IDEOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL AIMS: THE CASE OF JAMAICA

BY

Joseph A. Walker, Ph.D. College of the Bahamas Oakes Field Campus

ABSTRACT

This research is basically a descriptive Predicated partly on-this criticism of the study. Its purpose was to determine the prevailing education in Jamaica, and extent to which the aims and policies of partly on a firm commitment to ~ social­ education under the Jamaica Labour Party istic ideology of economic and educational (J.L.P.) differed from the aims and policies organization, the Manley government (the of education under the People's National People's National Party) on the advent of Party (P.N.P.). It was anticipated that, its reascension to political power in 1972, given the differing self-proclaimed ideolog­ asserted its intent to seek political, ical cleavages of the J.L.P. (capitalism) economic, and educational development and the P.N.P. (socialism), there would be through socialistic means. The Jamaica marked differences in their educational Labour Party, its predecessor, on its aims. The analysis revealed, however, that ascension to political power in 1962, had, if there .were ideological difference, these in contrast, chosen to seek political, were not easily detected from the rhetoric economic, and educational development of their educational aims. The differences largely through capitalistic means. observed were largely in terms of emphasis and in the particular means and priorities The purpose of this paper, therefore, is designed to achieve their statt;d obj ectives. to examine the impact of these political decisions on the educational system of INTRODUCTION Jamaica from 1960 to 1980. Specifically, this paper is concerned with the question: Between 1960 and 1980 Jamaica was governed by, first, a largely capitalistic and, then, Were the aims of education an avowedly socialistic government. Under under the P.N.P. (socialistic) the original independent government (1962­ significantly different from 1972), educational, economic, and social the aims of education under institutions were organized largely along the J.L.P. (capitalistic)? capitalistic lines. wnen the change to a self-identified socialist government came As was noted above, these governments (1972-1980), most of these same institutions advocated opposing political ideologies were rearranged along largely socialistic which, in turn, would seemingly encompass lines. differing aims of education.

Michael Manley, with the support of the EDUCATIONAL AIMS People's National Party (P.N.P.) leveled several attacks on the economic and Tanner (1972, p.55) noted that "society educational arrangements of previous today is beset by great confusion, con­ Jamaican governments. These attacks, troversy, and conflicts over the aims based as they were in the socialistic of education." In the early 1960s, a ideology, argued that: 1) education as Jamaican school principal observed that practiced in Jamaica lacked relevance "there is great ferment going on (in to the needs of the society and the education), and the truth is that none of individual and was practiced in an us knows what is best for our children" authoritarian atmosphere: and 2) was (Machperson, 1961, p.17). This controversy, geared toward reproducing the class however, may be as old as civilization system in the society and maintaining an itself. According to Tanner (1965) elitist approach (Manley, 1974, p.45-47; Aristotle noted that: p. 85; andp. 185).

1 As things are .•.• mankind are announced its intention to develop a social~ by no means agreed about the istic philosophy of national and economic things to be taught, whether organization of the state. Intimately we look at virtue or the best connected to this philosophical stance, life ...• the existing the P.N.P.'s educational plans aimed at principle is perplexing: no developing: 1) self-reliance; one knowing on what principle 2) nationalism; 3) social and economic we should proceed -- should progress; and 4) equality of educational the useful in life, or opportunity (Manley, 1974; Five Year should the virtue, or should Educational Plan 1978-1983). the higher knowledge be the aim of our training; All It might be surmised from the preceeding, these opinions have been enter­ that the enunciated aims of the J.L.P. tained. Again about the means and the P.N.P. were identical. The degree there is no agreement, for of agreement, however, depends on the differing persons, starting with connotative meaning of these terms. The different ideas about the nature literal agreement between the enunciated of virtue naturally disagree goals, however, may be indicative ofa about the practice of it (p.SS). realization by both governments that, at this stage of Jamaica!s development, Clearly, vlhen one examines the aims of education must help to unify society, aid education, one must not only take into economic development, and prepare individuals account the forces of change and social to accept the responsibility of independence. pressures, but also the existing philosophies. The agreement may also be indicative of the That is, the aims of education in a given realization that the traditional aims of society at a given time are based not only the Jamaican educational system, although on social elements impinging on that effective under colonial administration, society, but also on the dominant educational were inadequate to transform the plans for and political beliefs of that society. educational reform, into a structure through which individuals could become self­ The .I.L.P.!s philosophy, predicated on the reliant, self-fulfilled, and make iIT®ediate capitalistic ideology, placed the and significant contributions on a large individual at the center or all doctrine scale to the social and economic develop­ and policy. From this view, no social ment of the nation. or political institution has a greater purpose of its ovm other than to aid the The educational aims of the J.L.P. and individual in living a fuller life. P.N.P. as specified above, will be dis­ Relatedly, then, the development of the cussed further below. The particular individual to his optimum and the meanings attached to the terms will be fostering of the qualities needed for con­ examined in terms of legislative and structive citizenship were primary goals of administrative actions. education under the .I.L.P. government. This policy, of encouraging each chil~ to develop EDUCATION FOR SELF-RELIANCE his individual talents and to capitalize on his abilities, is considered to be of From the J.L.P. 's point of view, self­ greatest utility to the nation for "in the reliance is defined to mean the readiness to long-run no talent will be wasted in our take responsibility, particularly that of land and no skill will be lacking" (Redden relying on one's own self" (Allen, 1963; and Ryan, 1956, p.133). New Deal, 1966). Illustrative of this position, Emerson (1966) noted that the Demonstrative of its commitment to this only true man is a self-reliant man. Thus philosophy, education under the J.L.P. was whosoever would be a man must be a non­ almed at developing: 1) self reliance conformist" (p.10S). From this position, 2) nationalism; 3) social and economic each individual has to secure for himself progress; and 4) equality of educational not only the conditions for liVing, but opportunity (New Deal in Education, 1966). also the conditions for the good life.

