UNIT 9 AIDS AND TOOLS OF TRANSLATION

Structure 9.0 Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Definition and Scope of 9.2.1 What is a ? 9.2.2 Types of Dictionaries 9.3 Dictionaries with Specific Objectives 9.3.1 Special Dictionaries 9.3.2 Trans-lingual Dictionaries 9.3.3 Subject Dictionaries 9.4 Grammars 9.5 Use of Dictionaries and Grammars for Translation 9.6 Definition and Scope of Encyclopaedias 9.6.1 General Encyclopaedias 9.6.2 Special Encyclopaedias 9.7 Other Reference Sources 9.7.1 Geographical Sources (Maps etc.) 9.7.2 Biographical Sources 9.7.3 Handbooks, Manuals etc. 9.7.4 Others 9.8 Use of Encyclopaedias & Reference Sources for Translation 9.9 Let Us Sum Up 9.10 Key 9.11 Answers to Exercises

9.0 OBJECTIVES The purpose of this unit is to introduce you to various aids and tools of translation which will help you in translating any piece of work.

After working through this unit, you will be able to

describe several types of reference books; differentiate between various kinds of aids and tools used for translation; pick up a particular aid for tracing required information; and make proper use of the reference tools for translating a piece of work.

9.1 INTRODUCTION Translation is the art of rendering the writings of one language into another language. The art of translation lies not only in conveying the literal sense but also in translating the feelings, thought, character and spirit of the work by using apt words so that it is equal in quality to the original work. In order to achieve this, it becomes necessaryjo , have mastery of both the source language and the target language. In addition the translator also needs to have knowledge of the subject of the work she is translating. In addition to the linguistic problems, s/he may find it difficult to understand the subject of discussion, due to which translation is impossible or becomes faulty. What should a translator do in all such cases. Send the faulty or incomplete translation to the vetter and expect hirnlher to complete the job? When we talk about the responsibilities of the translator, we also include the vetter in its purview. Afterall someone has to do the job. In such circumstances the translator and/or vetter should be able to consult reference

. I 1 I. re - ~ ~ ~- 1-- - - -1. 1 I . .I . n~ - Theoretical Background 11 can producc an acceptable text in the target language. In this unit, we intend

to define and explain the scope of dictionaries, encyclopaedias, atlases and grammars introduce you to different types of reference tools used for translating a enumerate the uses of these tools by giving examples a suggest ways and means of solving the problems faced by the translator by making proper use of appropriate reference tools. Let us examine these one by one

9.2 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF DICTIONARIES

A dictionary is the most widely known and used reference source. Almost all school children are taught to use a dictionary to help them in finding meanings of difficult words and pursuing independent studies. It is one of the most common reference sources referred to hy people. The 'dictionary' is derived from the medieval Latin word 'dictionarium' - a collection of words. It originates from the term 'diction' meaning 'a mode of expression'. It deals with the collection of general words either of a language or special terms of a particular subject. It usually defines terms and gives their alternate or variant , pronunciation parts of speech and inflections, meanings, usage etc. Some dictionaries give the derivation and history of words too. The words are arranged in some definite order, usually alphabetical order. In a nutshell, a dictionary deals with words.

9.2.1 What is a Dictionary? You have surely seen a dictionary. It is used widely by all- students and scholars alike. It is a reference book seen in evcry home. We refer to the dictionary, whenever we have problems. What do we look for in a dictionary? We can find the meaning of a difficult word. In addition to the meaning of a wordf we get other semantic information pertaining to the meaning- its synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic usages etc. We also look up the pronunciation of a word. Dictionaries provide some grammatical information such as the gender of a word, the class it belongs to (noun, adjective, verb etc.), the correct usage of the word (comprise + noun is the correct form; 'comprise of' is an error), alternate spellings of a particular word etc. Good dictionaries provide information about the contcxts in which a word occurs (i.e. the usage of a particular word). Thus we can find out if the usage 'mail' can be used as a verb in the meaning of sending something through post as in 'mail it to the customers'. Dictionaries also give information of socio-linguistic meaning of words such as slang, jargon, archaic words etc. It gives historical information of where (or which language) it came from, how and when it was coined and what changes took place in form and meaning over the period.

As you can observe, a dictionary is a reservoir of a large amount of semantic, grammatical, socio-linguistic and historical information of the words in a particular language. But all persons may not need all the information. A learner would only like to know the meaning of a word and its usage. A writer would like to have socio-linguistic information as slhe would like to use the appropriate word in a particular context. The historical information would be more useful to a linguist or a grammarian. Thus we may have to produce different dictionaries for different groups of users. That leads us to the question of types of dictionaries depending upon factors like age, economy of costs etc. 9.2.2 Types of Dictionaries We can talk about the types of dictionaries from two different angles. One is the approach to making a dictionary - how the words are arranged and presented. The other is the form of the dictionary depending on factors like the user, the size of the book to be printed, coverage etc.

i) Dictionaries having different approaches Dictionaries come in different arrangements. What we call a dictionary usually has an alphabetical order of presentation, whereas a presents the words in groups Aids and TOOISof Translation having related meanings. Still one can locate any word from the alphabetical index given. Thus we have four major types of dictionaries as shown below: a) Dictionary or b) Thesaurus c) (or Wordlist) d)

Let us discuss these four types one by one. a) Dictionary or Lexicon It is derived from a reek word 'Lexicon' meaning 'dictionary'. Each entry in the Lexicon is known as 'Lexis' meaning 'a word'. Lexicology and are two divisions of linguistics. Lexicon meant the totality of words or vocabulary of a language. It was meant chiefly for dictionaries of ancient languages viz. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, etc. But in recent years, the scope of a lexicon has been widened. b) Thesaurus The term 'thesaurus' also has its origin in Greek. It means 'a storehousc' or 'a treasury' or 'a repository'. Peter Mark Roget was the first person to make a 'thesaurus' for English in 1852. Unlike dictionaries, entries are arranged in a classified order in the thesaurus. They are well-known for their collections of synonyms and antonyms. Eg. Roget's 77tesaurus of English Words and Phrases, Dutch New York: St. Martins. 1965.

