end, development economics that effectively harnesses the talents and energies promotes development planning as the fore- of her people; and responsibly exploit her natural most economic principles to combat economic endowments to guarantee a high standard of living backwardness and underdevelopment, and then and quality of life to her citizens (National Planning capital formulation (through savings and invest- Commission 2009). ment), economic diversification, product and price The problem of economic development in stabilisation, and the control of foreign exchange Nigeria has engaged the attention of scholars rates (Todaro and Smith 2011). from diverse disciplines. Dibua (2013), Kolawole Economic Development Planning (EDP) in and Ojapinwa (2013), Akinbowale (2018), Uche Nigeria since 1960 ranges from fixed-medium (2019), and Admos et al. (2019) interrogated this term to perspective plans. It started with the First problem. Nigeria’s plague of economic backward- National Development Plan in 1962 to the current ness and underdevelopment is a severe sneer to the Vision 20:2020 that seeks to place Nigeria among African giant. Since 1960, relentless efforts have the top 20 world best economies by the year 2020. been made to reverse the economic misfortunes of However, it is instructive to note that economic Nigeria and assert her economic sovereignty. This development planning is not a spontaneous drive birthed several development plans, policy phenomenon (Akinbowale 2018). The historicism programmes, and visions such as the one quoted of planning is traceable to Smith’s (2003) “The above. Despite all the well-intended efforts to Wealth of Nations”, in which he investigated the recalibrate and reposition the economy of Nigeria causation behind economic development disparity on a path of greatness, economic development in among nations in the 18 century. He identified the nation has remained an illusion (Ministry of planning through the deliberate application of the Budget and National Planning 2017). The inability division of labour in industrial production as the of Nigeria to harness and exploit her abundant bastion of British economic development. Since human and natural resources for development is Smith’s first writing in 1776, planning has become directly responsible for her underdevelopment, a worldwide development necessity. Today, and the rise of development economics history the problem of economic underdevelopment, in Nigeria. Development economics history is a especially in Africa and Asia, has drawn diverse branch of economic history poised to interrogate scholars (Hodder 1972; Rodney 1972; Jhingan and explain the obstacles to economic development 1997; Todaro and Smith 2011; Acemoglu and 2 WILLIAMS EHIZUWA ORUKPE

Robinson 2013) to this field of enquiry. Their sovereignty. It demonstrates that development plan- quest is to problematise underdevelopment and ning in Nigeria has never been the problem, but the proffer viable solutions to it. Huertas-Ramos lack of coordination and harmonisation of the plan (2017) traced modern planning as a management by the government (Akinbowale 2018). Hence, tool to Joseph’s Stalin’s Five-Year Plan, 1928- this paper will use the neglect of rural economies 1932. India in 1933 adopted a White Paper that in plan implementation in Nigeria to highlight this led to the initiation of the Bombay Plan in 1944. lack of coordination and harmony. It will establish In 1933 and 1939, the United States of America the fact that national economic development plans (USA) initiated the New Deal, and Marshall Plan in post-colonial Nigeria have only been national in in 1948 to fast track post-World War II economic nomenclature and not in their implementation. By recovery of Western Europe. The Cold War (1945- demonstrating that, the performance of economic 1991) deployment of planning entrenched it into development plans in Nigeria is grossly lopsided modern statecraft and attracted diverse scholars in favour of urban areas. to development economics. Although Nigeria has 774 Local Government The Cold War brought to the front burners Areas (LGA) or Local Economic Units (LCU), of economic discourse the problem of economic this paper will use Esanland that comprises five underdevelopment and demonstrated its impact on LGAs or LCUs, as its case study. The study area national and international peace and security. Thus, is located in the south-south geopolitical zone of researchers have become increasingly interested Nigeria, and precisely in the forest region economic in development economics fired by the desire to zone of Edo State, created in 1991. The thirty-five provide a veritable intellectual framework that (35) autonomous communities of Esanland namely, will help bridge the economic development gap Uromi, Irrua, Ekpoma, Ekpon, Emu, Ewohimi, among nations. During the Cold War, the economic Ewatto, Ewu, Ubiaja, Egoro, Ebelle, Ewosa, Uk- development of the Third World Countries (TWCs) hun, Amahor, Ugbegun, Igueben, Idoa, Ohordua, was conceived to be the surest way to help them Okhuesan, Oria, Ogwa, Okalo, Uzea, Onogholo, resist the overtures of the U.S.A. and the Union of Orowa, Urohi, Ugun, Udo, Ujiogba, Iyenlen, If- Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and forestall the eku, Ilushi, Opoji, Ugboha and Uroh, collectively loss of their political and economic sovereignty to constitute one of Nigeria’s rural economies. This them (Jhingan 1997). Hence, the United Nations rural economy is divided into five economic units, (2020) identified financial fragility, soaring debt, namely Esan West, Esan South-East, Esan North- weak productive investments, low productivity East, Esan Central, and Igueben. Therefore, the of labour and overdependence on commodities as kernel of this development economics historiogra- development obstacles that developing economies phy is that the economic development of Nigeria must tackle. Thus, since Nigeria’s attainment of depends on the even development and integration independence, economic scholars are of the view of these economy units and others elsewhere in the that her economic sovereignty and the welfare and modern Nigerian economy. happiness of her citizens, depends on the economic development of the nation. Objectives of the Paper Therefore, it is against this backdrop that this paper will critically review Nigeria’s developmen- The main objective of this paper is to examine tal efforts through planning and the constraints the problem of economic development through experienced since 1960. The focus of this paper is to planning in Nigeria. It also interrogates the issue interrogate and explain why development planning and impact of rural underdevelopment on the Ni- has not translated into economic development in gerian economy. The paper further highlights the Nigeria, despite her potentials for growth and de- economic potential and capacities of Esanland velopment. According to Hodder (1972: 226), since as a representative of other rural economies in independence, all tropical nations have initiated one Nigeria to contribute to the economic develop- form of the national economic development plan or ment of the country. It is along this line that the the other. Admos et al. (2019) write that at indepen- paper is designed to investigate the political dence, most of these countries conceived having a economy of planning in Nigeria. It will establish national development plan as a symbol of national that the dysfunctional implementation of plans

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) ESANLAND IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 3 is responsible for rural economic neglect, and plans conceived in Nigeria since independence. the broad economic development gulf between But the massive politicisation of the economy and rural and urban economies in Nigeria. More so, plan implementation process is the problem. These the paper demonstrates that the continued ne- are demonstrable in the politicisation of economic glect and underdevelopment of rural economies decisions such as the location of industries, road constitute severe economy wastage and leakages construction and provision of social amenities in adversely affecting Nigeria’s Gross Domestic Nigeria. The resultant economic inequality has Product (G.D.P.), National Income (N.I.) and increased the incidence of extreme poverty in rural Per Capita Income. areas than in urban areas.