On the P.N.P.'s ascension to political power, 'To the J.L.P., education for self-reliance it declared itself a socialist government and is desirable if the nation is going to

2 achieve economic maturity in order to take necessary if Jamaica is to: its rightful place among the nations of the world. In this analysis, self-reliance is ••• rediscover the validity not a condition in which the individual is of its own culture at the largely, or certainly, entirely egocentric, moment of colonial inter­ but one in which the person will draw upon vention and retrace the his education, technical skills, and steps that led through national pride to help in the intellectual, history to that point. political, and economic development of They must establish with­ the country (Allen, 1967). It follows in a frame of reality, that education must do its part in the culture which was shaping such an individual in the act of imposed on them so that self-reliance. this may loom neither larger nor smaller than To illustrate how the P.N.P. viewed it deserves and suffer education for self-reliance Manley (1964, from none of the dis­ p. 42) defined self-reliance as tortions which can "implying the recognition by every human result from the ambiva­ being of his ultimate responsibility for lence of a ruler subject himself in his social context and to situation (Manley, 1974, himself in the course of his life .•• p. 146). Self-reliance implies the ability on the part of the people of a country to While both the J.L.P. and the P.N.P. COIT@on efforts towards the general advocated self-reliance as an aim of development and welfare of the group.1I education, there were significant differ­ Manley (1974) outlined the debilitating ences in emphasis between them. The J.L.P. effects of slavery, colonialism, and the advocated self-reliance primarily for the doctrine of white supremacy on the development of individual self-discovery attitudes of Jamaicans as well as on the and the development of self-confidence. In development of self-reliance. He noted this way, the individual will be motivated that 11 ••• the effect of slavery on the to embrace the opportunities provided within Jamaican attitudes must not be under­ the educational system to develop his talents estimated and should never be ignored. and abilities to the fullest extent and, in He argued that: turn, will be enabled to make a maximum contribution to the society in every aspect The great challenge in a society (Five Year Independence Plan, 1962-1968, like Jamaica is how to develop p. 159). Each person should recognize his this sense of personal re­ individual worth and make maximum contribu­ sponsibility (self-reliance), tions to the economic, political, and for one's own development social development of the country. The subject only to the proviso: emphasis here, it should be underscored, is I am my brother's keeper. The on the individual - individual development. lack of this spirit is the most Emphasis is placed, also, on leading the difficult of the legacies of individual to discover latent potentials and our past to undo. But our then utilizing those potentials in the success will determine whether country's development. anything else is possible. This is important if we are to The P.N.P., on the other hand, while release society's collective recognizing self-reliance as a means to capacity for performance national development, gave primacy to the (Manley, 1974, p. 45). development of self-reliance as a means to group consciousness and as a tool for re­ It follows that, for Hanley and the P.N.P., dressing the inaccuracies and distortions self-reliance through education is necessary of the country1s historical past. As Manley if the society is to reestablish self­ put it, "self-reliance is necessary if confidence and reembark upon the process of Jamaica is to rediscover the validity of its self-discovery that is expressed by the own culture at the moment of colonial evolution of a people1s culture (Manley, intervention.,." It appears also that self­ 1974, p. 47). Self-reliance is reliance takes primacy within the group and gains significance within the context of made possiblE: by its welfare. lI Doob (l966, the group rother than in the behaviour of p. 6) stated that nationalism is a set of an individual. The P .N.P. advocated "groupH more or less uniform-demands which: action and "group" consciousness rather 1) people in a society share; 2) arise from than individual action and individual patriotism; 3) incline them to make personal consciousness. Hanley noted that "this sacrifice on behalf of their government's (self-reliance) is important if y,le aTe aims; and 4) mayor may not lead to to release the society's collective action. Dooh's (1966) definition of c_apacity for performance" (Hanley, 1974, nationalism is used for the purpose of this p. 45). In short, as opposed to the discussion. J.1.P. I S purpose for advocating self--­ reliance for the amelioration of present Even a casual consideration of the state"'" and future economic, personal, and ments and definitions of nationalism developmental problems, self-reliance advanced above vlill indicate the complexity under the P.N.P. appears to be geared of the problem. First, an individual must toward a redefinition of Jamaicafs cultural believe that his Ow,l ,qelfare and that of and historical past and, secondarily, to the signif~LcaT't group to ,,,hieb he belongs the individual development and amelioration are dependent upon the preservation and ex­ of present and future problems through pansion of the power structure in society. essentially group processes. S"co-nd, he must share a set of demands T..-.Tith others in the society whic.h he believes EDUCATION FOR NATIONALISM to be justified and which inclines him to personal sacrificee The first is the more Education for nationalism as indicated problematic, but the second is almost above, has been proposed as an aim of equally difficult in ihe Jamaican context. education by both the P.N.P. and the J.L.P. Nationalism is a central concern of develop­ At the time of the Jamaican Independence, ing nations because, in many cases, they the educational system was geared to ensure are literally new nations with '"hi-ch the loyalty to England and to make Jamaicans people have no identification. The look outside for values and standards problem of conflicting loyalties, (Oakley, 1970. p. 16). With the advent of connected with the desire on the part of the the J.L.P. government's ascension to political leaders to develop a commitment political pOHer in 1962, "colonial and identification with the nation is attitudes which created negative value undoubtedly one of the most pressing jadgements Here evaluated and challenged," concerns of emergent nations. There In other words, the J.L.P. took overt steps appears, however, to be no simple solution, to use the educational system to create a and it is difficult to know how to develop sense of national unity, Thus, in keeping an identification without destroying with its stated aim of education --­ older, more local identifications. It education for nationalism -- the J.L.P. follows, then, that the identification of government in conjunction Hith the nationalism as an aim of education in Institute of Jamaica established and both the J.L.P.ls and P.N.P.'s educational finar,ced the Folklore Research Programme in programme canno~ be treated lightly or 1967. This was an attempt to perpetuate ignored. the Jamaican culture, not from a British perspective, but from the traditional Neither the J,L.P. nor the P.N.P. provided aspect of a society which was left un­ any detailed definition for the term attended under colonial rule to wither and "nationalism." Some scholars, hOHever, Qle. The primary aim of the Folklore have used the term synonymous with nation Programme was to gather Jamaica1s cultural building. Deutsch (1966, p. 188-89) states heritage through the simple folk of the [hat llwe do not know enough about country _.. many of whom were illiterate nationalism to be sure what it is." (Hurwitz and Hurwitz, 1971, p. 216). Kahn (1944, p. 16) defined it as a state of mind, permeating the large majority of In an attempt to eradicate the snobbery people and claiming to permeate all its that was attached to the use of the local members ..•• The supreme loyalty of man dialect, the government CJ.L.P.) made it is therefore due to his nationality, as incumbent upon teachers as well as other his own life is supposedly rooted in and influential members in the society to give

