COUNTRY REPORT

RURALITY AND HIGHER IN

1. Introduction The current form and status of the education system in Zimbabwe has its positive and negative attributes. The system has been shaped by both the distant and the recent historical past. The distant past was the foundational introduction of formal schooling to the majority black people with its successes and positive imprints although typically marred by the racial approach which had serious influences on how education came to be perceived generally. However, boosted by its bold policies and processes on education in the nearly forty years of post-independence governance, modern Zimbabwe has maintained a respectable spot on the continental and global standings. And despite other pitfalls confirming its status of being an underdeveloped and non-industrialised state, the country is recognized for its high education levels, reaching a rate of 91.7 per cent in 2015 (IFAD Report, 2016). This has had its implications on the country’s developmental path and has brought about some expectations on the outcomes of such a successful exploit.

The implications of the achievement of a high literacy rate are that basic education has found acceptance in the diverse cultural settings of Zimbabwe and has successfully permeated the various sections and levels of society through enhanced access, expedited by government drive and the general affordability of education to even the poorest people. Added to that, there have been commendable progression rates through the schooling phases, in turn leading to sustainable completion rates. Although the characteristic bottleneck at the top has remained, the higher and sector has correspondingly ballooned in the last 20 years. Prior to that, the proportion of high school leavers who succeeded to reach was almost negligible. By comparing access to completion rates at primary and levels, the situation is therefore incomplete.

The expectations of a high literacy rate are that the country should begin to reap benefits from a more enlightened and better-skilled populace, and from the huge investments made in terms of time and other resources. The assumption here is that while driving the promotion of universal access to education, the important aspects of quality, relevance and impact were simultaneously addressed. However, this is debatable. Alongside claims that Zimbabwean education has quality and relevance, there have been concerns raised that contemporary Zimbabwean education has not correspondingly influenced the country’s socio-economic profile as would have been expected. In fact, the country has continued to languish in telling economic woes for close to two decades now, and apparently the solution do not seem near in sight. As a response to that, there have been efforts to constantly review political ideologies pertaining to education, policies, and curricula to create guidelines for effective transformation of learned minds to productivity and problem-solving in real life. The most recent in a series of endeavours has been the re-packaged STEM Education programme in 2016 that seeks to bring about accelerated industrialisation and modernisation of the economy.

Embedded in the drive to avail quality and useful education is the underlying concept of inclusivity and equity. Many successful efforts based largely on the lines of gender equity, racial desegregation, and breaking class barriers have been promoted in Zimbabwe, and have yielded positive results. This report seeks to provide a background of Zimbabwe’s education system as a basis of analysis when engaging in a study of equity and inclusiveness in education. In particular, the report will position the rural student in the milieu of jostling for access into, and benefits derived from, university education.

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The bilateral relationship between a rural student and a university is a matter of interest in modern society.

2. Methodology There is a wide range of literature on Zimbabwe’s Education system generated by individual scholars, institutions and organisations. Naturally, since the state is the key custodian of education in most countries, the pro-government sources tend to dwell on the policy and advocacy side, while other sources take a critical approach.

3. Documents analysis The availability of electronic resources of literature alongside the traditional printed paper documents makes it possible to quickly scan through various topics and aspects within a short time. However not all the relevant information is available on the internet and thus there was a need to seek more paper reports from the authors.

3.1 General In its simplicity, Zimbabwe’s education system is organized in a 7-4-2 pattern of primary, lower secondary, and upper . Secondary school consists of Form One to Form Six, with Form Four students studying an average of eight subjects, at the end of which they take the Cambridge School Certificate (CSC). From Form Five to six, they study normally a minimum of three subjects, at the end of which they sit the Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council examinations, or the Cambridge Higher School Certificate (HSC) examinations or take the CGE ‘A’ Level Certificate (National Council for Higher Education Harare, 2001). Once they have attained their CGE ‘O’ or ‘A’ levels, students can train towards a diploma in teaching, agriculture, nursing, and several technical courses. On achieving good ‘A’ level passes, they can enrol at a university for an undergraduate degree (National Council for Higher Education Harare, 2001). The main institutions offering higher education are , and technical and training colleges (Mtetwa, Tambo, & Chavunduka, 2006).