In a thesaurus all words pertaining to a specific concept or context are presented at one place. Thus, words expressing "anger" or words pertaining to "mammals" can be seen at one place. This is a useful tool for writers.

In recent years, the word 'thesaurus' has undergone a change. Now, thesauri are compiled in various subjects which resemble synonym dictionaries. Eg. 771esaurusof Tmtile ks.2nd ed. MIT Press, 1969.

c) Glossary The word 'glossary' originates from the Latin word 'glossarium' meaning 'a collection of words peculiar to a field of knowledge'. Each entry in a glossary is known as a 'gloss' meaning 'a word', 'a comment', 'an explanation' or 'an interpretation'. It explains techni~alterms of a specific dialect or subject. eg. Comprehensive Glossary of Technical Terms prepared by Central Hindi Directorate. India : Ministry of Education, 1973-74.

Glossaries are usually word lists, with or without an e,quivalent in another language and do not provide other semantic/grammatical information. The book mentioned above is a bilingual glossary- English words with Hindi equivalents.

d) Vocabulary The name 'vocabulary' originates from a medieval Latin word 'vocabularium'. It is often used for a stock of words and phrases with brief explanations and meanings restricted to a single work or author. The entries are usually arranged in alphabetical order. Eg. Consolidated Basic Hindi Vocabulaty (Classes I to WII) Compiled by Uday Shankar and Jai Narain Kaushik, New Delhi: National, 1982.

This is based on the research study undertaken by seven scholars. It incorporates basic, comprehensive, Hindi vocabulary for children from classes one to eight. It ascertains the comprehensibility of students of different grades. The number under each grade and against each word indicates the difficulty in understanding the specific word. It is a very useful book for the teachers, authors and all those who address school children.

ii) Combination of Dictionary with Other Reference Sources With the advancement of lexicography as a science, compilers produce dictionaries combining features of two reference books into one. a) Dictionary-cum-Thesaurus Collins has merged two essential reference books into one by combining Collins English Dictionary and New Collins Thesaurus: the CoNitzs Dictionary and lllesaurus in One Theoreileal Background I1 Volume ed. by William T. Mcleod. London : Collins, 1987.

b) Encyclopaedic Dictionary Dictionary makers are engaged in producing dictionaries with many illustrations and special lists as the users appreciate finding all possible information in one single dictionary. There are some dictionaries having both, lexicographical and encyclopaedic features. They are known as encyclopaedic dictionaries. Century Dictionary and Cyclopaedia ed. by William Dwight Whitney, 1911. (12 Vols.)

It defines general, biographical and geographical terms and explains them with illustrations. The Oxford Reference Dictionary ed. by Joyce M. Hawkins, Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1987. This new illustrated dictionary is both, an up-to-date, authoritative dictionary and a concise encyclopaedia.

The encyclopaedic feature of the dictionary has been further strengthened by adding many special lists, definitions, biographical and geographical names, inventions, major languages, weights and measures, chemical elements and compounds and illustrations.

It is rather difficult to draw a dividing line between dictionaries and encyclopaedias. Some classical dictionaries are in reality encyclopaedias whereas some concise encyclopaedias are nothing more than dictionaries. In short, the basic difference between the two is that a dictionary deals with the words whereas an encyclopaedia provides information on topics and subjects.

Dictionaries come in varying sizes. Depending on the size, the quality, content and range also differ. We have dictionaries ranging from the small pocket dictionary, comprising a few hundred words, to the colossal of English, OUP, running into a few thousand pages. We will discuss here the range of dictionaries and their coverage.

Historical dictionaries contain all words of the language and each word is seen in its historical development. The change in the meaning and form of the words is substantiated with annotations from literary texts or other writings. We do not have a historical dictionary in Hindi.

Comprehensive Dictionaries contain all words of the language (including new words) and provide all information except the historical development. These dictionaries are usually multi-volume. In Hindi such dictionaries are called or F3WTCetc.

Concise dictionaries usually are shorter restricted only to the current words. The coverage of other information is also limited. In Hindi such dictionaries are called T%%fW * etc. Another form of the Concise dictionary is also called a Learner's Dictionary which provides usage and grammatical information for the learner.

Pocket dictionaries are meant for immediate reference. They do not provide other relevant information.

93 DICTIONARIES WITH SPECIFIC OBJECTNES

In the previous section we discussed dictionaries with different approaches. In this section we will discuss dictionaries in different form, catering to different groups of people. We put them under three broad categories, as shown below.

9.3.1 Special Dictionaries The dictionaries which are compiled to deal with a special purpose or aspects of a language are called special dictionaries. Most of these aspects of words which are separately dealt within special dictionaries are also covered in general dictionaries. Hence, they are sometimes known as supplementary wordbooks. They deal with the special aspects of the words much more comprehensively than the general dictionaries. There are numerous forms and varieties of specialised dictionaries. Here, they are divided into three groups according to their content and scope. SPEClAL DICTIONARIES Alds and Took of Translation i a Dictionaries covedng Dictlonarles coverlng a Dictionary dealing with specific UnguisUc special type or literary aspects and catering to aspecls of words. class of words. a special group of persons.

