84 Global Review 3(4)

Teacher Professional Development Outside the Lecture Room: Voices of Professionally Unqualified Practicing in Rural Secondary

Tabitha Grace Mukeredzi Durban of Technology, South

Abstract Attempts to address global pressure to achieve Education for All have been hampered by two fundamental challenges in developing countries, namely an acute shortage of teachers and large rural populations in these countries. In addition, qualified, competent teachers shun working in rural settings. While of professionally unqualified graduate teachers into the teaching profession has become recognized internationally as a way to address staffing rural schools and Education for All commitments, there remain outstanding questions regarding how such teachers professionally learn and grow in these rural contexts outside the Education Institution lecture room. An understanding of how they develop professionally is crucial. This study explored professional development experiences of professionally unqualified practicing teachers in rural secondary schools. A qualitative design was adopted and three-interview series complimented by photo elicitations were employed to explore the teachers’ professional development experiences. Data were transcribed and manually analysed inductively utilizing open coding. Findings suggest that professional development experiences for these teachers occurred in four sites: structures, wider professional sites, planned and unplanned gatherings, and the classroom. Drawing on concepts of professional development to describe, analyse and understand data, the author illustrates that professionally unqualified practicing teachers in rural secondary schools experience professional development outside Institutions in interaction, through domains of formality and experience: non formal, informal and experiential.

Keywords Rural education, unqualified teachers, professional development, experiential learning, Education for All

Background to the Study adequately trained teachers. UNESCO points out Of late governments have been experiencing “rights of children within education global pressure to achieve Education for All internationally are compromised by untrained (EFA) goals, consequently nations have made education systems cannot produce enough new commitments to every child, indeed, every teachers to meet projected demand and EFA person having access to basic education ______Corresponding Author: (Mukeredzi, 2009). However, in developing Tabitha Grace Mukeredzi, Durban University of Technology, countries, attempts to meet these EFA goals Indumiso-Midlands Campus, PO Box 1334, Durban 4000, have been confronted by two significant challenges. Firstly, an acute shortage of Email: [email protected]