METHODOLOGY Table 1: Poverty and inequality indices in Nigeria, 2019 State/Section Poverty Poverty index Squared The research methodology employed in this headcount poverty index paper is the historical research method. But be- rate (extreme) cause there are over 250 ethnic groups in Nigeria, Urban 18.04 4.47 1.68 the report is anchored on the case study research Rural 52.10 17.42 7.78 design. It adopts Esanland as its study area and a Edo 11.99 2.90 1.01 representation of all neglected and marginalised Source: Adapted from National Bureau of Statistics rural areas in Nigeria, because they all suffer the (NBS), 2019 Poverty and Inequality: Executive Summary, same misfortune. Being a descriptive research, the May 2020. discussion, analysis, explanation and presentation of facts in this paper are based on the qualitative Table 1 shows the poverty gulf between urban method, and supported with the use of tables. The and rural areas in Nigeria. The 2019 rural poverty data used in this paper are both primary and second- index of 17.42 percent compared to urban poverty ary materials. The primary materials include oral index of 4.4 percent proves that implementation of evidence sourced through unstructured interviews, development planning in Nigeria has been skewed. archival materials and reports, while the secondary Edo state’s poverty headcount of 11.9 percent materials mainly include books and journal articles. shows that the people of Esanland and other rural For objectivity, data were scrutinised and reviewed areas in the country have very low per capita through deductive and inference reasoning, and income per household. Consequently, this paper materials were cross-referenced and corroborated. contends that rural economic exclusionism in In writing the report, the researcher utilised the plan implementation, beyond accentuating rural American Psychology Association’s (APA) in-text poverty constitutes a severe impediment to Nige- method of citation and referencing, and the political ria’s economic development. It is because of the economy analysis framework. economic wastages and leakages in the modern Nigerian economy it engenders. Indeed, rural RESULTS areas are the raw materials and resources home base of Nigeria, and therefore, the paper finds The paper finds that national development that the continued disconnection and poor har- planning in Nigeria since 1960 is only national nessing of Esan economic potentials contribute in nomenclature, but not in implementation. significantly to economic development eluding These are evident in the partial implementation the country. It also finds that rural development of development plans, visions, policies and is germane for curbing and perhaps, the eradica- programmes directly responsible for the over- tion of the diverse levels of poverty perturbing concentration of economic institutions and the people of Esanland and other rural areas in infrastructures in the elitist urban centres of Nigeria. Nigeria, be it absolute poverty, relative poverty The paper also finds that ethnic and oil politics or dollar per day poverty. Hence, it maintained are political economy factors fuelling economic that rural development is the key to the overall neglect and underdevelopment in Esanland and economic development of Nigeria. other rural areas in Nigeria. Hence, it maintains Table 2 shows that the different types of poverty that there is nothing wrong with the development plaguing Nigerians are higher in rural areas than

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Table 2: Poverty breakdown in Nigeria, 2010 planning is necessary to safeguard independence. State/Sec- Food Absolute Relative Dollar per But does economic growth automatically translate tion poverty poverty poverty day poverty into economic development? Urban 26.7 52.0 61.8 52.4 There is a growing tendency among scholars, Rural 48.3 66.1 73.2 66.3 to use economic growth and development Edo 39.4 65.6 72.5 66.0 interchangeably (Awopegba 2003), but they Source: Adapted from National Bureau of Statistics, Nige- mean different things in development economics. ria Poverty Profile 2010,January 2012. Madison views economic growth as the rise in income levels in a developed and wealthy country urban. The apparent reason for this discrepancy is and regards the general increase in income level the overconcentration of development indices such in underdeveloped and emerging countries as as infrastructure and industries in urban centres. economic development (cited in Jhingan 1997). These have helped to create more employment From his perspective, it can be unfair that opportunities, increased per capita income and economic growth is a phenomenon that can only improved standard of living in an urban metropo- be experienced in developed societies, and that lis. The 66.3 percent of people living on less than a nation can experience economic growth only USD 1 per day in the rural area shows that more of after first achieving economic development. Nigeria’s population lives in such areas. Hence, the Contrary to Madison’s view, Hicks explains that refocusing of government’s development efforts in both underdeveloped and developed countries can rural areas is the key to ending the endemic poverty experience economic development. He writes that, plaguing Nigeria. in an underdeveloped society, economic growth is when a nation learns to mobilise unused resources DISCUSSION with well-known uses for action. In developed societies, economic development is when a country Understanding Economic Development and improves its capacity to exploit resources it already Development Planning knows how to control (cited in Jhingan 1997). For Schumpeter, economic development In development economics, development is the discontinuous and spontaneous change planning reflects in an excellent living standard of in the stationary state of an economy, which people. Thus, development planning is regarded to forever displaces the previous equilibrium state. be the absolute path taken by societies such as the Economic growth is a gradual and steady long U.S.A., China, Russia, Britain, Japan and Germany, term economic change brought about by a gradual among others to attain their current level of economic increase in savings and population (cited in Jhingan development. Hence, Uche (2019) maintained that 1997). While Kindleberger adds that, economic planning is the surest path to Nigeria’s economic growth means an increase in output, and that prosperity, recovery and optimal performance. How- economic development is an increase in production ever, Hodder (1972) warns that having an economic and changes in the technical and institutional development plan does not automatically translate arrangement by which work is produced and into economic development. Hence, for a better distributed (cited in Jhingan 1997). Consequently, comprehension of the nexus between development Jhingan (1997) explains that economic growth is planning and economic development, it is appropri- the sustained quantitative increase in a country’s ate for this paper to attempt a conceptual explanation per-capita output or income accompanied by an of the distinction between economic growth and expansion in its labour force, consumption, capital economic development, and their relatedness with and volume of trade. Economic development is development planning. According to Huertas-Ramos economic growth plus change, that is, the qualitative (2017), abstract modification of planning is not only changes in the economy’s wants, goods, incentives, crucial for configuring planning techniques, but also institutions, productivity, and knowledge, or the for understanding why plans fail. upward movement of the entire social system Economic Development Planning in all societies of a nation. Along this line, Awopegba (2003) is the soul of economic growth and development. adds that economic growth refers to the increase Akinbowale (2018) explains that development in an economy’s output and services over time,