Dictionary of Dictionary of Dictionaxy of i) Punctuation i) Slang words i) Folktales ii) Pronunciation ii) Obsolete words ii) Nursery Rhymes iii) Spellings iii) Dialect words iii) Literary Characters iv) Synonyms and Antonyms iv) Newwords iv) Quotations

I v) Usage Dictionaries v) Difficult words v) Proverbs ! vi) Etymological & Historical vi) Names, Surnames, Nicknames vi) Foreign tenns Dictionaries vii) Cross-word Puzzles ni) Phrases viii Anagrams viii) ix) Abbreviations & Acronyms ix) Rhyming Words

x) Signs and Symbols x) Cliches xi) Concordance xii) Gradus

a) Dictionaries covering specific linguistic aspects of words i) Dictiona y of Punctuation Eg. Punctuate it Right by Harry Show, New York : Barnett & Nobel, 1963. ii) Dictionay of Pronunciation English Pronouncing Dictionary by Daniel James, London; Dent, 1977. iu) Dictionary of Spellings Cassell's Dictionay compiled by Mary Waddington, 1959.

iv) Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms Webster's New Dictionary of Synonynzs :a Dictionaty ofDiscrintinated Synottytns with Antonyms andAnalogous and Contrasted words edited by G & C Merriam Co., 1980.

v) Usage Dictionaries

A Dictionary of Modem Englislz Usage by Henry Watson Fowler, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1965

vi) Etymological & Historical Dictionaries Etymology means the science of the origin and history of words. Oxford Dictionay of English Etymology edited by C.T. Onion and others, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966. We have the following types of special dictionaries in Hindi.

b) Dictionaries covering a special type or class of words The second group of special purpose dictionaries cover specific class of words. These words may or may not be included in the general dictionaries. They are of various types. We have given below a few important types with example. Theoretical Background I1 i) Dictionary of Slang Words

A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: Colloquialisms and Catch Phrases, Solecisms and Catechisms, Nicknames, Vulgarisms and such Americanisms as have Naturalised, by Eric Partridge. 2 volumes in 1.7th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1970.

ii) Dictionary of Obsolete Words

Dictionary of Early English by Shipley, New York : Philosophical Library, 1955.

iii) Dialect Dictionaries 1 English Dialect Dictionary :Being tlte complete Vocabulary of all Dialect words still in use is known to have been in use duringthe last 200years, 6 vols. London : Frowde. 1898-1905.

iv) Dictionary of New Words

Dictionary of New Words by Berg. Allen & Unwin, 1953.

v) Dictionary of Difficult Words

Dictionary of Dificult Words by Robert Hill, (4th ed.) Huchinson, 1958.

vi) Dictionaries of Narltes, Sumarltes and Nickrtarltes

Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place Narltes by Eilert Ekwall(4th ed.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960.

American Nicknames, their Origin and Significance. 2nd ed. New York: Wdson, 1955.

vii) Dictionary of Crossword Puzzles

Gem Dictiona~for Crossword Puzzles. London : Collins

viii) Dictionary of Anagratns

Longman Anagram Dictionary by R.J. Edwards. Harlow : Longman, 1985.

k)Dictionary ofAbbreviatiorts & Acrortynts

Abbreviations Dictionary by Ralph De Sols. 5th ed. New York: American Elsevier, 1977.

x) Dictionary of Sigrts and Syrltbols

Tlte book ofsigrts by Rudolph Koch, New edition, Constable, 1955.

c) Dictionaries dealing with literary aspects and catering to special group of persons

i)Dictionary of Folk Tales

A Dictionary of British folktales in tlte English Language irtcoporating EJ. Norton collection, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970-71.

ii) Dictionary of Nursery Rltynies

Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes by Iona Opie and Peter Opie. Oxford Clarendon Press, 1951.

iii) Dictionary of Literary Characters

Dictionary of True Characters. Harlow; Longman.

Dictionary ofFictiona1 Characters by William Frccman. London: Dent, 1963.

iv) Dictionaries of Quotatiorts

Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations New ed. Oxford University Press, 1982. v) Dictionaty of Proverbs Alds and Tools of Translation A Dictionaty ofAmerican Proverbs and Proverbial Plzrases, 1820-1880by Archer Taylor and Bartlett Jere Whiting. Harvard University Press, 1958.

A World Beasury of proverbs from ?kenty five Languages, New York: Random, 1946. vi) Dictionaty of Foreign Terms A Dictionaty of Foreign Worak arzd Phrases in Currerzt English by Alan Joseph Bliss. New York: Dutton; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966.

vii) Dictionary of Phrases Dictionaty of Phrase and Fable by Ebenezey Cobham Brewer. Centenary ed. rev. by Ivor H. Evans. London : Cassell, 1970. vii) Dictionaty of Idioms

A Book of English Idioms by V.H. Collins. Longman, 1956.

Ijc) Dictionaty of Rhyming Words

The Poet's Manual and Rhyming Dictiorzaty by Frances Stillman, New York: Crowell, 1965.

New Rhyming: Poet's Handbook by Burges Johnson. Rev. ed. New York: Harpcr, 1957. x) Dictionaty of Cliches A Dictionary of Cliches with an Introductory Essay by Fric Partridge 5th. ed. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978. -. xi) Concordance

Concordance to the poems of Robert Browrziizg 1924-25by Leslie N. Broughton and Benjamin E Stelter. 4 vols. Haskell, 1970. (Reprint of 1924).

Vedic Corzcordances by Maurice Bloomfield. Cambridge : Harvard Universily Press, 1906 (Harvard Oriental Series-Vol. 10)

Sur Shabdasagar edited by Hardeo Bahri. Allahabad : Surneti Prakashan, 1981.

The word 'gradus' is used for a dictionary which aids in writing of poetry.

In Hindi we have many dictionaries on proverbs, idioms quotations and some concordances. Here below we give a list of such dictionaries as example :

9.3.2 Trans-lingual Dictionaries The terms trans-lingual dictionary is self-explanatory. They are not confined to one language like monolingual general dictionaries discussed so far. They are bilingual or multi lingual dictionaries used mainly by the language learners and translators. These dictionaries are also known as inter-lingual or technical dictionaries. They are of two types. Theoretical Backgr~undI1 Language Dictionaries

Bilingual dictionaries giving Multi-lingual dictionaries giving equivalent words in two languages equivalent words in three or more languages

The trans-lingual dictionaries do not define the words but they give accurate equivalent words in one or more foreign languages that they cover. They give pronunciation, stress, parts of speech and genders so as to enable the learners to follow them easily. They do not include historical and etymological details. Some translating dictionaries are comprehensive and include slang words, colloquialisms, idioms, borrowed and dialect words.

a) Bilingual Dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries deal with two languages. A typical offers a foreign word and its equivalent word in English in the first part. The process is reversed in the second part by giving the English word first followed by the equivalent foreign word. They are available in various sizes and volumes. They are well-illustrated by the members of the Harrap's family of French and English Dictionaries published simultaneously by Harrap at London and Scribner at New York.