Tertiary Education (2 - 5 yrs)

Senior High School (A Level - 2 years)

Secondary School (O Level - 4 yrs)

Primary Education (ECD + Grade 1-7 [8 yrs])

Figure 1: The phases of the Zimbabwean education system (2016)

The current structure of the Zimbabwean education system comprises four key phases as indicated in Figure 1. For a successful candidate who goes straight through the stages, it takes a minimum of 13 years to complete the three lowest phases namely primary (7years), ‘O’ Level (4

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years) and ‘A’ Level (2 years). The majority of the students go as far as ‘O’ Level and successful students join diploma awarding institutions such as colleges, Polytechnics, Colleges of Nursing or Agricultural Colleges. Only 10% of the ‘O’ Level candidates manage to proceed to do ‘A’ level which is the university entry qualification in Zimbabwean Universities.

3.1.1 Administration of schools

Primary and secondary schools in Zimbabwe are administered by the following responsible authorities: government, churches/missions, city councils, rural district councils, mines, town boards, and farms, among others. The majority (about 75%) of the schools in Zimbabwe are administered by rural district councils and these schools fall under the rurality domain (see Table 1). The nature of the school administrator has a bearing on the quality of provision and the performance of learners in the schools.

Table 1: Distribution of by Responsible Authority (2012)

Responsible authority Primary Secondary No of schools % of schools No of schools % of schools Church/Mission 391 6.8 294 12.7 City Councils 117 2.0 14 0.6 District Councils (Rural) 4515 78.5 1669 72.2 Farm 118 2.1 16 0.7 Government 276 4.8 202 8.7 Mine 39 0.7 8 0.3 Other 87 1.5 45 1.9 Private Company 94 1.6 26 1,1 Town Board 19 0.3 14 0.6 Not stated 97 1.7 24 1.0 5753 100 2312 100 Source: Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2012

3.1.1 School attendance in rural and urban areas

Table 2 shows a comparison of the percentage of students by school attendance in rural and urban areas as at April 2011. In the crucial 5 – 14 age groups for basic primary and secondary education, the average percentage of male and female pupils at school is higher in urban (94.15) is more than in rural (91.75). The reverse is true of the percentage that never attended school in the same age group.

The comparable data for post-secondary attendance could not be obtained.

Table 2: Percentage distribution of students by school attendance in rural and urban areas (2011)

Sex and Rural Urban Age group At Left Never At Left Never School School attended School School attended Male 5-9 89.5 1.0 9.5 91.9 0.4 7.4 10-14 92.6 6.4 1.0 96.7 3.1 0.2 15-19 50.2 48.7 0.7 64.5 35.5 0.0 20-24 5.1 93.6 1.3 18.4 81.0 0.6 Female 5-9 91.1 0.7 8.1 92.4 0.8 7.4

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10-14 94.0 5.5 0.6 95.4 3.7 0.2 15-19 45.2 54.3 0.4 50.0 49.4 0.0 20-24 1.6 97.5 0.7 11.1 88.5 0.6 Both sexes 5-9 90.3 0.8 8.8 92.2 0.6 6.8 10-14 93.2 5.9 0.8 96.1 3.4 0.3 15-19 48.1 51.3 0.6 55.8 43.9 0.3 20-24 3.2 95.6 1.0 14.2 85.3 0.4 Source: 2011 LFS

3.2 Policy

The significant policy formulations on education in Zimbabwe have evolved since the early eighties, and they have largely centred and been formulated from a socialist philosophy inclined towards availing basic education to every citizen, particularly the appropriate age levels. The policy of free and compulsory primary school education for all was one of the first of a series of related and complementary policies to be pronounced early in the post-independence period. Later, following the land re-distribution exercise and the re-settlement of families in previously designated commercial farms, the Schools Expansion Programme gave rise to new schools (including satellite schools) which were established in those newly resettled areas to increase accessibility of primary education for children who had relocated to these areas.

3.2.1 Historical Perspective Precisely, in 2004 the then Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (MOESC) and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education (MOHET) adopted the National Action Plan: Education for All- towards 2015 (NAP), which incorporated Zimbabwe’s commitment to the Millennium Development Goals for education. The NAP was geared towards increasing student enrolments and improving the quality of delivery at all levels of education (SARUA 2008 – MRCI Report).