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) ESANLAND IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 5 and economic development is a state whereby a economy, but of the national economy as a whole higher percentage of the population progressively (cited in Jhingan 1997). Therefore, for economic benefits from a nation’s economic growth over planning to be able to cover the needs of all the time. Therefore, the Welsh Government (2013) component units of a nation, Dickinson maintains maintained that economic development is the that the planning authority must base its planning development of land and capital into activities that on a comprehensive survey of the economic system generate wealth, jobs and income for the people. as a whole (cited in Jhingan 1997). Hence, Hodder Todaro and Smith (2011) observe that economic (1972: 226-227) asserts that a well-formulated development is a multidimensional process economic development plan is a comprehensive involving significant changes in social structures, one. It is based on a complete assessment of a popular attitudes, national institutions, as well as country’s economic life and problems not as the acceleration of economic growth, reduction individual strands or projects but as part of the of inequality and the eradication of poverty. In whole. According to Dibua (2013: 1), compre- a related dimension, Walter Rodney argues that hensive planning and economic development economic development has many side processes. policies have failed in Nigeria due to corruption. At individual level it implies increased skill and He identified the corrupt practices frustrating capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, planning and derailing economic development responsibility and material well-being. For the as clientelism, godfatherism, prebendalism, patri- economy, the level is attained when members of the monialism and neopatrimonialism, among others society jointly increase their capacity for dealing (Dibua 2013: 2). with their environmental challenges. Therefore, Nonetheless, Jhingan (1997) insists that com- economic development in a nation cannot be prehensive economic planning is indispensable measured by an increase in the Gross Domestic for eradicating poverty, raising national and per Product (GDP) alone. As was hitherto the case, capita income, reducing inequalities in income but by the Gross National Product (GNP) (Real and wealth. It is pertinent for increasing employ- National Income (RNI)), GNP Per Capita, the ment opportunities and for promoting rapid all- welfare of citizens, and other social indicators round economic development if dispassionately like health, education, food, water, sanitation, and implemented. Consequently, for this paper, the housing among others. researcher defines economic planning as the me- Although development economics scholars dif- ticulous and dispassionate process of harvesting fer on the conceptual meaning of economic growth the economic problems of a nation into a centrally and development, they unanimously agree that administered policy document for the common proper economy planning and plan implementation good of all. These are crucial to the economic are crucial to economic development. But they are growth of the modern Nigerian economy, which again divided on the meaning of economic plan- the researcher defines as the sustainable increase ning as a tool of development. Hence, the pertinent in the economic institutions, and the goods and need for the researcher to interrogate the concept services produced in Nigeria at a given period. of economic planning here. Economic planning, The nation’s economic growth is the precursor as Jhingan (1997: 488) puts it, is a technique, a of its economic development. Therefore, this means of realising a pre-determined end, aims and paper views economic development in Nigeria objectives, laid down by central planning authority. as a situation whereby the increase in the modern Lordwin defines economic planning as a scheme Nigerian economy translates into a low cost of of financial organisation in which individual and living and a high standard of living. Put differ- separate plants, enterprises, industries acted as ently, economic development is when growth in coordinate units of one single system to utilise the Nigerian economy is enough to equitably ac- available resources to achieve maximum satisfac- commodate and satisfy the needs and aspirations tion of the people’s needs within a given time (cited of all Nigerians and bring them happiness. But in Jhingan 1997). for a better grasp of Nigeria’s current economic Consequently, Ferdynand Zweig argues that underdevelopment, it is apropos for this paper to economic planning is not mere planning of towns, interrogate the structure and dysfunctionalism of public works or a separate section of the national the modern Nigerian economy.

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Structure and Dysfunctionalism of the Modern 2020 (Ministry of Budget and National Planning Nigerian Economy 2017: 10). For now, while the features of economic development and affluence are preponderant in The structure of the modern Nigerian economy the urban areas, the rural areas have remained since 1960 is evolutionary (Iyoha 2003). In the 21st mostly unchanged. The rural economy is the century, it has remained so vacillating and daggling direct opposite of the urban economy. The rural between agriculture, manufacturing, and crude area is often referred to as countryside because of oil exportation. But in terms of its composition, the lack of essential infrastructural development the modern economy of Nigeria is ‘dualistic’. It (Chukwuemeka et al. 2013). According to composed of an urban (macro) economy and a Basumatary (1993: 1842), access to government rural (micro) economy that is underdeveloped services, hospital, educational institutions, drinking and disconnected. This is partly responsible for water, street lighting, and electricity is limited in the underdevelopment and dysfunctionality of the rural areas. These conditions in Nigeria have made Nigerian economy. The modern Nigerian economy poverty to be more predominant in the rural areas of is mostly an agricultural economy, with approxi- the country compared to the urban areas (Awojobi mately seventy-three percent of the country’s la- 2014). The rural-urban poverty gulf in Nigeria bour force actively engaged in the production of has continued to increase yearly because of the primary agricultural products. The resultant effect economic neglect of the rural regions. of this on Nigeria’s economic development is that Therefore, due to Nigeria’s rural-urban eco- it had reduced the nation’s economy into a mono- nomic development dichotomy and disintegration, crop, import-dependent, and an underdeveloped Adedeji (1981) maintained that the overall economic economy lacking genuine industrial foundation performance of Nigeria, like other sub-Sahara (Uwubanmwen 2003: 3-4). African economies since 1960, has continued to be Jhingan (1997) in his observation found less unsatisfactory. The consequence of this dysfunc- developed economies to be with high population tionality is that sixty years after independence, the growth, general poverty, natural resources, mono- structure of the Nigerian economy still bears the economy, unemployment, insufficient capital, lack unmistakable mark of colonialism. Because despite of enterprise, and dualistic economy, which are the the undeniable evidence of modernity evident in obstacles to their economic development and the the presence of import-substitution industries, the reason they are poor. As an underdeveloped and modern Nigerian economy is still import-oriented, dysfunctional economy, the bleak financial fortune a raw material producing economy and a dumping of the modern Nigerian economy worsened by the ground for foreign manufactured finished goods neglect of its rural economies. While the urban (Adedeji 1981: 25). Further, commenting on the economies of Nigeria located in significant impact of economic dysfunctionalism in less devel- towns are fully developed market economies, oped economies, Donaldson (1971) observed that the rural economies of Nigeria found in rural economic dualism had produced a modern sector villages since 1960 has remained subsistent and economy grafted onto a traditional economy. They disconnected. Iyoha (2003: 4) writes that while are separated, by as wide as the divide between the the urban economy is a small, modern, monetised rich and poor, marred by the absence of egalitarian and formal economy, and the rural economy is a ideals and social justice. largely unorganised and informal economy, they These imply that urban and rural economies are are yet to be fully monetised because of the over- configured differently. The urban economy, on the concentration of banks in urban areas. one hand, is mechanised and digital, employing the On Nigeria’s economic dysfunctionalism, latest capital-intensive method in the production of Lloyd (1974) in his “Power and Independence: Urban goods and services; while the rural economy on the African’s Perception of Social Inequality” maintained other hand, is manual and depends on primitive that economic development in Nigeria does tools and handicraft (labour intensive) methods of not benefit all areas equally. This development production (Donaldson 1971: 50-51). Understand- disparity created several leakages and wastages in ably, Ezeife (1981: 182) concluded that there is a the Nigerian economy, which Nigeria’s Economic disparity in the balance of businesses between the Recovery and Growth Plan was initiated to end by rural and urban economies. These are because most