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy , New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Mukeredzi, Tabitha Grace (2016). Teacher professional development outside the lecture room: Voices of professionally unqualified practicing teachers in rural Zimbabwe secondary schools. Global Education Review, 3 (4). 84-106 Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 85 and poorly trained teachers” (UNESCO, 2004, p. quality of teacher education provision is to be 138). Lewin, Samuel and Sayed add that “many enhanced (Mukeredzi, 2013). This study sought development targets” (2003, p.133). Secondly, to understand how the PUPTs in rural secondary many developing countries have large rural schools professionally develop outside TEIs. populations. In Zimbabwe 80% of Black The study addressed one research question: Zimbabweans live in rural areas (Chikoko, 2006) How do the PUPTs experience professional consequently most schools are located in these development outside TEIs in rural secondary settings. Globally, close to 70% of all school age schools? children are in rural schools (HSRC SA, 2005; UNESCO, 2004) which creates problems, as Conceptualising Professional qualified, competent teachers generally shun Development working in these areas. Given these global Professional development is understood as problems, an understanding of these big issues representing the growth of teachers in their becomes worthwhile. Through personal profession. Villegas-Remers (2003) defined it as experience of teaching and coordinating the Post “a long-term process that includes regular Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) in opportunities and experiences planned Zimbabwe and South Africa, governments systematically or unplanned to promote growth recruit university graduates into teaching who and development in the profession” (p.12). In have no professional teaching qualifications. many countries, proposals to reform/transform This coincides with international trends where schools emphasize teacher professional professionally unqualified graduates are being development as pivotal for improving education persuaded to join teaching and given special quality and achievement (Nakabugo, dispensations to develop them to qualified status Bisaso & Masembe, 2011) as the success of any (UNESCO, 2004). education reform for student improvement The sample group in this study were hinges on teacher professional development. professionally unqualified practicing teachers However, as professional development is context (PUPTs) in rural Zimbabwe secondary schools. dependent its nature remains diverse (Komba & In this study, PUPTs are practicing, possess Nkumbi, 2008; Villegas-Remers, 2003). content knowledge from undergraduate degrees, Professional development may be initiated have teaching experience, but do not have a by the ministry, school or teachers. Hurd, Jones, professional teaching qualification. It is the McNamara and Craig (2007) reported professional development experiences of this centralised government teacher professional category of teachers outside a Teacher Education development activities in the . Institution (TEI) lecture room, which is Government funded school initiated professional investigated in this study. The PUPTs were development activities focussing on particular enrolled in an Initial Teacher Education (ITE) policies have also been recorded in Tanzania Programme - PGDE offered by the Zimbabwe (Komba & Nkumbi, 2008). Other approaches Open University (ZOU) in order to become have included meetings, workshops, conferences qualified. and seminars organised by school subject Knowing how such teachers professionally departments, school-to-school subject clusters develop outside TEIs in rural schools is essential and associations (Chikoko, 2006). for reviewing professional development efforts In developing countries, professional undertaken by institutions, which is vital if development has generally relied on 86 Global Education Review 3(4) government, subject clusters, and associations (Chikoko, 2008) which often reinforce for disseminating policy initiatives (Kruijer, deficiency scripts like and 2010). In South Africa however, Graven (2004) unemployment (Ebersohn & Ferreira, 2012; discovered that government workshops were Islam, Mitchell, De Lange, Balfour & Combrink, ineffective, and in Zimbabwe, unproductive 2011; Hlalele, 2012; Myende & Chikoko, 2014). cascaded professional development workshops Other researchers believe that the elusiveness of were reported (Mukeredzi, 2009). These the definition emanates from the ambiguity of multiplier styles were also adopted in South the term and arbitrary nature of the distinctions Africa in order to reach many participants within with urban which often overlook the contextual a short period (Harley & Wedekind, 2005). differences because school curricula and Critics of cascaded models of teacher practices are similar (Abd-Kadir & Hardman, professional learning argue that such models 2007; Anaxagorou, 2007; Kline, White & Lock, often have no meaningful impact on classroom 2013). practice. In Zimbabwe, the legacy of the colonial There is concurrence on what effective rule delineated land into three classifications: professional development entails. But agreement First, the former sparsely populated white notwithstanding, a mismatch still remains farming areas, with distinctive developed between speechmaking and practice. Hence, infrastructure, close to towns and cities, across merely knowing what constitutes effective watershed with rich agricultural farmlands professional development is insufficient; what is (Mlahleki, 1995). Second, sparsely populated, important is to have it actively embedded in the black owned small-scale market gardening cultures, practices and structures of schools. farming areas located on infertile soils and with Similar observations were documented by Ono & limited infrastructure, further away from towns. Ferreira, 2010, p.63 who lamented that: “It is Third, the traditional village- rural, remote, not so much about knowing what good communal lands called tribal trust lands or professional development looks like; it’s about reserve’ (both descriptors signify derelict land knowing how to get it rooted in the institutional assigned by the colonial government but not structure of schools.” This study set out to owned by the black population) (Chikoko, investigate how the PUPTs in rural Zimbabwe 2006). Remote denotes physical road distance to secondary schools professionally develop outside the closest urban area where the geographical Teacher Education Institutions. In other words, distance imposes the highest restrictions (Kline the study wanted to understand how these et al., 2013). Remote is understood from this teachers professionally develop in rural perspective in Zimbabwe and in this study. secondary schools. These remote areas extend for hundreds of kilometres away from towns and former white The Rural Context In Zimbabwe farms, and are characterized by large tracts of Defining rural is complex and difficult. Coladarci infertile land for peasant farming and animal (2007) indicated that there is no singular grazing land portions, further away from the definition to satisfy the research, programmatic homesteads (Peresu, Ndundu, & Makoni, 1999). and policy communities that use this concept. Rural schools in Zimbabwe are positioned Some scholars have lamented that rural remains in remote villages as described above. Generally, a transient concept dependent on either class enrolments are small, but schools are geographical or demographical conceptions severely under-resourced and teachers often have to make-do in order to teach (Mlahleki, Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 87