At the secondary school level, the rapid expansion of schools and student enrolments at independence was phenomenal, albeit beset with its problems. The resultant impact of the expansion was the pressure for increased tertiary education facilities or alternatively the avenues to employment in the subsequent years. Although there has been an expansion in the number of higher and tertiary education institutions i.e. colleges, polytechnics and other diverse training centres, the demand for higher and tertiary education has continued to soar, largely due to the shrinking of the employment base. The current status of the provision of post-secondary education is summarised in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Summary of Higher and Tertiary Institutions in Zimbabwe

Number of Institutions Type of Institutions Publicly funded Private Total Universities 11 5 16 Polytechnic & specialized colleges 8 8 Teachers’ colleges 10 3 13 Other (Agricultural, nursing, military, police, mining, etc) TOTAL

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Source: Zimbabwe MoE questionnaire response (and updated)

At independence in 1980, there was one university, two polytechnic colleges and five teacher training colleges. A decade later, there were 8 polytechnic colleges and 14 teacher training colleges as well as 2 new vocational training centres. The Zimbabwean Government has instituted a number of policy reforms in the higher education sector since 2001, reflecting a shift in emphasis from increasing access to education to improving the quality of education and training, due to the competitive demands brought about by globalization. The policy framework is contained in the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education’s corporate plan for 2002-2004 (Government of Zimbabwe Ministries of Education, Culture, Higher and Tertiary Education, 2004). In 2002, a new student financing policy was put in place to broaden opportunities for tertiary education (Bloom, Canning, & Chan, 2006). However, barely six years later, the economic and political crisis negatively impacted the state’s ability to provide financial support to education and thus reversed the progress made in higher education.

On the dimension of quality and standards of the education provided, a number of policies and programmes have tried to address that. The Rural Computers Programme which worked within the context of the rural electrification programme was introduced to ensure that rural children are computer literate. The National e-Learning programme was introduced in 2012 to address the desire that every Zimbabwean child should be computer literate.

One of the greatest changes in the education landscape in Zimbabwe has been the increase in the number of universities from one in 1990 to sixteen in 2016 against a population estimated at thirteen million people, thanks to the policy of one State University for each of the ten provinces and the open policy and enabling legislation for the establishment of private universities. The result of increases in the number of universities and access to university education has been a strain on resources to sustain the increases at a time when the country’s economy is facing serious challenges. Many concerns have been raised about the wisdom to increase the number of institutions instead of developing a few at a time and developing them fully. The following comment from a student leader in one of the universities:

Currently, the government is failing to maintain the 10 State universities that are there. Infrastructure in many universities is in a state of disrepair. Halls of residence are inadequate. Crucial resources for learning such as computers are in short supply. University workers are not being paid, yet the government of Zimbabwe thinks it is prudent to build yet another university. This is madness.

Those who criticise the rapid increase in the university education sector argue that this has been left uncontrolled due to political pressures when the solutions to the problem of unemployment have not been forthcoming.

3.2.2 Policy Context Higher and legislation is largely administered through the Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education Act. The purpose of the Act is to register and accredit institutions of higher education and to regulate quality assurance in them. Although the latest Act was promulgated in late 2006, it only came into effect with the appointment of Zimabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) board around 2010, all of whose members are chosen by the Minister.

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3.2.2.1 Presidential and ministerial pronouncements There have been some policies or guidelines to the education system that have emanated from political statements rather than strategically planned processes of policy formulation and consultative dialogue. One example cited has been the presidential drive to introduce computers in schools which started as a donation of foreign sourced laptop computers in a few selected schools but the practice has expanded to be a desire to eventually cover all schools. Another example has been the blanket introduction of school fees support to A Level students enrolling in STEM subjects beginning 2016.

3.2.2.2 Funding Policy Public Expenditure on Education as a % of Gross National Income (GNI) has been high in the early years since independence but had begun to decline in the recent years. The proportion of the education budget allocated to Higher education has been lower for obvious reasons. There have been a reduction in government loan or grant assistance to higher and tertiary education students in recent years...... Presidential scholarships have been available for a few students, but there have been serious problems in the disbursement of the funds resulting in some students relying on parental support to complete their programmes. The Zimbabwe Manpower Development Fund (ZIMDEF) is a levy collected from industry and commerce to supplement voted funds in the procurement of training materials and consumables in all higher and tertiary education institutions.

3.3 Census reports The last census in Zimbabwe was in 2012 and the report indicates that a high proportion of the population accessed and attained basic education, i.e. lower and upper primary. The census statistics also give the completion and progression rates for all stages. Table 4 shows the literacy rates (completion of up to at least Grade Three) by age groups, the most significant being the post-primary phase i.e. after age 14. The age group with the highest literacy rates was the 15 – 44 years. This reflects not only the success of the post-independence formal education revolution, but also the impact of accelerated and vigorous non-formal education targeting adults who had either failed to access formal schooling during their appropriate time or had dropped out before attaining literacy.