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) ESANLAND IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 7 formal enterprises and government establishments outside the towns, were strictly farmland and farm are in urban areas; and they are structurally and settlements. Hence, colonialism only gave a fillip operationally different from rural businesses. More to the dichotomy between rural and urban areas in so, providing insight into the causation of economic Nigeria through the introduction of regionalism dysfunctionalism in less developed economies, in 1946. In the sense that, regionalism opened the Acemoglu and Robinson (2013: 68) write that, way for the rapid urbanisation and development “Poor countries are poor because those who have of the capitals of the dominant majority ethnic power make choices that create poverty. They get it groups in the west, east and north, while the do- wrong not by mistake or ignorance but on purpose.” main of the minority ethnic groups interlocked and Consequently, Donaldson posits that developing federated with the majority ethnic groups in these economies have remained the hewers of wood and regions from 1954, and became the neglected and drawers of water for the global economy, because of underdeveloped rural areas. the lack of favourable rural policies that will prevent Historically, the then government initiated the release of labour in rural areas, for absorption economic development in Nigeria in 1946. The Ten- in the urban industry, and absence of policies Year Plan of Development and Welfare Act of 1946 directed at creating employment opportunities in was introduced by the colonial authorities to bridge rural areas (Donaldson 1971: 106-107). Put simply, the rural and urban development gap in Nigeria less developed economies like the modern Nigeria (Ayo 1988; Okojie 2003; Anyebe 2014). The economy have remained underdeveloped due to recourse to planning, according to Anyebe (2014: disconnection of rural economies in the country. 20), was to enhance the mobilisation of resources Therefore, to demonstrate this economic problem in to accelerate economic development. Under the post-colonial Nigeria, this paper will now critically 1946 development plan, as the part of the colonial review the extent to which Esanland like other rural development effort, the colonial authorities rural areas is side-lined in plan implementation. It through the District Officer of Ishan Division, will highlight the neglect of Esan economy in the Scallon, identified the capacity of Esanland to performance of Nigeria’s fixed medium-term and contribute to the colonial economy of Nigeria and perspective plans, visions, policies and programmes recommended the establishment of a rice mill in since 1960. Illushi. More so, under the plan, additional efforts were made to develop the rural economy of Esan Esanland and the First and Second National when the Sanitary Department sketched out a plan Development Planning, 1962-1974 for the construction of a new market in Uromi (National Archive Ibadan 1945). But while the The economic underdevelopment of Nigeria 1946 plan worked to improve the Esan economy caused by the vast development gap between for the good of the British metropolis, in the area urban and rural economies is a colonial heritage. of provision of social amenities in Esanland, which Its existence is mainly the consequence of the is of critical importance to the people, it made no diffusionist model of development the British progress. Scallon puts it this way, used to administer the country. At independence, No progress appears to have been made with economic development planning was promptly the water scheme, an item that should receive pri- resorted to by the leadership of Nigeria to bridge ority in Ishan… Although there were surveys and the development gap between rural and urban inquiry into the levels, state of pipes, and water economies, and fast track the overall economic level made for the Ubiaja water supply in 1944, development of the nation. In West Africa, nothing came out of it (NAI 1945). Hopkins (1973) traced the economic inequality Understandably, Ayo (1988) points out that the between rural and urban economies beyond the thrust of the Ten Year Development and Welfare colonial era. He writes that the financial discrep- Plan was to promote Nigeria’s transportation, ancy between the rural and urban economies in communication and agricultural development (by the pre-colonial era was evident in the functions increasing cocoa, palm products, cotton, groundnut, they served. During that period, urban areas were and timber production in the country), which places agriculturalists gathered for trade and benefit the British more than the indigenous people. defence. While the remote villages (rural areas), A total of £110 million was budgeted to fund the