Harrap's New Standard French and English Dictionary edited by J.E. Mansion. Completely revised and enlarged edition by R.P.L. Ledesert and Margaret Ledesert. London : Harrap; New York : Scribner, 1972-1980.

Part 1-French into English - 'ho Vols. Part 2 -English into French- 'ho Vols.

Now, let us have some examples of bilingual dictionaries of Sanskrit and Hindi. Sir Monier Monier-Williams' name is familiar to all the scholars. He compiled English-Sanskrit and Sanskrit-English dictionaries way back in 1851.

A Dictionary of E~tglishand Sartskrit by Sir Monier Mor~er-WilliamsLucknow : Akhil Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, 1957.

The examples of Hindi bilingual dictionaries are as under:

Briltat English-Hindi Dictionary by Father Kamil Bulke. 3rd ed. New Delhi : S. Chand,l981.

Practical Hindi-English Dictionary by Mahendra Chaturvedi and Bholanath Tiwari. Delhi : National, 1970.

Sankshipta Hindi-English Dictionary by Mahendra Chaturvedi and Bholanath Tiwari. Delhi : National, 1972.

India being a multi lingual country, there are numerous bilingual and trilingual dictionaries offering Hindi or English as first language and their equivalents in any other Indian language and vice versa. These dictionaries are very useful to language learners and translators.

Telugu-Hindi Shabda Koslt by Ayachit Hannmet Shasfri, Prayag, H.S Sammelan, 1970.

Hindi-Gujarati-English Tribhasha Kosh. 3 vols. New Delhi : Central Hindi Directorate, 1984.

c) Multilingual Dictionaries The second type of translating dictionaries are known as the multilingual or polyglot dictionaries. They give equivalent words in three or more languages. The arrangement of entries in the polyglot dictionaries has not been standardised. They are arranged alphabetically by the main language with the equivalent words in the e ids and TOOIS or Translation other language covered in a tabular form. Separate alphabetical indexes for each language represented are given as appendices at the end.

. fienfy-one Language Dictionary by H.L. Ouseg-Owen, 1962.

It is a multilingual dictionary of a small number of common words and expressions covering 21 languages. It is arranged alphabetically by the English words and has equivalent words of 20 languages. It has twenty appendices- one for each foreign language. Each appendix has alphabetically arranged list of words with their appropriate English equivalent.

Bharatiya Vyavahar fish ed. by Vishwanath Dinkar Narvane. Bombay : Tribeni Sangam, 1961.

Narvane's multilingual dictionary of simple and common words of day-to-day use covers fifteen Indian languages and English. Words of the other languages are transliterated in Nagari Script.

93.3 Subject Dictionaries Dictionaries dealing with the terms of a particular subject arc known as subject dictionaries. The rapid development in all the fields of knowledge, has necessitated compilation of subject dictionaries devoted to the specific subject Gelds, occupations and professions. This is especially true for the fast advancing subjects of sciences and technology. Most of the terms of the subjects in humanities are covered by general dictionaries. As specialisations increase so do the scientific dictionaries. They differ from general language dictionaries in two ways:

1) They include highly specialised technical terms of a particular discipline not usually found in general dictionaries. These technical terms are coined, borrowed, adopted, adapted and invented by specialists and experts in the fields.

2) They give detailed descriptions of words. They not only define the terms but explain and comment on them. Some subject dictionaries are meant for general public whereas most of them arc published for subject specialists and students. Here are some examples:

The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Modem Econonzics: A f1andbook of Enns and Organisations of Greenwald. 3rd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill, 1983.

English-Gemtan and Eclinical and E~igineeringDictio~zaryby L. De. Vries and T.M. Herrmann. 2nd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill, 1968.

Elsevier's Dictionary of Television, Radar and Antennas i~zsix languages by W.E. Clason. Amsterdam : Elsevier, 1955.

There are some renowned publishers who have published dictionaries on various subjects. They contain explanations and accurate definitions of technical terms. They include brief biographies of eminent subject specialists, names and addresses of agencies and institutions belonging to the particular subject field. They are encyclopaedic in nature as they give illustrations and descriptive information. As the new technical terms are either coined or borrowed and added frequently to the subject fields, subject dictionaries become out-of-date very fast. To keep the pace with such additions, they have to be regularly revised and new editions are published often. If fact, before referring to a subject dictionary, a specialist will first glance through the year of publication.

Some of the leading publishers like McGraw Hill, Elsevier, Penguin etc. have published popular series of subject dictionaries in various disciplines. They are the most well known sources of reference in the academic and special libraries. Theoretical Background 11 9.4 - GRAMMARS

Like dictionaries, grammars are numerous too. We have the school grammars for children, which explain the notion cf noun, verb etc. With examples. Hence, they are called notional or traditional grammars. In the modern world, approaches to writing grammars have undergone radical changes. We will describe a few here.

Reference Grammar :This only highlights the significant aspects of a language, without going into details. Usually it is a Grammatical Sketch, with necessary explanations.

Functional Grammar :It discards the earlier approach of defining as nouns verbs etc. in a traditional way and approaches the structure of language the way it presents itself. Functionally, English does not have the 8 traditional cases as nominative, accusative, instrumental, ablative etc. Instead, we can say which phrases occur where in sentence and convey the case meanings.

Pedagogical Grammar :Pedagogical grammars visualise the process of learning, the probable areas of difficulty and present the language in such a way that helps learners. This can be called a learners grammar.

Communicative Grammar :This follows a novel approach to writing a grammar. This can be called a users grammar as it talks about how the usage communicator needs, feelings etc. How do we compare things and qualities, in what ways do we express sorrow or unhappiness, how do the unit words of length, volume etc. behave, how do we say the same thing politely or curtly are some of the communicative functions.