4 recognition to the Jamaican dialect. As alone because part of the problem is a result, the dialect was given a new life external and many of the psychological and it took its place beside standard problems in the development of national English in the Jamaican schools. Jamaican identity stem from the Jamaicanls perception honours replaced British honours in 1968. of the world around him. It follows that, thus. knighthood w·as replaced by the Order ''-"hile we grant the primacy of locally­ of Jamaica (OJ). Not surprisingly, focused solutions, we dare not ignore the HUn-1itz and Hunvitz (l971, p.12S) have wider context. For every effort that is noted that !~a uniquely national outlook TIlade to instill n~tional-s21f-confidence has developed (in Jamaica) since independence (pride) there must be a parallel effort to to ins~il1 a sense of pride and confidence set our African and, hence, our black in the individual's identity as a Jamaican. " he'rirage in. legitilltate. contex:t ~1 (ttlan .. e'l, 1974. p. 155). To deal with the problem. Hanley (l9]t., p. 154) argues thati'people therefore, it is necessary that: are unlikely to respond to positive suggestions or influence of their education G~~ our educational system if they are unsure of their own (national) sbauld iriclude a strong streaITL i.dentity" Therefore, the educational of African studies, so that system must be constantly concerned with trle historical imbalances \;;Jhieh the -problem of self-perception~ Manley centre around the myth and the P.N.P. took the position that, lD can be redressed by truth. terms of formal education) the following Equally, there should be the responses are essential: most vigorous promotion of cultural exchange .... African

Our history IHUSt hav"e a strong}i Q&.D.ce} dram,a, paint :I' aD,d realistic national focus and sculpture will be on constant should explore every example display .•• only by such of achievement. Every slave means as these can our ex­

uprising should be the subject perience be enriched esc and of an 2xcitln.g ad'\/e"nture tale ou:c reaction to our blackness so that we relate to our own take on an increasingly Robin Hoods. Equally natural character (Manley. important. the educational 1974 .. p. 155). system must come to grips with the question of Clearly, both the J.L.P. and the P.N.P. blackness and the place are concerned with the problem of creating of Africa. The many people and instilling a sense of national pride in the Black Caribbean who within the Jamaican society. The J.L.P. rationalize their racial placed its emphasis on, and gav-e prJ.macy insecurity by dismissing our to. the development of a sense of national African heritage as irrelevant pride in things Jamaican -_. pride in its do so because they have never dialect, pride, first, as a Jamaican and, faced, in themselves, the scars SeCODdJY, as a human being with feelings of that have been inflicted by identity and dignity. colonial history ~.~ we must face the TIlyth of Causican The P .. TLL in contrast, while acknowledging superiority from across the the necessity for the development and chasms of doubt that have perpetuation of the indigenous Jamaican

been created by the conscious culture. placed these considerations in 0 distortions of our history subordinate position. The overriding which underlay our early direction of the P.N.P.'s nationalism drive education until very is toward the development of pride, first, recently (Hanley, 197LI, p. 154). as a Black Afric.an, second, as a member of the Caribbean community, and, then, along Faced with a problem of this magnitude, a cultural continuum, pride as a Jama.ican. Hanley argues that there must be a total It appears froTIl the P.N.P.ls conceptualiza­ response to this problem. He acknowledged tion, as verbalized by the Prime Hiaister, that not all responses to the probleTIl the Jamaican can develop pride in himself can be generated from within the society as a Jamaican only when he has gone the

