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Intelligent Tutoring Systems Se Design Recommendations for Intelligent Tutoring Systems Volume 2 Instructional Management Edited by: Robert A. Sottilare, Arthur C. Graesser, Xiangen Hu, and Benjamin S. Goldberg A Book in the Adaptive Tutoring Series Copyright © 2014 by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. Copyright not claimed on material written by an employee of the U.S. Government. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner, print or electronic, without written permission of the copyright holder. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. Use of trade names or names of commercial sources is for information only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. This publication is intended to provide accurate information regarding the subject matter addressed herein. The information in this publication is subject to change at any time without notice. The U.S. Army Research Laboratory, nor the authors of the publication, makes any guarantees or warranties concerning the information contained herein. Printed in the United States of America First Printing, June 2014 First Printing (errata addressed), July 2014 U.S. Army Research Laboratory Human Research & Engineering Directorate SFC Paul Ray Smith Simulation & Training Technology Center Orlando, Florida International Standard Book Number: 978-0-9893923-2-7 We wish to acknowledge the editing and formatting contributions of Carol Johnson, ARL Dedicated to current and future scientists and developers of adaptive learning technologies CONTENTS Preface ..................................................................................................... i Prologue ............................................................................................... xv Section I: Affect, Engagement and Grit in Instructional Management (Sottilare) 1 Chapter 1 ‒ Thoughts on the Instructional Management of Affect, Engagement, and Grit ................................................... 3 Chapter 2 ‒ A Guide to Instructional Techniques, Strategies and Tactics to Manage Learner Affect, Engagement, and Grit .............................................................................................. 7 Chapter 3 ‒ I Feel Your Pain: A Selective Review of Affect- Sensitive Instructional Strategies ........................................... 35 Chapter 4 ‒ Addressing Behavioral Disengagement in Online Learning .................................................................................... 49 Chapter 5 ‒ The Importance of Narrative as an Affective Instructional Strategy .............................................................. 57 Chapter 6 ‒ Personalized Content in Intelligent Tutoring Systems ...................................................................................... 71 Chapter 7 ‒ Adaptive Interventions to Address Students’ Negative Activating and Deactivating Emotions during Learning Activities ................................................................... 79 Chapter 8 ‒ Assessing Persistence in Educational Games ....... 93 Section II: Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning (Goldberg) 103 Chapter 9 ‒ Metacognitive Supports to Drive Self-Regulated Learning Experiences ............................................................ 105 Chapter 10 ‒ Creating the Intelligent Novice: Supporting Self- Regulated Learning and Metacognition in Educational Technology .............................................................................. 109 Chapter 11 ‒ A Combined Theory- and Data-Driven Approach for Interpreting Learners’ Metacognitive Behaviors in Open-Ended Tutoring Environments .................................. 135 Chapter 12 ‒ Macro and Micro Strategies for Metacognition and Socially-Shared Regulation in the Medical Tutoring Domain .................................................................................... 151 Chapter 13 ‒ Tutoring Self- and Co- Regulation with Intelligent Tutoring Systems to Help Students Acquire Better Learning Skills ............................................................ 169 Section III: Natural Language and Discourse (Hu) 183 Chapter 14 ‒ Issues Regarding The Use Of Natural Language Discourse In Intelligent Tutoring Systems .......................... 185 Chapter 15 ‒ Natural Language, Discourse, and Conversational Dialogues within Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A Review ................................................................. 189 Chapter 16 ‒ Serious Games with GIFT: Instructional Strategies, Game Design, and Natural Language in the Generalized Intelligent Framework for Tutoring .............. 205 Chapter 17 ‒ Moves, Tactics, Strategies, and Metastrategies: Defining the Nature of Human Pedagogical Interaction ... 217 Chapter 18 ‒ Instructional Strategies in Trialog-based Intelligent Tutoring Systems ................................................. 225 Chapter 19 ‒ Where in the Data Stream Are We?: Analyzing the Flow of Text in Dialogue-Based Systems for Learning .................................................................................................. 237 Chapter 20 ‒ Intelligent Tutoring Support for Learners Interacting with Virtual Humans ......................................... 249 Section IV: Instruction and Scaffolding (Graesser) 259 Chapter 21 ‒ Guided Instruction and Scaffolding .................. 261 Chapter 22 ‒ A Guide to Scaffolding and Guided Instructional Strategies for ITSs ................................................................. 265 Chapter 23 ‒ Adaptive Multimedia Environments ................ 283 Chapter 24 ‒ Support in a Framework for Instructional Technology .............................................................................. 297 Chapter 25 ‒ The DENDROGRAM Model of Instruction: On Instructional Strategies and Their Implementation in DeepTutor ............................................................................... 311 CHAPTER 26 ‒ Scaffolding Made Visible ................................. 327 Epilogue .............................................................................................. 341 Biographies ........................................................................................ 359 Acronym List ..................................................................................... 375 Index ................................................................................................... 381 PREFACE Robert A. Sottilare1, Arthur C. Graesser2, Xiangen Hu2, and Benjamin S. Goldberg1 U.S. Army Research Laboratory - Human Research and Engineering Directorate1 University of Memphis Institute for Intelligent Systems2 i Design Recommendations for Intelligent Tutoring Systems - Volume 2: Instructional Management This book is the second in a planned series of books that examine key topics (e.g., learner modeling, instructional strategies, authoring, domain modeling, learning effect, and team tutoring) in intelligent tutoring system (ITS) design through the lens of the Generalized Intelligent Framework for Tutoring (GIFT; Sottilare, Brawner, Goldberg, and Holden, 2012), a modular, service-oriented architecture created to develop standards for authoring, managing instruction, and analyzing the effect of ITS technologies. This preface introduces tutoring functions, provides instructional best practices, and examines the motivation for standards for the design, authoring, instruction, and analysis functions within ITSs. Next, we introduce GIFT design principles, and finally, we discuss how readers might use this book as a design tool. We begin by examining the major components of ITSs. Components and Functions of Intelligent Tutoring Systems It is generally accepted that an ITS has four major components (Elson-Cook, 1993; Nkambou, Mizoguchi & Bourdeau, 2010; Graesser, Conley & Olney, 2012; Psotka & Mutter, 2008; Sleeman & Brown, 1982; VanLehn, 2006; Woolf, 2009): The domain model, the student model, the tutoring model, and the user- interface model. GIFT similarly adopts this four-part distinction, but with slightly different corresponding labels (domain module, learner module, pedagogical module, and tutor-user interface) and the addition of the sensor module, which can be viewed as an expansion of the user interface. (1) The domain model contains the set of skills, knowledge, and strategies of the topic being tutored. It normally contains the ideal expert knowledge and also the bugs, mal-rules, and misconceptions that students periodically exhibit. (2) The learner model consists of the cognitive, affective, motivational, and other psychological states that evolve during the course of learning. It is often viewed as an overlay (subset) of the domain model, which changes over the course of tutoring. For example, “knowledge tracing” tracks the learner’s progress from problem to problem and builds a profile of strengths and weak- nesses relative to the domain model (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger & Pelletier, 1995). An ITS may also consider psychological states outside of the domain model that need to be considered as parameters to guide tutoring. (3) The tutor model (also known as the pedagogical model or the instructional model) takes the do- main and learner models as input and selects tutoring strategies, steps, and actions on what the tu- tor should do next in the exchange. In mixed-initiative systems, the learners may also take ac- tions, ask questions, or request help (Aleven, McClaren, Roll & Koedinger, 2006; Rus & Graesser, 2009), but the ITS always
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