There might be many more novcl methods of writing a grammar or presenting the structure of language. These grammars give the translator a keen sense of how the language operates. S/he may consult a grammar for getting to know the SL better. There are many comparative/contrastive grammars dealing with both the SL and the TL. These are handy refcrence tools for the translator.

- - 9.5 USE OF DICTIONARIES AND GRAMMARS FOR TRANSLATION

The translator, while translating a text may havc the following problems:

i) s/he may not know the meaning in use of a particular word. ii) she may not know the socio-cultural context in which the word has been used. iii) s/he may not be able to comprchend the syntactic structure of the SL sentence. iv) she may not know the content of the text that is being translated. v) s/he may not know the person or place referred to in the text and that may create problems in exact rendering into the TL. Problem i) to iii) are language-related problems. The meaning of a word can be ascertained from a dictionary : the socio-cultural context can be known from an encyclopaedia or an encyclopaedic dictionary. Difficult sentences can be understood from a good grammar. We will discuss the use of encyclopaedias in the next section. We will discuss some language-related problems and the use of various reference sources here.

i) How will you translate rn in the context rn w 3.A good usage dictionary will give us an indication of how this is to be translated. The appropriate translation would be word in 'my word has been honoured.

ii) How to get the proper equivalent for the word v-h?Peace? Happiness? Pleasure? You can consult a Thesaurus, which lists a range of words around a theme or topic and select the appropriate word. (There is no Thesaurus in Hindi so far.) ii)How will you translate WHTk?In consulting many a dictionary you may not find the Aids and Tools of Translation word. The text in which you find this word seems to be from the field of medicine. Consult a glossary or dictionary of technical terms pertaining to medicine. You will know that the English equivalent is a gastroenteritis.

Translingual dictionaries are of utmost use to the translator, as they give the exact equivalent of a word in a specific context. But, bilingual or trilingual dictionaries usually are not very exhaustive or comprehensive, to be of great help to the translator of advanced texts.

The need for special dictionaries is felt by translators most often. If the translator knows the proper pronunciation, she can transliterate it properly. The translator should know if the SL word is a slang or an archaism; so that it can be translated in an equivalent style. The translator will need to expand the abbreviation for effective translation. How will you write LTTE in Hindi? The expansion (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) could have given a translation like &W ?if%7 $5 *which could have been refered to as %further on. But some Hindi newspapers refcr to it as k? which is funny. How will you translate (or render into the TL) a word like . It refers to a treacherous person, derived from the name of a historical character. Since , this is a proper noun, you may not find it in a dictionary. A dictionary of literary characters will give you the intended meaning. Similarly, annotated or translated dictionaries of proverbs/quotations give the translator a handy reference tool.

The use of a good grammar (a reference grammar or a functional grammar) may be of great help to any translator. "Had I not the mind ..... "is a difficult" construction in English. The translator may not know the meaning of this construction. Take up a grammar and look up under the words 'have' and you may arrive at a satisfactory equivalent.

A translator might come across a sentence like "He told you what?" and may takc it to be wrong sentence. The interrogative word should precede others. But this is a different kind of question, where the listener wants to or hear again the blanked clause in the sentence "He told me that ......

A reference grammar would tell you the distinction between the sentences -

Where is he? He is where?

Exercises

1. Describe the following in a sentence.

a) Dictionary of abbreviations.

b) Trilingual dictionary

c)

d) Encyclopaedic dictionary ......

e) Comprehensive dictionar...... Theoreilwl Backgmund II 2. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate word. a) Thesaurus lists words according to the ...... (alphabetical orderlcore idea) b) can also be called (word lists/technical terms) ...... c) Dictionary of synonyms is a ...... (Special dictionaryltranslingual dictionary) d) Usage dictionaries talk of ...... (new words in a languagelthe meaning of words in contexts) e) Dictionaries also provide ...... information of the words. (grammaticallreference) 3. Which sources would you go for to find the meaning of the following examples, apart from a general dictionary? a) Honoris causa b) Woman, thy name is frailty C) A stitch in time saves nine d) COFEPOSA e) How big is this!

9.6 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF ENCYCLOPAEDIAS The word 'encyclopaedia' is derived from the Greek word 'enkyklios paideia' meaning 'general education'. It meant 'circle of knowledge' or 'circle of learning' or 'a complete system of learning'. The meaning of the term has undergone a considerable change during its long history. The term 'encyclopaedia' is now applied to any of one or more volumes consisting of articles pertaining to all the branches of human knowledge, usually arranged in alphabetical order. At the end of every article, there is an exhaustive bibliography or references. It contains serval illustrations, diagrams, photographs and sketches of notable persons to assist the user in better understanding of the subject. A detailed index with cross references helps tracing the information in the articles easily and quickly.

The purpose of the modern encyclopaedia is to condense current and essential information in a short and simpler form to make it accessible to the non-specialist. They are secondary sources. An encyclopaedia is a storehouse or treasury of valuable knowledge giving significant information. It can be general information for the layman or subject information for specialists. Encyclopaedias are also called 'cyclopaedias' when they are limited to a specific subject.

In this section, we will acquaint you with various types of encyclopaedias. In order to organise the collection in the reference section effectively, they are divided into two main categories, namely, general and special or subject encyclopaedias according to the scope, purpose and coverage.

The difference in scope and coverage of general and special encyclopaedia is evident. A general encyclopaedia contains a collection of articles giving essential information about all the branches of knowledge. They are arranged either in alphabetical or classified order by subjects or names. They are intended for the general readers. It is common to bring out supplements periodically to encyclopaedias to keep them up-to-date but revised editions are published occasionally. It is rather a huge and highly expensive task to produce an authoritative general-encyclopaedia. In contrast to this category, special or subject encyclopaedia is a collection of articles limited to a specific field of area. They are generally arranged alphabetically by subject and names. They are designed to satisfy the needs of the specialists interested in a particular subject. They are published in abundance in almost all the subject areas due to expansion of literature in every field and increasing demand from the users. The cost of publishing is comparatively less due to its limited scope and coverage.