5 route of correcting the distortions of prograMnes in order to foster social and colonial history and, subsequently, accept­ economic development (see, for example, New ing himself as Black and African. The Deal, 1966, p. 1-3; Five Year Independence Jamaican can only fully appreciate his Plan 1963-1968, p. 126; Manley, 19/2, own history and culture and, relatedly p. 94; 3ive Y~ar Educational Plan, 1978-1983 regional Caribbean history and culture p. 5; 6; and 69). when he has learned African history and culture. The J.L.P. in its educational planning aimed at fostering social economic develop­ While the J.L.P. gave primacy to Jamaican ment in this way: music (Reggae), art, dance, sculpture, and folklore, the r.N.p. gave primacy to their Economic development cannot African counterparts. The J.L.P.'s proceed without trained man­ position emphasized pride as a people power, political independence and as Jamaicans within the world cannot successfully function community. The P.N.P.'s emphasized pride without trained manpower. No as Black Jamaicans of African heritage modern country could promote within a third world community. The and sustain a high level of J.L.P. emphasized personal and national complex economic activity in consciousness as prerequisites to the a free country whilst its development of nationalism. The P.N.P. education remains rudimentary emphasized racial consciousness as an end and unspecialized, nor could to national consciousness and, hence, the development depend on the development of a new nationalism. In continuous flow of technical other words, the former advocated a kind assistance from developed of "liberal nationalism: while the latter countries. It is necessary advocated "racial nationalism". to mobilize for development such resources as already EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT exist and hence the need to encourage the expansion Jamaica, like most other developing of educational facilities countries, is and has been faced with the to foster social and problem of planning for, and supplying, economic development (New suitably qualified individuals in Deal, 1966, p. 1). sufficient numbers to foster economic and social development. McPherson (1961, The New Deal noted further that the p. 61) noted that: education provided would endeavour to: 1) "expand employment horizons of The most crucial economic persons entering the labour force and raise problem facing Jamaica the level of employment by the provision of now and in foreseeable education which will be i~nediately function­ future is to keep the al on entering the labour force; 2) gear the expansion of the economy training in post-secondary schools for more and the increase in the specific skills to meet the distinct needs of labour force comp arable industry, agriculture, and commerce lJ (p. 2). while simultaneously Moreover, the New Deal noted that the developing ways and government's educational programme was aimed means of curbing the at "improving the quality of education spiralling rate of offered to ensure the soundest possible all­ natural increase in the round education to bring about a degree of population.. social integration that is found necessary to Jamaica" (p. 2). D'Aeth 0956, p. 48) noted that "the expansion of government service seems Pursuant to this commitment to provide an to be going faster than the expansion education aimed at social and economic of secondary schools. 1f It is not development, the government restructured the surprising, therefore, that both the educational system to include Junior J.L.P. and the P.N.P. although adhering Secondary schools as well as Technical and to declared differing political ideologies, Vocational schools. The College of Arts, had attempted to structure their educational Science and Technology, as well as the

6 recognition to the Jamaican dialect. As alone because part of the problem is a result, the dialect "ms given a new life external and many of the psychological and it took its place beside standard problems in the development of national English in the Jamaican schools. Jamaican identity stem from the Jamaican1s perception honours replaced British honours in 1968, of the world around him. It follows that, t '~U3 ~ ,.K~.lgh'_Lu~?(J.1-< 1 w~.s rep1ac:d'~ Dy t_.he 0lr\!er- '\,rhile \tie grant the primacy of locally­ or Jamalca (OJ)~ Not 5urprlslnglyj focused solutions, we dare not ignore the Hu.r~¥itz p~12S) arid Hur\,;,Titz (1971 j ha\/E' wider context. For every effort that is rIoted that H a uniquely rlational outlook made to insti.ll national-self-confidence has developed (in Jamaica) since independence (pride) there must be a parallel effort to to instill a sense of pride and confidence set our African and, hence, our black irl the :Lndi""'lidual t s idelitity as a JalnaicaniJ n heritage in legitimate context" (Mcm2 ey, 1974, p. 155). To deal with the problem, p~ therefore~ 1.1an.ley (1974 j 154) argues that dpeople it is necessary that: are unlikely to respond to positive suggestions or influence of their education ... our educational system if they a.re. unsure of tb.et]:~ own (natioT1al) should include a strong stream iderltit~lHv Tb.erefore, the educatioilal of African studies, so that systerrl Inu~3t be c.:onstarttly c.on.cerrled ~vitb. the historical imbalances which the .problem of self-perception~ centre around the European myth P~N.P. and the took the positioli that J in can be redressed by truth. terIilS of formal educ,atinn;: t'he fO.L-c.l.."·"_C.'L"- Equally, there should be the responses are essential: most vigorous promotion of cultural exchange .... African Our history m:us t b.ave a s dance, drama, painting, and realistic national focus and sculpture will be on constant shou.ld explore every exaInple display ... only by such of ac·hie"tJem.erlt", Every sla\T€ means as these can our ex- uprising should bE the subject periance be enriched ... and of aD exciting 2dventure tale our reaction to our blackne::;s so that we relate to our own tak~e on aD. iD.c.rE:8.sin.gly· Robin Hoods. Equally natural character (Manley,