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) 8 WILLIAMS EHIZUWA ORUKPE project from April 1, 1946 to March 31, 1956. accepted the core objectives of the First Devel- However, while the Ten-Year plan was undeniably opment Plan. Iheanacho (2014: 51-52) identified the first official economic development planning the common objectives pursued by the Nigerian effort in Nigeria, it lacked the patriotic zeal and federal and regional governments as: national character needed to harmonise and 1. To promote equal distribution of national equalise development in Nigeria’s urban and rural income. economies. Consequently, the then government 2. To speed up the rate of economic growth. introduced federalism in 1954, and the central 3. To generate savings for investment and government and each of the respective regional reduce dependence on external capital for government launched their own individual Five- development. Year Development Plan from 1955-1960. It 4. To raise money for human resources replaced the Ten-Year plan and entrenched the development. culture of staggered and uneven development 5. To increase the standard of living of the in Nigeria. However, there was no feasible masses, particularly in respect of food, development recorded in any of the regions clothing, housing and health. during the period, which made Ayo describe the 6. To increase the infrastructural development Five-Year plan as a mere list of projects hastily of Nigeria. prepared without consideration and regard for the Therefore, the FNDP was launched to pave needs of the people (Ayo 1988: 1-2). the way for Nigeria’s economic growth and de- It is against this backdrop that it is safe to argue velopment by prioritising Nigeria’s agricultural that real national economic development planning and industrial development, and by providing began in Nigeria with the First and Second National training for the high and intermediate workforce Economic Development Plans from 1962 to 1974. of the country (Mordi 2000). But Chete et al. According to Ekundare (1973: 388), the economics (2014) argue that what the FNDP did to drive of post-independence Nigeria was dominated by Nigeria’s economic development effort was to planning because Nigeria’s civilian leadership promote Import-Substitution Industrialisation saw economic planning as the magic wand to (ISI) as a cost/benefit means of mobilising and change the economy portrait of the nation. Hence, deploying financial resources among contending the African Development Bank (A.D.B.) (2013) projects. The government budgeted =N2,132 mil- reports that post-colonial economic development lion for the plan. Out of which the public sector plans in Nigeria were geared towards eliminating contributed =N1,352.3 million, while the private the problem of inequality and inclusion that sector contributed =N780 million (Ayo 1988). characterised the Nigerian economy. It is in line Providing insight into the depth of private sector with this objective that this paper will examine the partnership in the FNDP, Ekundare (1973: 388) extent to which the First and Second Economic explains that, Development Plans achieved developmental parity The government wanted Nigerian businessmen and economic inclusion and integration between to control a greater portion of the Nigerian Nigeria’s mainframe urban economy and the rural economy…through the accelerated training economy of Esanland. of businessmen, the provision of advisory and The First National Development Plan (FNPP) training services, and the improved flow of capital was initiated in June 1962-1968. The plan covered and technical and market information. a six-year period of Nigeria’s economic develop- However, a breakdown of the N1,352.3= mil- ment planning, during which the leadership of the lion public sector fund allotted to finance the plan nation sought to achieve a four percent growth shows that fourteen percent of the money was rate in the Nigerian economy by investing fifteen allocated to primary production, thirteen percent percent of Nigeria’s Gross Domestic Product to trade and industry, 15.1 percent to electricity, (G.D.P.), and by increasing per capita consump- 21.3 percent to transport, and 10.3 percent to tion by one percent (Ekundare 1973). The plan education (Ayo 1988). The lopsided execution is the first proper national development plan in of the FNDP resulted in urban development with the Nigerian federation because, under it, all the the construction of the Port Harcourt Oil Refin- regional governments of Nigeria recognised and ery, the Nigerian Security and Minting Plant,

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) ESANLAND IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 9 the Jebba Paper Mill, the Bacita Sugar Mill, the address the economic segregation that marred Niger Dam, the Niger Bridge, and some trunk the FNDP and fostered uneven execution of roads in strategic urban centres across Nigeria. developmental projects and programmes in However, while the performance scorecard of Nigeria. Therefore, the plan sought to bridge the the FNDP, in terms of its contribution to urban historic economic gulf between the urban and development is impressive, yet rural develop- rural economies in Nigeria sustained by the FNDP ment never received any allocation, particularly through rural-urban economic integration. Ayo the development of Esanland. (1988: 10) explains it this way, During the FNDP planning period, Esanland This plan differed from its predecessors experienced a political transformation with no in several distinct ways. Because being much economic value. From being a part of the minori- bigger in size and more diversified in its project ties in the Western region, the region through the composition, it was…the first truly national and territorial restructuring of Nigeria (state creation) fully integrated plan, which viewed the economy as transformed into one of the minority’s mini-states an organic unit, and the (then) twelve states were in the newly created mid-west region in 1963. fully integrated into the national development plan. Esanland did not reap any significant economic Towards this end, Chete et al. (2014) wrote dividend from the FNDP because of the canker- that the SNDP attempted to reverse and reposition ous politics of ethnicity and regionalism that was the ISI strategy of the FNDP by placing more rife in Nigerian First’s Republic. This accounts emphasis on the upgrading of local production for the marginalisation of minority groups like across Nigeria, and create a direct link between Esan and their exclusion from the government’s industrialisation, agriculture, transport, mining, developmental programmes and projects. Hence, and quarrying. Consequently, the SNDP brought despite the evident capacity of Esanland to host about a remarkable policy shift in Nigeria’s a modern textile industry if the government had economic development drive. Development invested in the Esan cloth industry, the industry was efforts transited from the hitherto private sector- ignored and allowed to die. To host a modern rice led industrialisation to the direct public sector industry if the FNDP had supported the Ekpoma industrial planning and implementation for and Ilushi Rice Milling businesses, but the central development. This policy shift geared towards implementing authority also ignored this potential encouraging rural development, further became of Esanland. Consequently, while the FNDP during evident in the funding of the plan. Out of the total the period was able to grow the urban economy of capital of =N 4.9 billion budgeted for the project, Nigeria by five percent per annum (Ayo 1988), the the proposed public sector investment was =N3.3 economy of Esanland like other rural economies billion, and private sector investment in the plan suffered neglect, deterioration and displacement. was =N1.6 billion (Ayo 1988). However, since the In 1970, the Second National Development cardinal aim of the project was to rebuild Nigeria’s Plan (SNDP) was launch to replace the FNDP, at infrastructure destroyed during the Nigeria Civil the end of the Nigerian Civil War. The SNDP was War, the breakdown of the financial allocation a Four-Year national economic development plan of the plan shows that transport received 23.1 (1970-1974). According to Ayo (1988: 7), while the percent of the total budgeted capital, and the bulk aim of the projects was basically to reconstruct and of the money came from the oil boom (Chete et reboot Nigeria’s degraded economy damaged by the al. 2014). Hence, funding was not a problem for Nigerian Civil War of 1967-1970, its specific objec- the SNDP. The project was supposed to increase tives were to establish post-war Nigeria securely as: the Nigerian economy at an average of 6.3 percent 1. A united, strong and self-reliant nation. per annum, but at the end of the planning year in 2. A great and dynamic economy. 1974-1975 it achieved an average growth rate of 3. A just and egalitarian society. eleven percent per annum (Ayo 1988). 4. A land of bright and full opportunities for all Like the FNDP, the SNDP failed to achieve citizens. the much-desired rural economic development 5. A free and democratic society. and rural-urban economic integration in Nigeria From the (iii) and (iv) objectives of the SNDP, due to the politics of oil, and the emergence of oil it is clear that the plan was partly initiated to and gas as the new cornerstone of the Nigerian