These encyclopaedias can be further classified into four major groups. A. Acmrding to i) One or Two Volumes Size & Fonnat r ii) Multi-volumC B. According to i) Adult User's Age ii) Junior ENCYCLOPAEDIAS t iii) Children C. According to i) Belonging to Different Area Coverage Nations and Reaons -t D. According to and Language Different Lanpaps Now, let us examine these general and special encyclopaedias in details with suitable examples. 9.6.1 General Encyclopaedias General encyclopaedias cover all the existing branches of human knowledge. They are most popular and extensively used reference sources. They are classified into different categories according to format, user's age, coverage and language. Some popular examples are mentioned below.

A Comprehensive Multi-Volume Encyclopaedias nte New Encyclopaedia. - 15th ed. - Chicago :Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 1974. 30 volumes. Encyclopaedia Americana - New York : Groiler, 1976.30 volumes. B Popular Multi-volume Adult and Junior Encyclopaedia These encyclopaedias are for high school and college students. They are written in simple language and popular style. They can be of great interest to the layman.

Collier's Encyclopaedia with bibliography and index by- William D. Halsay. -New York : Macmillan, 1982.24 volumes. The Macmillan Family Encyclopaedia. -2nd fully rev. and up dated ed. -London: Macmillan, 1982.21 volumes.

C Multi-volume Junior and Children Encyclopaedias There are many junior and children encyclopaedias as they are mostly referred by school going children and are also interesting and informative for adults.

Oxford Junior Encyclopaedias -Rev. ed. -London : OUR 1961.12 volumes. Children's Britannica. -London : Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981.19 volumes. Hindi Hindi flsvakoslt~aed.by Dhirendra Verma and others. - Banaras: Nagaripracharini Sabha, 1960-70.12 volumes 9.6.2 Special Encyclopaedias There used to be a limited number of subject encyclopaedias in 19th Century, but now, there is an encyclopaedia for almost every subject. As general encyclopaedias have to cover all the subjects, they are dealt within broad perspective and minute details are not covered; whereas subject encyclopaedias aim to serve the subject specialists and cover all sub-topics elaborately.

In past, subject encyclopaedias used to be multi-volume sets in broad subjects namely science and technology, social sciences etc. but now, encyclopaedias are published for each discipline and are restricted to one or two volume sets which are handy to use. They arc excellent ready reference aids for the specialists who want to trace information about a particular subject. They are economical as the librarian of the special libraries has a choice to acquire only those encyclopaedias needed by the readers instead of procuring costly multi-volume sets which occupy lots of space. I Theorelleel Background II It is impossible to cover the countless subject encyclopaedias available in various subjects. A few important examples of special encyclopaedias available in big universities and special libraries are listed here.

A Multi-volume Subject Encyclopaedias McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology.- 5th ed. - New York : McGraw-Hill, 1982.15 volumes. It is a comprehensive multi-volume set covering all the branches of science and technology. It is continuously revised. It also publishes 'McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology' since 1962 to keep it up-to-date between the editions.

International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences - ed. by David L. Sills. - New York: Macrnillan and Free Press, 1968,17 volumes. D One and Two Volume Adult and Junior Encyclopaedia Since last half a century, publishers are concentrating on producing one and two volume encyclopaedias due to rising costs of production and advertising. They are arranged in alphabetical order and do not need to have an index. They contain brief information and universal facts. They are more reliable, economical and handy to use.

The New Columbia Encyclopaedia - ed. by W.H. Hariss and J.S. Levy. - New York : Columbia University Press, 1975.

aeRandom House Encyclopaedia. -New York : Random House, 1977. Pear's Encyclopaedia :ABook of Reference and Backgroutid Information for every day use. - Suffolk, Pelham books, 1968-69. They are very informative and compact encyclopaedias useful for small libraries and families.

E National and Regional Encyclopaedias in Different Languages It is common to have national and regional encyclopaedias for the citizens of the country in their own national-regional language. They are inclined to deal elaborately with the history, geography, art, customs, culture, social, political and economical conditions of a particular country. General encyclopaedias of a particular country may also have national bias. They may not deal with minor facts of the other countries and the major aspects are dealt in brief. Hence, the national encyclopaedias in English or its oyn national language may be more useful for the people of the nation or those who want to know more about a particular nation.

'Encyclopaedia Britannica', 'EncyclopaediaAntericaria', 'Encyclopaedia Francaise' cover more detailed information about their own nations than the general encyclopaedia.

Cambridge History of English Literature - ed. by A. IV. Ward and A.R. Walter. - New York : Cambridge University Press, 1907, 15 volumes. It is a multi-volume set of History of English Literature rather than a typical encyclopaedia but due to its wide coverage, it serves the purpose of an encyclopaedia.

Encyclopaedia of Education - ed. by Lee C. Delighton. - New York :Macmillan & Free Press, 1971,lO volumes.

Encyclopaedia of Religion arid Ethics - ed. by James Hastings and others. -Edinburgh : Clark; New York : Scnloner, 1908-27,12 volumes + Index. Encyclopaedia of WorldArt.-New York : McGraw-Hill, 1959-68,15volumes. Encyclopaedia of Computer'Science and Technology.-New York : Morcel Dekker, 1975-80,lG volumes.

B One or Two Volume Subject Encyclopaedias Science and Technology Van Nostrand's Scielztijic Encyclopaedia. - 6th ed. -New York : Van Nostrand, 1983. It is a single volume encyclopaedia arranged alphabetically. It deals with all the sciences, engineering, medicine etc. Articles are of varied length and do not possess bibliographies. It contains illustrations and tables. McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology by Sybil P. Aids and Tools of Translalion Parker. -New York : McGraw-Hill, 1984.

Religion Twentieth Century Encyclopaedia of Religious Kitowledge :An Extension of the New Schoff-Henog Encyclopaedic of Religious Kitowledgeled. by.Letters A. Loetscher. -Michigan : Baker, 1955,2 volumes. Fine Arts The Britannica Encyclopaedia of American Art. -Chicago :Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1973. In Hindi we do not have many encyclopaedias. The following are some examples:

9.7 OTHER REFERENCE SOURCES

In this section we are going to discuss other reference sources which give information about places (geographical sources), persons (biographical sources), rules and regulations (handbooks etc.) and some miscellaneous sources, which gives specialised information. 9.7.1 Geographical Sources (Maps etc.) Maps, Atlases, Gazetteers etc. are called geographical sources, as they provide information about places. We will describe the few major sources here below.