impo:ctaD.t 3 th\~ educational 19/£;, p. 155). system mU8't come to grips with the question of Clearly, both the J.L.P. and the P.N.P. blackl-less aIld the place are concerned with the problem of creating of Afric2$ The many people and instilling a sense of national pride in tIle Black. Caribbea.n "l110 vJithin the J arnaiean socIety . The J.L. P • rationalize their racial placed its emphasis on, and gave primacy insecurity by dismissing our to, the development of a sense of national African heritage as irrelevant pride in things Jamaican -~- pride in its do so because they have never dialect;, pride, first, as a Ja·maican. an.d., faced, in themselves, the scars secolldly, as a human being with feelings of that have been inflicted by identity and dignity. colonial history $C~ we must face trle lllyth of Causicarl The P.N.P. in contrast, vhile dckno1Nledging superiority from across the the necessity for the development and chasms of doubt that have perpet'Jation of the indIgenous Jamaican been created by the conscious culture. placed these considerations in a distortions of our history subordinate position. The overriding which underlay our early direction of the P.N.P.'s nationalism drive education until very is toward the development of pride, first, recently (Manley, 1974, p 154). as a Black African, second, as a member of the Caribbean community, and, then, along Faced with a problem of this magnitude, a cultural continuum, pride as a Jamaican. Hanley argues that there must be a total It appears from the P.N.F. 's conceptualiza­ response to this problem. He acknowledged tion, as verbalized by the Prime Minister, that not all responses to the problem the Jamaican can develop pride in himself can be generated from within the society as a Jamaican only when he has gone the

5 route of correcting the distortions of programmes in order to foster social and colonial history and, subsequently, accept­ economic development (see, for example, New ing himself as Black and African. The Deal, 1966, p. 1-3; Five Year In~endence Jamaic.an can only fully appreciate his ylan 1963-1968, p. 126; Hanley, 1972, own history and culture and, relatedly p. 94; Five Year Educational Plan, 1978-198~ regional Caribbean history and culture p. 5; 6; and 69). when he has learned African history and culture. The J.L.P. in its educational planning aimed at fostering social economic develop­ While the J.L.P. gave primacy to Jamaican ment in this way: music (Reggae), art, dance, sculpture, and folklore, the P.N.P. gave primacy to their Economic development cannot African counterparts. The J.L.P.'s proceed without trained man­ position emphasized pride as a people power, political independence and as Jamaicans within the world cannot successfully function community. The P.N.P.ls emphasized pride without trained manpower. No as Black Jamaic.ans of African heritage modern country could promote within a third world community. The and sustain a high level of J.L.P. emphasized personal and national complex economic activity in consciousness as prerequisites to the a free country whilst its development of nationalism. The P.N.P. education remains rudimentary emphasized racial consciousness as an end and unspecialized, nor could to national consciousness and, hence, the development depend on the development of a new nationalism. In continuous flow of technical other words, the former advocated a kind assistance from developed of "liberal nationalism~ while the latter countries. It is necessary advocated "racial nationalism". to mobilize for development such resources as already EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT exist and hence the need to encourage the expansion Jamaica, like most other developing of educational facilities countries, is and has been faced with the to foster social and problem of planning for, and supplying, economic development (New suitably qualified individuals in Deal, 1966, p. 1). sufficient numbers to foster economic and social development. McPherson (1961, The New Deal noted further that the p. 61) noted that: education provided would endeavour to: 1) "expand employment horizons of The most crucial economic persons entering the labour force and raise problem facing Jamaica the level of employment by the provision of now and in foreseeable education which will be immediately function­ future is to keep the al on entering the labour force; 2) gear the expansion of the economy training in post-secondary schools for more and the increase in the specific skills to meet the distinct needs of labour force comp arable industry, agriculture, and commerce" (p. 2). while simultaneously Moreover, the New Deal noted that the developing ways and government's educational programme was aimed means of curbing the at "improving the quality of education spiralling rate of offered to ensure the soundest possible all­ natural increase in the round education to bring about a degree of population. social integration that is found necessary to Jamaica" (p. 2). D'Aeth (1956, p. 48) noted that "the expansion of government service seems Pursuant to this commitment to provide an to be going faster than the expansion education aimed at social and economic of secondary schools." It is not development, the government restructured the surprising, therefore. that both the ~ducational system to include Junior J.L.P. and the P.N.P. although adhering Secondary schools as well as Technical and to declared differing political ideologies, Vocational schools. The College of Arts, had attempted to structure their educational Science and Technology. as well as the

6 Jamaica School of Agriculture were expanded 1974, p. 76). Consistent with this and upgraded to provide a wider range of declared positon, the Manley government courses at a more efficient and advanced (P.N.P.) defined its objectives for social level than were previously provided. By and economic development within the providing these educational institutions, educational system. The educational system which were to recruit, educate, and was deemed the most conducive path for train the youth of the country in skills, fostering rapid social and economic develop­ trades and modes of behaviour conduc~ve ment within Jamaican society. In this to national, social, and economic develop­ regard, Manley (1974, p. 94) argued that: ment needs, the government W::lS laying the foundation for present and future develop­ Education is the means by ment. These needs, as well as those of which we equip today's commerce and industry, would be met in­ generation for tomorrow's cidentally. That is, while government possibilities. This demands provided the educational opportunities and a careful assessment of the facilities, it was the individual's choice kind of economic develop­ based on his talent, ability, aptitude, and ment of which we are interest that would determine the training capable, which is modified he received. by our physical environ·­ ment and by a calculation The training he received would lead in­ of how they relate to creasingly, "it was hoped, to students national objectives. The regarding themselves as equal and worth­ educational system must while within the society, while retaining seek to produce skills respect for genuine superiority of which are a calculable knowledge and skill. At the same time, part of our opportunities they would learn and be equipped to and the kind of attitudes cooperate with management and among without which skills are themselves. Such a situation required an sterile and the successful informal, self-disciplined, self-respecting pursuit of objectives work force, and one capable of independent unlikely. This whole area judgement. It was to the achievement of is fundamental and is an these goals that the national educational indispensable key to drive to promote social and economic development (social and development was geared. economic).