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) 10 WILLIAMS EHIZUWA ORUKPE economy. Under the SNDP, oil emerged as 1. To increase per capita income. Nigeria’s leading foreign exchange (and income) 2. To promote more even distribution of income. earner and economic lifeline of the nation. It 3. To reduce the level of unemployment. downplayed the relevance and capacity of non-oil 4. To increase the supply of high-level work- producing rural economies to contribute to the force. economic development of the modern Nigerian 5. To diversify Nigeria’s economy. economy. It is in this circumstance that Esanland, 6. To promote balanced development. like other rural communities, was relegated to 7. To encourage the indigenisation of eco- the background in the implementation of the nomic activities in Nigeria. SNDP developmental projects and programmes. Like the SNDP, the availability of money to It suffices to state here that during the period, the fund the TNDP was not a problem because during politics of oil successfully dethroned the politics the planning period Nigeria had excess cash as a of ethnicity and regionalism to become the result of the oil boom. During the period, Nigeria’s primary causation of Esan’s economic neglect. oil production reached a record level of 2.3 million The quick revenue guaranteed by oil and gas barrels per day by March 1975, with an increase turned the attention of the government away from in the international price of oil from USD 3.56 in agriculture and indigenous industrialisation. More 1973 to USD 14.69 per barrel. Consequently, from so, being a non-oil producing region, Esanland the initial =N30 billion budgeted for the execution gained little from Nigeria’s National Income of the plan, the money was later revised to =N43.3 (NI) or oil wealth often referred to as the national billion (Ayo 1988). Okojie (2003) observed that cake, which was inequitably shared based on the the overall economic development strategy of principle of derivation in favour of oil-producing the TNDP was based on the full exploitation of areas. Thus, the centrality of oil and gas to the the petroleum sector; and the utilisation of the success of the SNDP ensured that agricultural revenue from oil to develop the production sector development, that is, the cultivation of cocoa, of the Nigerian economy. Hence, it can be argued palm produce, and rubber in Esan declined, due that the plan officially displaced agriculture as to the shift of attention of Nigeria’s leadership the driver of Nigeria’s industrialisation efforts. It and the demand of the global market from cash enthroned oil in its place as the pivot on which crops to crude oil. the overall economic growth and development efforts of the modern Nigerian economy revolves. Esanland and the Third and Fourth National To this end, Chete et al. (2014) maintained that Development Planning, 1975-1985 the TNDP placed increased emphasis on public sector investment in industrialisation to grow the By 1975, the status quo ante of the Nigerian economy of Nigeria. The government controlled economy had changed significantly. It had the oil sector. Because the plan provided an metamorphosed fully into an oil-dependent immense opportunity for the public sector to economy. Hence, at the end of the SNDP in drive the economic growth and development 1974, the Third National Development Plan efforts of Nigeria. Therefore, Okojie (2003: 360) (TNDP) of 1975-1980 was initiated to drive the revealed that the public sector contributed 80.8 economic development effort of Nigeria along the percent of the revenue needed to run the plan, lines of her newfound status. The TNDP aimed while the private sector financial contribution to at directing and coordinating, and maximising the project was a mere 19.2 percent of the total Nigeria’s oil economy to increase and channel budgeted sum (that is, =N10.3 billion out of =N53.6 her foreign exchange earnings from crude oil billion). However, despite its huge budget, the export to national economic development efforts performance scorecard of the TNDP shows that to, of course, make up for the deficiencies of the it failed to bridge the economic development SNDP of 1970-1974. This economic focus is gap between rural and urban economies and by evident in the TNDP expansion of the SNDP’s extension failed in its goal of changing Nigeria’s five (5) fundamental objectives into seven (7) status as an underdeveloped economy. more immediate goals. These Ayo (1988: 10-11) Consequently, Esanland under the TNDP revealed as: experienced progressive economic deterioration.

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Indeed, under the plan, the building and construc- Production Programme (NAFPP) initiated under tion sector of the Nigerian economy flourished, the TNDP, in Esan, the wheels of agricultural and with new infrastructures and building projects industrial food production retrogressed because springing up across the country. But these build- the demand for foreign products eclipsed demand ing and construction works were mainly white for local products. Such as Esan cloth, locally elephant projects pursued by the government made pomade, cooking oil and soaps. However, in urban areas. However, infrastructure was left the original plan was to fast-track agricultural to decay in Esan. Esan roads constructed by the research in food and cash crops, and also, research British experienced neglect, and were not reha- development in livestock production/electrification bilitated. The lack of infrastructural development of rural areas such as Esanland, as observed by in the region in the third planning period is as a Ibietan and Ekhosuehi (2013). In the area of result of the neglect of Esanland in implementa- increasing social welfare and amenities such as tion programmes of the TNDP. Despite its huge water supply, health, and housing in Esan, which funding, the plan did not achieve its goals in all Okojie (2003) claimed it achieved in Nigeria, the nooks and crannies of Nigeria. Nor did the plan TNDP did just the exact opposite in Esanland. promote balanced and even development, nor The Fourth National Development Plan (FNDP) even distribution of income. Hence, in addition of 1981-1985 was designed to be a four-year eco- to its infrastructural deficit, Esanland continued nomic development plan. The plan was initiated to to suffer a shortage of social amenities, especially make up for the shortfall of the TNDP in achieving pipe-borne water. Urban development received a comprehensive rural-urban economic integration further boost under the TNDP, while rural com- and economic growth and development in Nigeria. munities languished in poverty and hardship. Okojie (2003) argues that the TNDP could not at- For example, the Nigerian leadership built a new tain optimal performance during its planning period Federal Capital for the nation in Abuja (Okojie because of the decline in oil revenue in the 1975- 2003), while Esan and other rural areas shrunk 1976 fiscal year, and this necessitated the review of economically because of lack of investment and the plan. Okojie (2003: 360) explains it this way, government presence in the region. Therefore, it The performance ratio of the plan (TNDP) is without a doubt that the government channelled was 67.9 percent. Because the economy had no the bulk of Nigeria’s oil revenue into building growth momentum of its own (after the fall of oil roads, stadiums, bridges, new towns and cities price), the growth of the GDP fell sharply from to the detriment of rural development. Further, 7.55 percent in 1977 to 1.11 percent in 1978 as expansion of urban areas and infrastructures under a result of the oil price shock in 1978. the TNDP negatively affected the demography Understandably, Chete et al. (2014) argue that and labour force of Esanland by fuelling massive the FNDP came into existence during a period of rural-urban migration of Esan youths in search of global economic recession, which is a period of greener pasture in ‘Big Cities’. economic change in Nigeria. Njoku (2001) and More so, Nigeria’s increased foreign exchange Emordi (2019) insist that this was best described earnings during the period conversely influenced as the oil doom era when the bubble of the oil the nation’s accelerated taste and penchant for boom burst. This period was characterised by a finished foreign goods. During the third planning balance of payment disequilibrium and high rate period, there was so much money in Nigeria that the of unemployment in the Nigerian economy. Thus, problem was how to spend it. This explains the high it is against this backdrop that FNDP was launched investment of the Nigerian elites in consumption to help restructure Nigeria’s imbalanced economy. and ostentatious lifestyles; and reckless spending The specific objectives of the Fourth National of government such as the Udoji award. Under Economic Development Plan are, according to these circumstances, in Esan, industrial production Iheanacho (2014: 54): suffered, as the demand for locally made goods 1. To increase the real income of the average declined. Simply put, under the TNDP, Nigeria Nigerian citizen. found it comparatively advantageous to import 2. To promote even distribution of income than to produce. Resultantly, despite well-meaning among individuals and socio-economic programmes such as the National Accelerated Food groups.