Maps, atlases and globes are the main sources of geographical information. A map is a representation of certain boundaries of the earth on a flat surface showing countries, bodies of water, cities etc. An atlas is a collection of maps, tables, charts etc., whereas a globe is a spherical representation of the earth. Let us see them individually.

Maps: 'fi map is a representation normally drawn to a scale and on a flat medium of a selection of material or abstract features on, or in relation to, the surface of the earth or another celestial body."

Atlas: More than four hundred years have passed since Mercator first coined the term 'Atlas' to describe a collection of maps bound up in a volume. The term became popular with the sixteenth century geographers. Since then there has been rapid progress in this direction. At the turn of the nineteenth century the scope of atlas production was widened considerably. At present it has become possible for the publisher to produce almost a dozen different general atlases for different sectors of the market by varying the combinations of content and style.

Globe: The difference between a map and a globe is one of form. A Map is any I geographic image of the earth drawn to scale on a flat surface whereas a globe is a spherical representation of the earth's surface. It is a hollow ball of metal bearing a world map on its surface and is mounted on an axle which permits its rotation.

Gazetteers :A Gazetteer is defined as "a geographical dictionary". The gazetteer includes names of places i.e., nations, countries, cities, towns, villages, islands, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, falls, etc. Further, it provides standard form of the spelling, pronunciation, longitude and latitude of the places. quite a few gazetteers Thcoreikal Background I1 provide information on population, historical, statistical and socio-economic data. They describe social, cultural, economic and industrial condition of places, and areas. Therefore it would not be apt to call gazetteers as "Geographical Dictionaries."

Most of the districts in India have gazetteers now. They could be called miniature encyclopaedias for each district. They contain extremely useful .reference materials for the administrator, the scholar and the layman alike. Not many people in India, even among the government officials and the intelligentsia are aware of their utility.

These district gazetteers include comprehensive information with all necessary background data, statistical particulars and ancillary details on the historical, archaeological, political, administrative, economic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, social, cultural, sociological and other aspects of the district and the life of the people of the area with maps, charts, tables and list of sub-division, taluqs and villages. Some examples are provided below :

a) Bihar District Gazetteer: Ed. by Roychaudhury Bhagalpur, 1962. Dhanbad, 1964. Muzaffarpur, 1958. 9.7.2 Biographical Sources When we speak of biographies, two different types of materials come to our mind: individual biographies (including autobiographies) -a highly creative and interpretative literary form, and collected biography- matter of fact descriptive accounts of lives of a large number of eminent persons. In this unit we are concerned with the material of the second type.

Definition: Harrods Glossary defines as "a collection of lives of people arranged in alphabetical order."

If you examine any of the biographical sources you will notice, that they contain details about dates of birth and death, marital status, academic achievements, positions held, important contributions, publications, etc. It may also include permanent address and photographs.

In addition to biographical dictionaries, biographical information is found in other works also viz., encyclopaedias, dictionaries, dircctories, yearbooks, obituary columns of newspapers, etc.

Scope: Diverse enquiries about a person, living or dead, like his nationality, date and place of birth, his professional attainments, literary contributions, important landmarks in his life, etc., can be answered by using biographical sources. Depending on the scope of the source some biographical dictionaries provide long essays about each biographee included and other essential facts in a paragraph or two. Most biographical sources vary in the length of biographical dctails, depending on how famous the biographee is. While this is quite logical and understandable, this policy proves counter-productive in times of emergency.

9.7.3 Handbooks, Manuals etc. We have a very large group of ready reference sources consisting of handbooks, manuals, sourcebooks and guide-books. It is difficult to distinguish them from one another as they have common scope and identical purpose. These terms are used synonymously as they have similar features. They are also known as compendiums as they contain concise and comprehensive account of given fields of knowledge. But they are different from advances, progresses, reviews and surveys as normally, they deal with established knowledge and not the new developments.

The word 'handbook' is borrowed from German word 'handbuch' meaning 'a small book or a treatise giving useful facts'. The literal meaning of the term 'handbook' is the book which is 'handy' to use as it contains all sorts of facts and 'handy' to carry it conveniently in hand. A 'manual' is a corresponding word derived from Latin term, Aids and Teels of Trsnslatlon 'manualis'. It means a guide book, a compendious book, an abridged handbook or a concise treatise which can be referred for guidance in any occupation, art or study. They I are essential ready reference sources consisting 'facts to know' and 'instructions to do'. They are sometimes known as 'instruction books'.

Ofiicial Handbooks: People working in government offices; organisations and corporate bodies should have information of rules and regulations that govern their services, rules related to sanction of leave, advances, pension etc. These are published by the

1 concerned governments or organisation in the form of handbooks or manuals. We give 1 below some examples. I Swamy's Handbook 1990 for Central Government Servants by I? Muthuswamy and V Brinda. - 16th ed. -Madras :Swamy Publishers, 1989 -Annual. I Such Swamy's Compilations are available for various aspects of service rules in the form of handbooks and guide-books such as -

Fundamental Rules and Supplementary Rules - 5 parts PI General Rules PI1 T.A. Rules PlII Central Civil Services (Leave) Rules

PIV D.A. with rates and Ready Reckoners ' PV HRA & CCA 9.7.4 Others Reference sources are too many to be dealt with in a small unit. However we would like to discuss a few more for your information. They are:

a) Directories which list persons or products and institutions. You all know about Telephone directory. Similarly we can have directories of small Business Organisations, Directory of Hotels, Directory of Universities or Museums etc. b) Guides include books like travel guides. 'Guide to Broadcasting Stations7.'Guide to a Better Home' (which talks about purchases, home management, security at home etc.) c) A Manual, like the '% manual of style" explains all one should know about style. d) Surveys usually cover a particular domain, over a specific period of time. E.g. '% Survey of Indian Industry after 1947". e) Indexes usually present information in a classified manner. For example an index of the newspaper "The Hindu" for the year 1990 will list all news items in a subjectwise arrangement. f) Advances/Reviews/Progress are indexes of a different kind. For example "Advances in Computers" will give information of the state of the art in the field, with detailed information of all events of development.' g) Reports provide information of a survey or commission. You have heard of Census Reports, the National Samplc Survey Report or the Mandal Commission Report.