Manley (1974, p. 77), however, noted that: In keeping with this stated belief, the P.N.P.'s Five Year Educational Plan 1978­ •.• the growth of our economy 1983 notes that "education should enable can be meaningless in terms each individual to strive for excellence at of a just society if the all levels of endeavour, thereby contribut­ distribution of wealth is ing positively to societal needs for not equitable. A common economic productivity as well as aesthetic feature of past colonial and cultural development" (p.6). Jhe Five societies embarking upon Year Educational Plan noted, further that the post colonial adventure lI e ducation must help the individual to be has been a gross mal­ adaptable, in order to cope with economic distribution of wealth ..•. and technological changes" (p.7). Equitable distribution of wealth is a precondition Moreover, the P.N.P.'s educational plan of social justice in any stated clearly that its education was aimed country and takes on a at "developing and implementing a school particular urgency ... in production program vlith accent on econo:nic Jamaica. production and cooperative activities" (Five Year Educational Plan, p. 69). In an Clearly, then, social and economic development attempt to implement the aim of developing is only meaningful if it takes place within a "social production program," the P.N.P the context of defined objectives (Manley, introduced the "Productive Work Programme"

7 in ,:hl2 Jamaican schools (Five Year Education at Jamaica's technological and economic Plan, p. 7 This program -- the needs., partic.ularly those aimed at the Productive Work Program -- sought to: development of a technological mixture which is unique to the nation's needs. This l~ form positive attitudes should "'focus upon the exploration of new on the part of studen s technological 'mixes I 1;vhich seek to find a toward purposeful work; balance between modern equipment ..• and maximum. use of labour (for) the employment 2~ prepare students for the of metropolitan technology will leave us world of work; and ';.lith a mounting employment problemn (Manley 197~, p. 97)" 3Q impart to studellts the value of direct involve­ From this, it is obvious that the J~LvP~ ment in econOffilC and the P~N~P~ differ in their specific aims at the for HEducat:Lon for Social an.d ECOllomic Development>;; in terms of emphasis., mode, and means for attaining this general level 76) ,. objecti1/2Q Both tIle J,.,L .. P" arid the P~N.}P~ are convinced of the need to provide and Manley (1974. p. 95) noted that.• because rnairl't.ain iIlfrastructures s1Jch as tech.nical of Jamaica's chronic tendency to and vocational educat.ional institutions people; s technology, '\;2 have condemned from 'which trained and skilled personnel ourselves to a kind of tal intensive will graduate to par'ticipate in the economic process which is appropriate onJ_y for development of the country~ This, however, metropolitan areas at their contemporary is where the similarity or agreement in st.age of developlnent ~ n Capi.ta.l irltensive empnasis between the P.N.F. and the J.L.L processes are not basically suited to a e"nds () country like Jamaica. In or-de1: for Jamaica to ensure basic continuity and stability of The J.L.P. appears to be more concerned social and economic development. the with the internalization or indoctrination educEtiun,al system nU.1st be used to resea.rch of a "gOOd!! work ethic. --- instilled or and produce technological innovations that :LilCulcated through an "incidentaln process. are related to the Jam.a..ican needs ~ While they provide physical facilities for training in skill acquisition, no conscious In this regard. Manley (1974, p. 95) noted effort was made to impress upon students trIat: their worth to the society, respect for genuine superiority of knowledge and skills, All technological adaptions and or the provision of work experience and on consequently much economic the job training. These factors, apparently. development, can he traced to would be learned spontaneously. research. But every count~y pursues research in terms of The P.N.P., in contrast, is not content to its 0,,'711 general, nat1..1ral en: leave attributes such as these to chance or particular sectoral needs. to an acquisition by means of an llincidentalH It is unlikely, therefore, process. Instead, they (P.N.P.) proposed that the research of one and introduced the "Productive TtJork country can provide all the ?rograTm:ne.!!, which v128 designed to provide answers that are relevant early exposure and indoctrination to to the needs of another~ !ldesiredH work and industrial habi.ts. Therefore, Jamaica must Perhaps illustrative of. this intent l;JaS devote a substantial propor­ Manley's (1974, p. 143) statement that: tion of its resources to the development of its o"m Society cannot afford to research techniques and wait for market forces processes. to produce the required shift in the focus of In this context, the educational system personal ambitions must playa direct role in research din:cted it is obvious that the 8 system cannot respond EDUCATION FOR EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY adequately through a mere extension of course options. A conscious The provision of an educational system con­ effort to fashion new ducive to the development of equality of attitudes to"mrd the opportunity was a primary aim of the J.L.P. educational process, its government. This was stated clearly in purpose and possible t:he preamble to the New DeaL In the benefits is a necessary J.L.P. 1 s frame of reference, equal oppor··· exercise. This, in turn, tunity meant that no person should be irnplies t112 de"\Telopm.ent denied the chance to share in the present of an attitude toward or potential good of the society by reason society itself ... It is of his race, his religion, his class impossible to talk about (economic status), or his nationality. That economic transformation is, all individuals would be given the without accomplishing a same access to opportunities and advantages. transformation in Some citizens would not be arbitrarily attitude •.•• privileged, and others wDuld not be deprived (New Deal, p. 1). Unlike the J.1.P., the P.N.P. was not content to allow metropolitan technological In this context, equal educational oppor­ innovations to determine the path, mode, tunity implies not just the absence of or direction of Jamaica's social and restrictions but a positive setting of economic development. Instead, the conditions which will be favourable and P.N.P. proposed that the educational conducive for one's receiving an appropriate system. and its physical facilities be education. Those students who have poor used to set up and conduct research aimed parents will be able to attend school and at developing technological innovations advance in the educational system as far as compatible with Jamaica's industrial and their talentsliJill permit. The New Deal developmental needs from which maximum noted that: benefits will accrue to Jamaica. . .. poverty or low social The J.L.P. 1 s educational programs were status of parents will no such that values and attitudes toward longer be a barrier to a society, in general, and work, in sound education nor will particular, were not taught directly. it determine the social, This was, primarily, an indirect process economic, or civic future j, \vh.ich the individual student accepted of any child. As a result 8.;·,d internalized those values and attitudes of this educational with which he identified. Attributes such revolution (the New Deal) as cooperation, pUlctuality, acceptance of no Jamaican child I<7il1 be one's social position within the hierarchy, debarred by his poverty aI~ respect for superiors (deference) from qualifying for any \\Tere also left to an indirect process. position in this country.