Table 4: Literacy rates for the Zimbabwe Population aged 15+ by age group and by sex

Literacy Rates Age group Male Female Total 15 - 19 98 98 98 20 - 24 99 99 99 25 - 29 99 99 99 30 - 34 99 99 99 35 - 39 99 98 99 40 - 44 99 97 98 45 - 49 98 94 96 50 - 54 94 87 90 55 - 59 93 86 89 60 - 64 91 84 87 65 - 69 90 82 85 70 - 74 87 79 82 75+ 83 75 78 Not Stated 33 26 29 Total 97 95 96

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It was not possible to locate comparable census reports on higher education, especially on funding.

3.4 Scholarly publications A body of literature now exists from educational scholars that addresses issues to deal with curricula, educational policy, resources, teaching methodology, of education, trends, administration, analysis and evaluation of systems, among many others. One such contemporary publication is by Shizha and Kariwo (2011) titled Education and Development in Zimbabwe, a book that contributes to policy formulation and design in an increasingly knowledge economy in Zimbabwe. Another is by Kariwo and Nungu (2014) titled A Comparative Analysis of Higher Education Systems : Issues, Challenges and Dilemmas. Several other publications are available.

3.5 Government web pages All government ministries and departments have their web pages which have basic information on general information and their current projects but not much detail for a scholarly presentation.

3.6 NGO reports The most active reports of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are those on and related issues such as politics and governance, peace and justice, alleviation, health, gender equality and other forms prone to . Very often NGOs purport to fill in the gap of what has been left by government. In the area of education, several NGOs provide a wide range of support services and functions, which would add up to the work of the whole government ministry or department. One such is the World Education in Zimbabwe (WEI- Zimbabwe) which provides financial and technical support to community-based and national organizations serving children in the areas of health, education and social protection Campaign for (CAMFED) have partnered with schools and responsible authorities to identify and support able but needy girl children, particularly orphans and those from. poor families in rural primary schools. Plan International is another international NGO whose involvement in education has seen them assisting children to fulfil their right to quality education through infrastructure development, payment of fees to deserving cases, correcting the gender imbalance and encouraging enrolment, retention and completion of primary education. It is again of interest that much of the literature from NGOs so far accessed is not addressing higher and tertiary education.

3.7 Dissertations Some very useful data is often generated and publicly communicated through novice researchers undertaking postgraduate studies. An example is the PhD thesis titled: Inclusion of disabled students in higher education in Zimbabwe: from idealism to reality - a social ecosystem perspective by Chataika, Tsitsi (2007, University of Sheffield. Another is by Emely Muguwe, Faculty of Education at the University of Fort Hare researching on the topic: A framework for continuing professional development of teachers in regular primary schools: towards the effective teaching of learners with needs in Zimbabwe. Some scholarly journal articles coming out of dissertations have been written and one example is: Gender and higher education in post-colonial Zimbabwe: tentative reflections on policy issues Mashingaidze, Terence M(2006)

3.8 Government Commissions One of the methods of influencing education reform in Zimbabwe is through Commissions of Inquiry. A classic example is the Presidential Inquiry into Education and Training (CIET) also

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known as the Nziramasanga Commission (1999) which advocated a need for a detailed review of the school curriculum in order to address the identified needs of the learners and the nation, essentially a broad outcomes- based curriculum in terms of subject offerings focussing on learning areas and employment related skills. At senior school, the commission recommended four interlinked programmes: general (academic), commercial or business, science, and technical and . It also advocated for the consolidation of communication technologies (ICTs) in the education sector.

3.9 International reports World Bank reports are informative and they provide statistical and other research generated information on the country’s economic performance, metrics on poverty, demographic and health surveys, financial indicators of national development, etc. The African Development Bank (ADB) produces reports and profiles of member countries, detailing economic development, trends and analyses of funds disbursed and appropriated for national projects and programmes. The UNICEF annual reports also release data on aspects such as continuous professional development and the funds released for basic education and gender equality. The UNESCO report on the analysis of public Expenditure on education in Zimbabwe Global and regional activities programme Education financing Development of methodologies to improve national reporting on financial flow Focus on equity and efficiency. Another UNESCO report titled Zimbabwe – Technical Handbook On Data Processing: Global and Regional Activities programme Education Financing Development of methodologies to improve national reporting on financial flow An approach to national education accounts

