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Betula Utilis Modelling the ecological niche of a treeline species (Betula utilis) in the Himalayan region _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Cumulative Dissertation Dissertation to obtain a doctoral degree at the Faculty of Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences Department of Geosciences University of Hamburg submitted by Maria Bobrowski Hamburg, June 2018 Evaluation of doctoral dissertation by: 1. Prof. Dr. Udo Schickhoff Institute of Geography, University of Hamburg 2. Prof. Dr. Jürgen Böhner Institute of Geography, University of Hamburg Date of defense: 30.10.2018 q e d OutlineDanksagung 5 Jahre und es passierte so vieles: Im Folgenden möchte ich mich bei denen bedan- ken, die maßgeblich zum Gelingen meiner Betula-Trilogie beigetragen haben. Als erstes gebührt mein Dank Professor Dr. Udo Schickhoff. Ich bedanke mich für die Möglichkeit, diese Arbeit zu schreiben, das Vertrauen und die Freiheit, sie nach mei- nen Vorstellungen umzusetzen. Die Arbeit hat meine Begeisterung für den Himalaya geweckt und die zahlreichen Exkursionen haben mir die von Hochgebirgen ausge- hende Faszination gezeigt. Weiterhin danke ich Prof. Dr. Jürgen Böhner für die Übernahme der Zweitkorrektur dieser Arbeit. Der erste Stein im Fundament dieser Arbeit ist von Caroline Stolter gelegt worden. Ich möchte mich an dieser Stelle ganz herzlich für ihren Zuspruch bedanken, der mir das Selbstvertrauen gegeben hat, mit dieser Arbeit anzufangen. Der Wechsel auf die an- dere Straßenseite brachte nicht nur immer einen Perspektivwechsel, sondern auch zu jeder Zeit einen Motivationsschub. Die ökologische Promotions-Nische einer Doktorandin ist die Gesamtheit aller abioti- schen und biotischen Umweltfaktoren, die eine Doktorandin zum Leben braucht. Diese ökologische Promotions-Nische ist kein Raum, sondern ein Wirkungsgefüge. Die zugrundeliegenden Faktoren, die zum Gelingen dieser Arbeit von Bedeutung wa- ren, lassen sich eindeutig identifizieren. Das Zusammenspiel und die Wechselwirkun- gen der verschiedenen Elemente im Ökosystem Geomatikum gaben den Rahmen für die optimale Erfüllung aller Dissertationsfunktionen vor. Die Nahrungsgrundlage lie- ferten schätzungsweise eine Tonne Bonbons und hektoliterweise Kaffee. Die wich- tigste biotische Komponente waren Franzi, Niels und Jo, mit denen ich so einige un- vergesslichen Erlebnisse inner- und außerhalb des täglichen Aktionsraumes ver- bracht habe. Desweiteren haben Jule, Vanessa, Tobi, Elke, und Marion einen erhebli- chen Einfluss auf die Habitatqualität im 8. Stock gehabt. Niels, Birgit und Alina haben für eine entspannte Atmosphäre im Büro-Mikrokosmos gesorgt. Wissenschaftliche Interaktionen mit Lars, Jens und Benni haben mir besonders im Hinblick auf Statistik- fragen und Publikationsstrategien geholfen. Ich bedanke mich auch bei meinen Eltern, die mir die Freiheit gelassen haben, meine Träume zu verfolgen. Bewusst und unbewusst haben meine Geschwister Anna, Johan- nes und Matthias einen erheblichen Beitrag zum Gelingen dieser Arbeit geleistet. Zu guter Letzt gilt mein Dank Henny, dem wichtigste Menschen in meinem Leben. Vie- len Dank für deine Unterstützung und Geduld, die du in den letzten fünf Jahren aufge- bracht hast, als ich mich entschlossen hatte, diesen Weg einzuschlagen.Zusammen mit Bubu und Erbse sorgst du für die nötige Gelassenheit. Allen genannten sei herzlichst gedankt, ihr habt meine Zeit hier zu einer unvergleich- lichen Erfahrung gemacht und schlussendlich zum Fertigstellen meines Opus mag- num einen erheblichen Beitrag geleistet. This thesis consists of three publications, which are provided in the Appendix. To increase the readability of the thesis, all figures and tables have been renumbered in a consecutive manner. One section containing all supplementary material is given at the end of the thesis. Abstract Mountains are fascinating habitats, characterized by steep ecological vertical gradi- ents and corresponding altitudinal vegetation zonation. Alpine treelines as upper boundaries of more or less contiguous tree stands are the most conspicuous vegeta- tion limits; they have always attracted great research interest. Globally, alpine treeline elevations in mountains are caused by heat deficiency. At landscape and local scales, however, multiple interactions of influencing factors and mechanisms determine treeline position, spatial pattern, and dynamics. In the course of climate change, it is postulated that treelines will shift to higher elevations. In order to be able to quantify potential shifts, an analysis of the underlying factors and a correct modelling of the treeline ecotone under current climatic condi- tions are of great importance. For this purpose, statistical models are used to calculate the ecological niche of species