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3. To reduce the level of unemployment and development through the provision of basic underemployment in Nigeria. social amenities. Government’s investment of 4. To increase the supply of skilled workforce. oil revenue in industrialisation did not benefit 5. To reduce Nigeria’s economic dependency the region as well. Consequently, the people paid to a narrow range of activities. a high price like other less privileged minorities 6. To increase citizen’s participation in the for the economic mistakes and mismanagement of ownership and management of productive Nigeria by political elites under FNDP. However, enterprises. the Bendel state government’s direct investment 7. To foster greater self-reliance, that is, in Esanland in 1981 resulted in the establishment increased dependence on local content or of the Bendel State University (now Ambrose Alli resources in production. University) in Ekpoma. The institution boosted 8. To promote Nigeria’s technological devel- trade in Ekpoma and provided employment and opment. job opportunities to the people that could hardly 9. To increase productivity in the Nigerian go round. But as a stopgap measure to contain economy. the hardship in Nigeria at the Federal level, 10. To promote a new national orientation the government resorted to borrowing from conducive for achieving greater discipline, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which better attitude to work, and a cleaner now recommended the adoption of a Structural environment in Nigeria. Adjustment Programme (SAP) in Nigeria to help Okojie (2003) asserts that in terms of its readjust, correct, and revamp the low economy objectives, the plan was sufficiently similar to of the country. This was believed would end the its predecessors, that is, with heavy reliance hardship of rural dwellers in Esan and elsewhere on internal resources for funding. The govern- by instigating rural development across the nation. ment budgeted =N82.2 billion for the execution of FNDP. Out of this amount, the public sector Esanland and the Fifth National Development contributes =N70.5 billion (the Federal govern- Planning, 1988-1992 ment was to contribute =N42.2 billion and the State government =N28 billion), while the private Based on structural adjustment economic sector contributes =N11.74 billion. However, guidelines the IMF gave to Nigeria in 1986, the the continuous fall in the price of oil seriously Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Re- affected Nigeria’s national income during the search (NISER) and the Federal Ministry of Nation period, and this reduced her capacity to fund the Planning (FMNP) initiated the Fifth National De- plan effectively. According to Okojie (2003: 361), velopment Plan (FthNDP) as Nigeria’s economic Nigeria’s “oil export earnings dropped from about development blueprint for the period 1988-1992. USD 22.4 billion in 1980 to USD 16.7 billion in The fifth economic development plan served as the 1981 and then to USD 14.3 billion in 1982…” national policy framework for the operationalisa- This made it difficult for the FNDP to accomplish tion of SAP in Nigeria. Hence, under the objectives any of its proposed projects, particularly in the of SAP, Okojie (2003: 362-363) observed that the aspect of housing, free education and health FthNDP sought to achieve the following: care delivery. Hence, Esanland, like other rural 1. The diversification of Nigeria’s economy areas in the country, bore most of the brunt of away from its mono-cultural dependence on the failure of FNDP in terms of socio-economic the oil sector. underdevelopment. 2. The revitalisation of the agricultural industry Socio-economic conditions in Esan worsened with a view of achieving self-sufficiency in following the collapse of the fourth plan. While it food production through the rural integrated is true that suffering was widespread in Nigeria development programme. during this period, it is more accurate to maintain 3. Domestic production of raw materials that in rural areas such as Esan where the poverty for local initiatives to reduce the import ratio was already high and the economy retarded, content of locally manufactured goods. the suffering of the people was untold. Esan 4. The promotion of employment opportunities people never benefit in terms of infrastructural to arrest deteriorating mass unemployment.

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During this period of planning Nigeria’s such as DFRRI and others, on which development economic growth and development, the Federal planning was anchored, helped to cripple the fifth government of Nigeria retained, incorporated and plan. More so, the failure to industrialise Esanland continued some of the laudable and complementary increased the rate of unemployment and poverty in programmes of past administrations, especially the region. The brunt of the industrial underdevel- policies and programmes directly in sync with opment of Esan was borne more by Esan women objectives of the fifth plan. These programmes because of the rate of illiteracy among Esan women were critical to the actualisation of goals (ii) and and the decline of industrial activities such as (iv) of the FthNDP that seek to promote rural cloth-making hitherto dominated by Esan women. development, increase employment opportunities Therefore, the prevalence of poverty among Esan in rural areas, and the subsequent integration of women during the planning period proves that the rural economies with the urban economies. These “Better Life for Rural Women Programme” was of extant programmes, according to Njoku (2001) and no benefit to Esan folks under the FthNDP program. Okojie (2003), include the Directorate for Food, Like the previous plans, there was nothing Roads, and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), Better wrong with the FthNDP in terms of its objectives, Life for Rural Women Programme (BLRWP), but its implementation was the problem. Its and National Directorate of Employment (NDE). underperformance in Esanland was as a result Njoku (2001: 219-220) writes that the primary of cankerous centrifugal forces, like politics of aim of the DFFRI programme in Nigeria was the ethnicity and economic dysfunctionalism, which eradication of rural poverty and diseases through were plaguing the Nigerian political system. the provision of rural infrastructure and other These provide a political economy explanation essential amenities such as rural feeder roads, of why the thirty-five Esan communities have potable water, and electricity among other vitals. continued to suffer neglect. Standard of living While the BLRWP was initiated by Maryam in the region is very poor, as the Esan people Babangida to complement the efforts of the Federal still do not have access to portable pipe-borne government in promoting rural development by drinking water. Adapting to this harsh socio- trying to stimulate rural women across Nigeria economic reality, the Esan people have now to achieve a higher standard of living through become heavily reliant on rainfall for drinking political and economic participation, and through water, and water for other domestic activities hygiene and family planning education. such as cooking and washing of clothes, and farm It is against this backdrop that this paper interro- use. However, the water scarcity in Esanland has gates the impact of the Fifth National Development created new economic opportunities for a few Plan on the economic development of Esanland, privileged individuals in the region. Well to do and the economic fortunes of the Esan people. Esans, who possess the economic wherewithal to During this planning period, the government drill boreholes, have taken advantage of the water federalised Esanland into Nigeria’s south-south situation to emerge as big-time water merchants geopolitical zone under Edo state created in 1991 and pure water (sachet water) entrepreneurs in from former Bendel State that was split into Edo Esanland. These business vendors exploit the and Delta States. Politically the people of Esanland people more during the dry season because of the were directly affected by the leadership of Nigeria monopoly they enjoy in the water market. They during the period of the fifth plan. Still, on the charge a minimum of N50= per 20-litre gallon and socio-economic sphere, the people did not feel the N200= for a bag of pure water. impact of the Federal government. By 1991, the From the preceding, it is safe to argue that the economy of Esanland was in no way plan better fifth development plan, like its predecessors, treated than what it was before the fifth plans. Industrial rural development in Nigeria with ignominy. and infrastructural development in the region was The neglect of rural development in Nigeria has in a state of near-total neglect. The continued dilapi- continued to fuel rural-urban migration in Esan dation of existing Esan roads during the planning instead of curbing it, which DFRRI under the period demonstrates that the DFRRI objectives of fifth plan sought to achieve. More so, the FthNDP the government were not correctly carried out in purports to revitalise the agricultural sector and Esanland. The regional implementation of policies increased food sufficiency in Nigeria through rural