3.10 The Media The media is one of the most vibrant pathways of circulating and sharing data, albeit in sensationalised journalism . News items, articles, features, documentaries, opinion writings in the newspapers provide readers with their stories. One of the most reported topics in the media in recent months has been the new primary and secondary school curriculum, put together over a period of about three years to address pitfalls of the existing one. Media reports have carried the views of many of those concerned, and the following headlines tell the story: ‘Zimbabwe schools to have new education curriculum in 2016’ (Pachikoro [a magazine], September 2015); ‘New curriculum problem complete’ (The zimbabwesituation.com, October 2016); ‘New schools curriculum a nightmare’ (The Daily News, January 2017), ‘Teachers blast (Minister) over ‘rushed curriculum’ (Newsday, January 2017); ‘Mixed views on new O-Level curriculum’ (The Herald, January 2017); ‘New curriculum: Infants to be taught in indigenous ’ (The Herald, March 2017).

By publishing raw stories and reports, as well as analytical comments and ac academic arguments on the new curriculum, the media has managed to become a reliable mouthpiece and source of vital data for researchers and other interested parties. In one news report headed: ‘Zimbabwe’s new education curriculum hailed’ (UNESCO-ROSA, September 2017), the new curriculum was lauded by the President of Zimbabwe in the following words:

The new curriculum is a product of a consultative process which UNESCO supported, with the view of ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting life-long learning opportunities for all as espoused under Sustainable Development Goal 4.

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The media is a turf for tossing views and ideas, and it is noted that opposing views are splashed and media polarisation has happened in Zimbabwe where a section of the press or media provider supports only one viewpoint in a debate like the character and utility of the Zimbabwe education system.

4. Discussion The central thrust of this report is to provide a background of Zimbabwe that should support and appropriately situate the rurality study. The background is mainly about the education, but it touches on the socio-economic and political determinants of the education system as well.

4.1 Defining rurality It is accepted that different countries define ‘rural’ and ‘urban’ differently. Apparently, the concept ‘rural’ is best viewed as the opposite of ‘urban’, and it seems easier to define ‘rural’ by first defining ‘urban’, that is, pointing out what ‘rural’ is not. ‘Urban’ in the Zimbabwean context refers to all areas designated as such, and to places which had all the following characteristics: composed of 2 500 inhabitants or more, living in a compact settlement pattern, the majority (more than 5 percent) of the employed persons are engaged in non-agricultural occupation. The distinction between urban and rural area in Zimbabwe is made blur because of the existence of small mines, service centres and small settlements resembling cities and with less than 2500 people. Furthermore, ‘urban population’ refers to people living in urban areas as defined by national statistical offices. In highly industrialised countries, urbanisation is link to cities and towns. A section of the literature in sociology addresses the phenomenon of urbanisation in substantial detail. The world is moving towards city life mainly because the younger generations are gradually being lured more towards urban than rural life. Many young people with rural backgrounds are now turning to urban life for various reasons, mainly seeking employment, and changing lifestyles from being peasant farmers. The American urbanisation rate of urbanisation increased from 73.6% in 1970 to 80.7% in 2010. The world rate saw an increase from 29% in the 1950’s to 50 % in 2009 (Iowa State University, 2014).

For purposes of this study, we have coined a working definition for rurality.

Rurality is the human orientation resulting from prolonged exposure to, or participation in ‘rural’ lifestyles, activities or practices (in the early years of life). Rurality visibly modifies the subsequent behaviour of an individual semi-permanently, but the modification may be adaptable over time.

4.2 Rural populations in Zimbabwe The proportion of people living in rural areas in Zimbabwe is reportedly 67% compared to 33% living in urban areas (Fig 2). In comparison, over 82% of the United States population live in urban areas.

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Site of Settlement

Rural Urban

Figure 2: Proportions of people living in rural and urban areas in Zimbabwe

As is happening elsewhere all over the world, Zimbabwe is urbanising, and is essentially in transition. There is high population mobility between urban and rural areas. In the colonial days, men had two contrasting life experiences. They had a rural home where the wife and children lived and which the men would visit once or twice a month. Then the urban home, usually a room for sleeping and resting while at work. Example: a student from a rural background attends school in an urban area.

Of importance to this study is what the rural environment imparts to the students through both the formal schooling processes and the informal socialisation systems outside the school boundaries. It is assumed that the routine life, activities, lifestyles and the overall experiences play a crucial role in creating a typical rural ‘mind set’ in a student. That mind set has a bearing on the student’s future perception of university education as a whole, and its components. The mind set also determines how the student will negotiate their studies and integrate with counterparts in shaping their study habits and eventually their exit behaviours.