1995). However, a positive theoretical potential developing-countries. Governments in within the make-do disposition is that this Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, Colombia, Costa stimulates creative thinking to deal with these Rica, Egypt, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, resource constraints, consequently creating Mexico, Nicaragua, Philippines, Venezuela, possibilities for professional learning. An Zimbabwe and others, adopt diverse recruitment awareness of shortcomings often leads to strategies, including wage premiums, subsidized developing effective mediational interventions rural housing, special in-service training, and which give rise to professional development. The compulsory teacher redeployment to rural rural communities around the schools are schools (McEwan, 1999). Thus, the majority of generally poor, which tends to undercut any teachers in these rural schools are either possibility of schools pooling resources. unqualified or under-qualified. Nevertheless, however, under-resourcing, In 1999, 4,035 of the 8,386 university inclusive of the entire rural atmosphere graduates in the Zimbabwean apparently strengthened the spirit of teacher sector, did not have a professional teaching agency and relational dimensions. Again, most qualification (Nziramasanga, 1999). More of these schools are neither electrified nor do recently, Majongwe (2013) revealed that the they have piped water. They are far apart and government recruited over 15,000, unqualified communication facilities like telephone, teachers to fill teacher gaps following two cellphone or broadband internet are rarely decades of skills flight in the education sector. available. This is compounded by limited and Consequently, rural schools, mainly staffed with undependable transportation; and when unqualified teachers, performed badly in the transport is available, many parents cannot 2011 and 2012 Ordinary and Advanced level afford it due to the high charges (Mukeredzi, examinations (Majongwe, 2013). Further, 2009). This forces many school children to walk Chiwanga (2014) reported that of the 98,446 long distances to the nearest secondary school. teachers in Zimbabwe, 12,713 were Working in rural settings has its own professionally unqualified. It was not possible to peculiar and idiosyncratic challenges. Attracting establish the number of PUPTs in rural and recruiting qualified teachers to these school secondary schools, but given the hard to staff, settings is difficult. Qualified, proficient and harder to stay issues, and with most of the experienced teachers often reject rural school population located in rural settings, it is teaching posts due to issues of , socio- unsurprising that most of these unqualified economic circumstances, ethnic differences and teachers are in rural schools. This suggests that the prevailing views of disadvantage, deficiency education research to develop strategies in rural and marginalization that conceptualize living contexts may be critical for fostering teacher and working in schools in rural settings as low professional development. grade and detrimental (Arnold, Newman & Rural areas in many countries suffer more Gaddy, 2005; Pennefather, 2011; Miller, 2012). than other contexts due to limited research and While, problems of hard to staff, harder to stay ill-advised efforts to develop relevant and schools are prevalent the world over (Hlalele, reliable approaches for improvement of the 2012; Kline, et al., 2013; Miller, 2012), the quality of education (Miller, 2012). Seemingly, problem is more pronounced in developing not many devote time to rural issues, nor countries. McEwan (1999) reported various effectively support the efforts of those who incentives for rural teacher recruitment in many attempt to improve education in rural schools 88 Global Education Review 3(4) and communities. Zimbabwe is not an education management, philosophy of exception, education in rural areas lags behind education, school experiences, communication educational development in other parts of the media in the classroom, and research methods country. Thus, providing accessible, quality with action research project (ZOU, 2001). The education to these settings is crucial. This study subject specialization modules cover the subjects investigated how PUPTs professionally develop which they taught or their under-graduate degree in rural school contexts. subject specialization majors. These modules also include lesson preparation, general Teacher Qualifications and , and pedagogic content knowledge. The teaching practice module extends over two Recruitment in Zimbabwe semesters, and the PUPTs did their teaching Teacher Education in Zimbabwe resides in practice at the schools where they were teaching. teachers’ and , and knowledge levels vary among practicing teachers (Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) Action Theoretical Framework Plan, 2010). The required minimum Teacher professional development has been qualification for primary and lower secondary understood in relation to qualified teachers school teachers (Form 1- 4) is an 'Ordinary' level however, in this study it is used with reference to academic certificate plus a teachers’ PUPTs. This study draws on concepts of teacher diploma/certificate obtained after three or four professional development (Villegas-Remers, years of teacher education in a teachers’ college. 