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) 14 WILLIAMS EHIZUWA ORUKPE agrarian development and integration with the urban CONCLUSION economy. However, by the time the government’s economic development planning period elapsed in This paper is a development economics review 1992, the rural economy of Esanland was marred of Esanland in the context of modern Nigeria’s de- by food shortage due to mobility of labour to urban velopment planning. It finds that the neglect of ru- economies for green pasture. The Esan economy ral development is the bane of Nigeria’s economic emerged from it severely disconnected from the underdevelopment. It maintained that develop- mainframe urban national economy because of ment planning has failed to yield the desired result deficiency of government investment in the rural area. in Nigeria because of the massive politicisation Roads, railways, economic institutions such as banks, of economic decisions. It argued that planning in modern markets needed to stimulate the economy Nigeria since 1960 has been well-articulated and of Esanland were poorly provided in Esanland. national in outlook, but not in implementation. These are the teething economy problems Esanland The implementation of development plans had carried over into Nigeria’s new phase of economic been highly lopsided in favour of urban areas. development planning. It was the anticipation of This paper maintained that this is fundamentally Nigerians everywhere that perspective planning responsible for the economic underdevelopment would trigger rural development, which fixed-term of Esanland. The rural economy has continued to planning failed to do. suffer economic neglect and under-exploitation of The period of perspective economic develop- its economic potentials because of ethnic politics. ment planning was a watershed in the economic Political and regional implementation of plans development history of Nigeria. It was a period of had denied Esanland and other rural areas social marked departure from fixed medium-term plan- amenities, infrastructural and industrial develop- ning to the era of rolling plans. Perspective planning ment. More so, the oil and gas configuration of was a futuristic economic development targeting. Nigeria’s economy, this paper finds, is contribu- On November 27, 1996, it was entrenched in Ni- tory to the disconnection of all non-oil producing geria when General Sani Abacha inaugurated the rural economies from the Nigerian economy. Vision 2010 Committee. The Committee initiated Therefore, the report contends that development the Vision 2010 that sought to make Nigeria eco- planning does not atuomatically lead to economic nomically prosperous and socio-politically stable development. However, comprehensive planning before the year 2010 (Okojie 2003). It was replaced plus dispassionate implementation of plans based by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on economic needs assessment, minus resources of 2015, which sought to eradicate extreme pov- diffusionism do. erty and other indicators of underdevelopment in rural areas, and eventually by the Vision20:2020 RECOMMENDATIONS conceived to transform Nigeria into one of the top 20 economies in the world by 2020 (Eneh 2011). Implicit in the discussion of this paper, is the It is instructive to note that this perspective plans contention that the economic development of like other development plans before since 1970 the modern Nigerian economy rests squarely on were all tied to the price of oil and gas the main- rural economic development and integration. To stay of the Nigerian economy. But like the other achieve this economic synergy between rural and fixed-term plans earlier, they have not been able to urban economies in Nigeria, this paper argues that materialise into real economic development in Es- development planning should be predicated on anland (Eserkhaigbe 2019; Amedu 2019; Onoleme the result of comprehensive surveys carried out 2019). This paper observes that the obstacle to the to assess the economic needs and potentials of all realisation of the objectives of Nigeria’s futuristic regions in the country. More so, development plans, economic development visions is mostly the failure visions, policies and programmes need to be nation- to develop and integrate all rural economies in the ally and patriotically implemented. The paper also country into the national mainframe economy of recommends that for economic development to be the country. Put simply, the plans and visions were fast-tracked in Nigeria, economic decisions in the not dispassionately implemented by government in country such as the location of industries, construc- Esanland and other rural areas in Nigeria. tion of economic infrastructures and provision of

J Economics, 11(1-2): 1-16 (2020) ESANLAND IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 15 social amenities must be economically determined. Awopegba PO 2003. Human resources, high-level manpower and the development of the Nigerian economy. In: MA They should not be over-concentrated in one region Iyoha, CO Itsede (Eds.): Nigerian Economy: Structure, but evenly distributed across the country. They Growth and Development. Benin City: Mindex Publish- must be seen as economic development impera- ing, P. iii. tives, not as dividends of democracy provided as Ayo EA 1988. Development Planning in Nigeria. Ibadan: a political reward for partisan politics and loyalty. University Press Ltd. Basumatary M 1993. Challenges and strategies of rural Further, the paper recommends that the eco- development in Assam. International Journal of nomic capacities of rural areas, and their historical Advanced Research, 4(10): 1842. economic antecedent should be carefully taken into Chete LN, Adeoti JO, Adeyinka FM et al. 2014. 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