The P.N.P. 1 s program, in contrastvlere The J.L.P. noted that the education systenl intended to teach directly the above values up to 1960 had succeeded in emphasizing and attributes. This intent -- to con­ the social problem -- inequality -- by sciously teach approved societal values creating a cleavage based largely, on wealth and an acceptable \'lork ethic -- is vividly in society. However, the J.L.P. was con­ emphasized by Manley's (1974, p. 145) viIlced that "education should unify society statement in which he argued that '\le must instead of dividing or stratifying it." strive consciously to a general acceptance It follows that "educational opportunities of the work ethic as both a means to personal should be open to all who qualify and satisfaction and the personal investment impediments such as poverty and lack of that each man must make in the progress to opportunity should be removed"(New Deal, which he is committed by his ambition". p. 21).

9 The method of selecting students for high worth" In this way, a society must value school education was criticized by the J.L.P. every human being within its purviewlt as a means to the creation and development (Hanley, 1974, p. 37). Clearly, this of inequality within the Jamaican society. implies that each individual within the The New Deal (1966, p. 21) noted that: Jamaican society must be entitled to equ81 access to the opportunities presented and The Common Entrance Examina­ succeed or fail only on the limits of tion discriminates against ability or interest. Illustrative of this under-privileged children claim is the P.N.P.'s statement that: and, in particular, those living in rural areas \.;rho, The government (P~N~P~) because of their late believes that all children enrollment at school, in this society (Jamaica) irregular attendance and should have the oppcrtuTlity lack of good infant to learn the basic skills education cannot compete and develop abilities which successfully against more will enable them to adjust privileged children for to adult life and that this scholarships and free opportunity should be ex­ places at the age of 11 tended regardless of or 12. They are treated culture. and home backgrounds as discards and are and mental, emotional or mostly condemned to low physical difficulties (Five income, and unskilled Year Educational Plan 19 78- ~, 0-;::;;:;--- 8 ~ , occupations for the rest L~.b..)j p... ,j). of their -.LJ_ves .. Concomitant to this belief was the P.N.P.'s Clearly, from the J~L~P~'s perspective~ cIa-lm that no society can approach the what was needed was a system of secondary organization of equality except within the school selection which provided equality framework of a single, integrated of opportunity. The J.L.P.'s answer educational system", i1Th:ts is because to the problem was the introduction and equality must imply, in the most literal impleT','1tion of the 70: 30 :o::ystem of sense, that it is possible for a man to avm.rcl". This reform effort by the Ne"w ric;e as his innate talents permit" (Hanley, Deal U. 24) underscored the government I s 1974, p. 39). As a continuation of this intent that educational programs should be line of thought, the Five Year Educational aimed at "providing opportunities for all Plan 1978-1983, p. 5) stated that lI t his pupils to progress according to attainment" government's philoscpby envisages the aptitude and ability." creation of an egalitarian society based on the twin pillars of social justice and In addition to the introduction of the equality of opportunity.a 70;.30 system of a\.-lards, the J.L.P. re­ organized the school system so that all The Fiv-e Year ,Plall continl1ed this argument students would move from one cycle to the by stating that: next according to ability and achievement at the previous stage. There was also a Equality of educational sig:dficant increase in the number of opportunity must exist, that governmept grants, bursaries, and schala:c­ is: 1) secondary education ships offered to qualified Jamaicans (New must be available for all Deal, p. 34). students as the normal continuation of education; Equ.ality of opportunity is as important to and 2) there must be equality developing societies as the idea of national­ of access to different types ism~ It is not surprising, therefore, that of secondary stage instructions equality of educational opportunity is a and equality of educational primary aim of the P.N.P.'s educational opportunity within these program. To the P.N.P., equality of institutions (p. 69). opportunity meaIlt that "e\leryone in society must begin with a sense of equal It follows that if equality of educational