4.3 Inclusive Education Inclusive education can be viewed as a process of strengthening the capacity of an education system to reach out to all learners. It is, therefore, an overall principle that should guide all educational policies and practices, starting from the belief that education is a fundamental human right and the foundation for a more just society (UNESCO, 2008).

Inclusive education is a rights-based approach to education which appreciates diversity among learners and their unique educational needs. Inclusive education centres its efforts on children who are vulnerable and prone to exclusion and marginalisation. In this study the subject of inclusiveness is the condition associated with rurality. The lack of a policy on inclusive education in Zimbabwe has resulted in fragmented approach to properly account for the country’s determination of the destiny of rural and urban dwelling folk. Zimbabwe needs such an Inclusive Education Policy

4.4 Quality Education Zimbabwe may have had plausible successes in improving access to education for its citizens in the last four decades, thus improving its literacy rates. However many people have doubted the quality, relevance and impact of the provided education from the onset. This is not to say all schools and all students exhibit the lack of quality referred to here. The country has some good schools which produce good results, and has individual learners who achieve highly and go on to make remarkable achievements in their later working lives. Even so, the government authorities,

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on whom the power to change things rests, have heeded to advice that all is not well, and that there was wisdom in instituting processes for curriculum reforms at some point, such as the current situation.

Much of the blame for lack of overall efficiency in transforming the nation through the improved access to education is laid on the socio-economic problems, themselves a product of the political climate that has prevailed over the nation particularly starting in the late nineties. Zimbabweans have progressively endured declining standards of living, through the decimation of the middle class, unemployment, reduced (GDP), uncertainty in the direction of economic development, corruption and others. The resources to equip and sustain the expanded education system have been lacking, and many graduates have come out of institutions only half- baked. Similarly, the conduct and the processes of examinations have been scrutinised and often been found wanting. The quality and motivation of teachers in performing their duties has also been raised, amid beliefs that the often underpaid and poorly rewarded teachers show little commitment to their work, and thus have lost the respect of both their employer and the parents and communities in which they operate. Indeed, a while enrolments in universities were increasing, a drop in enrolments at teachers’ colleges was seen. The was due to the degraded status of the teaching profession (Chung, 2010). When not enough teachers were available in the schools, the country resorted to engaging unqualified teachers where critical teacher shortages have worried the nation. Many good teachers have, without replacement, moved to neighbouring countries or to better paying private schools and institutions. The expansion of the whole school system in Zimbabwe would have required that proper planning be done before implementation of any far reaching changes in the system, a thing which, unfortunately, has not been done. University education opportunities have increasingly been created nationwide, but the provision of appropriate resources has been delayed or totally ignored.

5. Conclusion Although Zimbabwe’s education system has been among the best in in recent years, at one time having the highest literacy rate on the continent before dropping to the current number two after Tunisia, it is not a far-fetched claim that the country has not reaped the commensurate benefits from such an accomplishment. It is a contested fact whether the education so provided all along has indeed been of significant quality to enhance its potential for solving relevant problems besetting the nation, and showing impact in all spheres of Zimbabwean society. It is not too much to wish that a country’s investment in education, in particular higher education, would bring about democratic processes and improved governance to benefit the entire nation, and to seek the a better economic order that would be the envy of troubled neighbours beset with myriads of socio- political complexities perculiar to Africa. An inclusive higher education that taps the energies of all citizens, of rural and urban backgrounds, would go a long way.

6. References 1. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 2016. Republic of Zimbabwe: Country strategy note. https://operations.ifad.org/documents/654016/c64cfb1b-6f2d-4e5c- a681-d2073c622890 2. Shizha E, and Kariwo M T (2011). The Development of Higher Education in Zimbabwe. Sense Publishers 3. The Independent. September 28, 2012. Education: Putting the cart before the horse. https://www.theindependent.co.zw/2012/09/28/education-putting-the-cart-before-the-horse/ 4. Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. 2013. Education Report. 5. http://www.techzim.co.zw/2012/03/every-zimbabwean-child-should-be-computer-literate/

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6. Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. Zimbabwe Population Census 2012. http://www.zimstat.co.zw/sites/default/files/img/National_Report.pdf 7. Nyangairi, B (2016). Inclusive Education in Zimbabwe: What guides us without a policy framework? http://www.osisa.org/education/zimbabwe/inclusive-education-zimbabwe-what- guides-us-without-policy-framework

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