based on climatic factors. These models serve as a base- line for models that project the distribution under future climatic conditions. The Himalayas are the largest mountain range in the world, yet they are often un- derrepresented in scientific literature. This holds particularly true in relation to mod- elling studies. Modelling treeline species in remote high altitude regions faces several challenges, especially the availability of occurrence data and high quality environ- mental variables. This research aimed at modelling the ecological niche of the Himalayan birch (Bet- ula utilis) under present climatic conditions in the Himalayan mountain system. B. utilis represents a favourable target species for modelling studies, since it is wide- spread as a treeline-forming species along the entire Himalayan arch. Due to less dis- tinctive habitat requirements and high adaptation potential, it is gaining importance as a pioneer tree species for possible succession developments at treelines under fu- ture climate conditions. In all three parts of this work, generalized linear models (GLMs) were used to model the ecological niche of B. utilis. By evaluating the models on the basis of several quality criteria, statistically valid results were obtained. In order to ensure the trans- ferability of the results to other studies, primarily freely available data were used (ex- cept some of the climate data in Article I). In a synergistic approach, a detailed study of the underlying climatic, topographical and plant phenological factors was under- taken in order to model the potential and the actual distribution of the focal species. In the first part, the climatic factors influencing the distribution of B. utilis were determined, followed by modelling the potential distribution under present climatic conditions. In order to classify the results, the modelled distribution was compared with the vegetation map of Schweinfurth (1957), and the deviations were discussed. In the second part, the ecological niche of B. utilis was modelled based on two dif- ferent climate data sets. In order to investigate the impact of each climate data set we compared model accuracy and prediction of the modelled niche of B. utilis. Furthermore, with regard to possible distortion of the modelled distributional areas, the importance of analysing climate input variables was highlighted. Biased results of current distributions lead to flawed distributions under future scenarios, which may have to far-reaching consequences for the derived climate and nature conservation implications. In the third part, the focus was on exploring the potential of remote sensing data for modelling the current distribution of B. utilis. Topographical and plant phenolog- ical data were used to model the realised niche and to identify the underlying factors. Another focus was evaluating an exclusively remote sensing-based approach. For fu- ture studies, remote sensing data can provide long-term, high-resolution, and species- adapted variables to model current distributions. The present research is the first of its kind in the Himalayan region, and it is char- acterised by its large-scale and comprehensive nature. To date, comparable studies dealing with modelling the ecological niche of B. utilis under present climatic condi- tions along the entire Himalayan arch were not conducted. The present results pro- vide a new starting point for further investigations aimed at modelling the distribu- tion of the species under past or future climate scenarios. Simultaneously, the pre- sented approaches can also be transferred to other treeline species in high mountains. Zusammenfassung Gebirge stellen faszinierende Lebensräume dar, die durch steile ökologische Vertikal- gradienten und eine entsprechende Vegetationshöhenstufung charakterisiert sind. Alpine Waldgrenzen stellen die auffälligsten Höhengrenzen dar, da sie die obere Grenze mehr oder weniger geschlossener Baumbestände markieren; sie haben seit jeher großes Forschungsinteresse geweckt. Global betrachtet wird die Höhenlage der Waldgrenze in Gebirgen durch Wärmemangel bedingt, lokal hängen Lage, räumliche Strukturen und Dynamik der Waldgrenze von einer Vielzahl sich wechselseitig beein- flussender Faktoren und Prozesse ab. Im Zuge des Klimawandels wird postuliert, dass sich die Waldgrenze in höhere La- gen verschieben wird. Um diese möglichen Arealverschiebungen quantifizieren zu können, ist eine Analyse der zugrundeliegenden Faktoren und eine korrekte Model- lierung des Waldgrenzökotons unter gegenwärtigen klimatischen Bedingungen von großer Bedeutung. Hierfür kann mit Hilfe von statischen Modellen die ökologische Nische von Arten anhand von Umweltvariablen berechnet werden. Diese Ergebnisse dienen dann als Ausgangsbasis
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