1.0 opportunity is to become reality, there must vlhile there are basic similarities, be an egalitarian society. In this regard, there appears to be a significant difference Hanley (1974. p. 39) noted that Hit is in the methods deemed fit to achieve a enough to insist that a single educational system which provides equality of educational system is critical to egalitarianism." opportunity. The J.L.P. attempted to This is necessary because it is the mean~ prOVide a wide range of opportunities among by ,,,hich "we can teach the first lesson which each student could move according to that parental accomplishment does not his ability. The P.N.P., on the other hand. confer a privileged status on children" advocated a siD.gle common school syE;tem (Manley, 197 L;, p. 40). through which all must pass. The .I.L.P. chose gradualism and limited change as Clearly, from the P.N.P.1s position, an approach to the achievement of equality equality of educational opportunity can of educational opportunity; the P.N.P. chose only be achieved through the developm2nt i.rmnediate alld sweeping change. of one strand of educational patterning throughvJhich all must pass. 110reover, There is also a difference between the the educational system must begin vJith s J.L.P. and the r.N.p. in their philosophical single strearH of basic a'nd primary educatioLl approach to the system intended to provide in which the quality of facilities that equality of educational opportunity. It are available are the same for all children. appears that the JoL.p.'s primary effort in T'his is a prerequisite sirlce Hit is providing equality of educational opportunicy impossible to }~econcile the notion of 3. lJ"Yas to redress th.e imbalarlces be.tvleerl the society of equality with unequal education­ economic: classes and to extend previously al facilities" (Five Year Educaitonal withheld educational opportunities to the Plan, p. 160). poor classes so that eacf; individual may make a contribution to Jamaica's social, In order to facilitate its stated belief in economic and political development~ It the necessity of a single stream of appears, however, that the overriding intent secondary education as a means of providing of the r.N.p.'s objectives in providing and ensuring equality of educational equal of educational opportunity was co opportunity, the P.N.P. announced in 1973, lay the foundations of an egalitarian the commencement of a system of Free society. Education. Under such a system, students would attend school from the primary This emphasis -- the creation of an level through the tertiary level free of egalitarian society - ..- is clear in a number charge. By so doing, the government of Manley's statements. Hanley (1974, p. 38) attempted to ensure that neither noted that "when a child is born, an parental wealth nor parental accomplish­ egalitarian society must, first of all, nents >vould determine 1:he kind or level ensure equality of opportunity." He noted of education a child received. Consequently, further that " a single educational system such a system would be conducive to pro­ is critical to egalitarianism. If Horeover, Viding equality of educational opportunity. the Five Year Educational Plan 1978-1983 (p. 5) stated clearly that "this government The J.L.P. and the P.N.P. conceived of (PoN.P.) envisages the creation of an equality in more or less the same manner. egalitarian society based on the twin Both governments regarded an educationcd pillars of social justice and the equality system providing equal opportunity as one of opportunity,!! Furthermore, Hanley in which all students would have the same (l97!" p. 39) argued that '\vhen it is opportunity to achieve educationally. Both insisted that all c.hildren share this governments expressed in no uncertCi.ln [erms, common experience (a single common school), the belief that all students are equal and the firs~ foundation of the egalitarian that no child should be arbitrarily instinct will have been laid." privileged because of his high social and economic status or by the high or exceptional accomplishments of parents. In sum, both SUIVQVIARY the J.L.P. and the P.N.P. stressed emphatic­ ally that all individuals should be given This discussion of the J.L.P.'s and the the same access to opportunities and P.N.P.'s educational aims suggests that, advantages. while there are similarities between the

11 educational aims of both governments, there are differences in both emphasis and methods for attaining their objectives. These differences in ideological and philosophic tone are obvious in rhetoric, but the resultant outcomes are not as different as the political antagonists might claim. Both governments advocated the same basic aims. The largest difference in emphasis is that observed in the equality of opportunity question. Despite political polemics, the claimed differences between are government that assertedly is socialistic and one that is pronouncedly capitalistic is not reflected in great differences between the educational objectives and the programes of the P.N.P., and the J.L.P. educational goals, patterning, and curricula are basically similar. To students and parents the differences may be unobservable.

12 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, E... llReforms in the Education System,1I Gleaner, 1963

D'Aeith, H. R., Secondary School in the Caribbean, London: Longmans, Green and Company, 1965.

Deutsch, Karl VI., Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inguiry into the foundations of Nationality, Cambridge., Hass: NIT Press, 1964.

Doob, Leonard \tJ., Patriotism and Nationalit';m: Tl:

Hurtwitz, S., and Hurwitz, E. Jamaica: A Historical Por~rait, New York: Praeger Press, 1971.

Jamaica Government, Five Year Independence Plan 1963 - 1968: A Long Te!l11 Development Plan for Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica: Government Printers, 1963.

Jamaica Government, Five Year Educational Plan 1978-1983, Kingston, Jamaica, 1978.

Jamaica Government, New deal In Education for Independent Jamaica, Hinistry Paper No. 73, Government Printers, 1966.

Jones, H., (ed.), Emerson on Education, Classics in Education O. 26, Columbia University, 1966.

Kahn, Bans, The Idea of Nationalism: A study of its Backgroun~, New York: Collier Books, 1944.

Macpherson, P., Developing a Curriculum ror Children and Youth in Jamaica, New York: Columbia University, 1961.

Hanley, M., The Politics of Chan~,. Jamaican Testament" London: Andre Deutsch, 1974.

"uaklev P 1l1)~trl'oti -. II Jamaica Journal, Vol. 4, 1970. J ", ~__~EJ:"

Redden, J. D., and Ryan, A. E., A Catholic Philosophy of Education, Hilwaukee, Wisconsin: Bruce Publishing Company, 1956.

Tanner, Daniel, Schools for Youth: Change and Changes in Secondary Education, New York: Hacmillan Company, 1972.

Tanner, Daniel, Seconda:u'. Educat~on, Perspectives and Prospect, New York: Macm~llan Company, 1972.

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