9.8 USE OF ENCYCLOPAEDIAS & REFERENCE SOURCES FOR TRANSLATION

How do you think encyclopaedias and other sources of reference might help the translator? To illustrate this we can give you an example. Once a translator translated the sentences in terms of his own and translated the sentences in his own way. Had sfhe known that the text has its origin in the constitution of India, hisfher job would have been easier and more accurate. The Hindi edition of the Constitution could have bcen a good source for the translator. Similarly, another translator translating a foreign novel mistook names of places as rituals and could not tell a man's name from a woman's. ~heorrtiu~~.fwund II As explained earlier the translator has to grapple with linguistic problems on the one hand and content-oriented problems on the other. Sfhe can refer to dictionaries and grammars for linguistic problems; encyclopaedias and other sources would help hider in understanding the text. Let us explain this with a few examples.

i) Di-glot manuals of government bodies are ready tools. If you are translating a new set of rules, the earlier handbook will be of help. ii) Place names used in the SL text can be easily translated using atlases in the TL. iii) If the context related to a person is not known, get biographical sources for a better understanding. iv) Translators in newspapers can make use of indexes available in the TL for better comprehension. v) If you are translating any passage from any of the social sciences, keep an encyclopaedia and a dictionary of definitions in that discipline. . Exercise 2 1. State whether the statements are True or False.

(i) A good encyclopaedia covers all the existing branches of human knowledge. ,(u) We do not have any encyclopaedia in Indian languages. (iii) The translator does not benefit from a mono-lingual atlas. (iv) Even districts can have gazetteers. (v) A "Who is Who" is a biographical source. 2. Match the source and the information it provides. Source Information

a) Index i) Developments over a period of time in aparticular field.

b) Handbook ii) A list of persons, products, Institutions etc.

c) Survey iii) List of information in a classified manner.

d) Review iv) Describes the state of art. e) Directory v) Submitted by a Survey Commission.

vi) Describes the state of art. vii) Contains instructions, rules etc.

3. Which reference sources would-you refer to in the following contexts:

(i) The SL text contains a description of a local religious custom. (ii) There are many names of cities mentioned in a text. The characters move from place to place. (i) A news items which has an oblique reference to a similar incident reported in other papers. (iv) A feature on cricket in a magazine. (v) An article on music, musicians, critics in India. ... 9.9 LET US SUM UP

Dictionaries, encyclopaedias and other reference sources as Atlases, Indexes, Yearbooks, Manuals, Who is Who etc. are useful to all of us who want to,get authentic information on things present and past. They are equally important to a translator, who has to know the language of the original text and the content thereof. Shemay be handicapped in hisher work of translation, if references are not available. Aids and Tools of TIWIS~UOII lkanslation means transferring message from SL to TL. In this process, the translator has to select appropriate and equivalent structures and wor'ds in the TL so that the message is properly conveyed. She must also understand the text of the SL, sometimes pregnant with local information, unknown cultural references etc, so that the message is not distorted in the TL. Dictionaries and grammars help the translator get equivalent linguistic items. Encyclopaedias and other reference sources help hider know the proper context of the SL text.

Dictionaries are of two types i) Lexicon, Thesaurus, Glossary etc. present the words of language in an alphabetical order. They vary in size (from a pocket dictionary to a multi-volume encyclopaedic dictionary); the presentation also varies from a Glossary which is a mere Word list to the Historical dictionary which gives all information. ii) Dictionaries with specific objectives present information on any one or more aspects of language. Grammars are of many types. The more useful types of grammar for the translators are functional and communicative grammars.

Encyclopaedias and other reference sources products, give information, present and past, of person, places, institutions, events, developments, customs etc. The translator might mistake a person for a place or get confused about a custom or event. She should be able to comprehend the text with the help of these authentic sources, so that the text becomes faultless. We also discussed briefly in this unit some problems the translator might face the way to get over them.

9.10 KEY WORDS

Reservoir - Storehouse

Oblique - Indirect

9.11 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

Exercise 1 1. a) It gives the extension of abbreviations like WHO, NAFED, b) It covers three languages. The original in L1 and meanings given in L2 and L3. c) It gives the etymology or origin of words as algebra comes from Arabic al +jabra. d) It provides exhaustive information on the entries in addition to the meanings. e) It includes (or attempts to include) all words of the language. 2. a) Core idea (b) Word lists (c) special dictionary d) all aspects of language (e) grammatical 3. a) Dictionary of foreign phrases b) Dictionary of Famous quotations c) Dictionary of quotations or a Dictionary of idioms d) Dictionary of Abbreviations e) Dictionary of Punctuation. Exercise 2 1. .i) True ii) False iii) False iv) True v) True 2. a) iv b) vii c) i d) vi e) ii 3. i) Encyclopaedia or an Encyclopaedia of Religions ii) Map and Atlas if the cities are big: District Gazetteer if they are small towns. These will be helpful to know the directions, distance etc. Di-glof atlas for Theeretical Background 11 transliteration of the name or a pronunciation dictionary in the target language. iii) If the news items are current, get a weekly review. If unsuccessful you will have to rummage through all the pages of the papers. If it is a past event, newspaper indexes are enough. iv) An Encyclopaedia on Sports or Cricket will be useful in understanding the context. For translation look for similar books in the TL. v) You may have to refer to many sources depending upon the need. They are Encyclopaedia, Encyclopaedia on Fine Arts/Music/Indian Music, Who is Who (general). Who is Who in Fine Arts, Newspaper Indexes and Reviews.