2003). Villegas-Remers suggested that Teachers for senior secondary (Form 5 & 6) professional development is underpinned by a require an ‘Advanced’ Level certificate plus a number of characteristics: teachers’ diploma/certificate obtained after two Firstly, professional development is based or three years of teacher education in college or, on constructivism. Consequently, teachers are ‘Advanced’ level certificate, plus a three-year viewed as active learners, who engage in university degree, and a teachers’ concrete tasks of teaching, assessment, diploma/certificate. observation and reflection (Villegas-Remers, Teacher recruitment and deployment is 2003). Professional development is a social provincially centralized (MoHE, 2010), but a process in which teachers learn from and with secondary teacher’s contract may require others in specific ways. The process is long-term, deployment to anywhere in the province. The which acknowledges teachers as life-long PUPTs explored in this study were employed learners who learn more effectively from their before enrolling for ITE, and registration in the experiences (learning-in-practice) than from PGDE programme required them to have at least one-off presentations. The central position two years teaching experience. assumed by the learner (the PUPT) in their learning, and the on-going nature of professional The Zou PGDE Curriculum development, suggests a strong connection between teachers as learners, teachers in Three major components comprise the PGDE classroom practice, and in the learning of their curriculum in the ZOU: teaching specialization; pupils. In short, being a teacher implies education and professional foundations; and professional development. teaching practice. The educational foundations Secondly, professional development is modules provide the PUPTs knowledge and understood as a collaborative process. While skills on theories of learning, curriculum, Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 89 teachers may professionally develop through (Villegas-Remers, 2003). Thus, the context individual experiences and reflection, their most becomes central to the learning itself and should effective professional learning is understood as be designed to support and challenge the PUPT’s occurring in interaction, negotiation and thinking, assisting them to professionally discussion with other teachers as well as with develop into effective professionals capable of other interested parties, such as parents, handling real world complexities (Du Plessis et. administrators and even pupils (Villegas- al., 2010). Learning by doing is emphasized for Remers, 2003). Socio-constructivism alludes to the PUPTs to experience relevant activities individual knowledge construction occurring in hence, performing core-teacher roles enables social contexts, as learning activities are socially such experiences. and contextually bound (Du Plessis, Marais, Van Fourthly, a teacher is conceived as a Schalkwyk & Weeks, 2010). In this regard the reflective practitioner who enters the profession school community, inclusive of cultural and with some knowledge (Villegas-Remers, 2003). contextual practices, provides the context in These PUPTs have an undergraduate degree. which the PUPTs learn to teach through Thus they will acquire new knowledge and engagement in socially and contextually experiences based on prior knowledge. Thus, determined teacher roles and activities. Learning professional development will help the PUPTs to is an active meaning-making process of develop expertise, acquire/improve their transforming understandings in interaction; theoretical and teaching practices, with trial and hence, the PUPTs assume a pivotal role in their critical reflection, and with support and learning (Villegas-Remers, 2003). As emphasis feedback from knowledgeable others (Guskey, is on making-meaning in interaction with 2002). colleagues and the context, learning is not located at a psychological level (in a person’s Methodology head) nor does it involve development of passive Participants behaviours, rather it is influenced by external A qualitative methodology was adopted to forces and occurs in collaborative engagement. investigate how PUPTs professionally develop Interaction with knowledgeable others, outside TEIs in rural secondary schools. Six including mentors, colleagues, parents, learners, participants who were in the final year of the etc., who support the PUPT in knowledge PGDE programme were purposefully selected. construction, to acquire social meanings of These participants were identified from important systems and learn how to utilize them university biographical data sheets that is critical. Hence, relational dimensions, included geographical location of their interdependence and interaction are vital for schools and schools’ distance from town. productive and successful learning with and PUPTS were diverse in teaching experience, from each other. teaching specialization, age and gender. The Thirdly, professional development takes mean age was 36 years, and ages ranged from place within a particular context and is related to 30 to 43 years (see Table 1). the daily activities of teaching/learning

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Table 1 Biographical Details of Participants Teacher Age in years Gender Subjects taught Experience in Class size taught years before ITE Male , 9 1 35 Geography 40-45 Female English, 7 2 43 Religious studies 38-40 Female Accounting 9 3 37 40-52 Male English, 7 4 38 Shona (Local 40-45 ) Female Business studies 17 5 30 35-40 6 34 Male Geography 6 40-45

Data Collection and requesting participants to do “member Data was collected through individual face-to- checking” (Cresswell, 2008). face interviews supplemented by photo The first, interview began with an elicitation. Informed by Seidman (1998) that explanation of the study purpose, a promise of interview data should involve more than one confidentiality, assurance that they could interview, three series in-depth semi- withdraw at any time, and reassurance that all structured interviews were conducted with answers were correct. This interview focused each participant. Participants answered the on participants’ education and teaching same questions in a similar sequence. activities, to provide context to their teaching, Interviews lasted approximately 90 and to link with activities which demonstrated minutes, and were audio-recorded. how they professionally developed in rural Facilitative communication techniques - schools. The second interview utilized probing, paraphrasing, minimal verbal photographs that participants had taken to response, and summarizing were employed illustrate their professional development to promote continuous talking. Participants activities. Photo elicitation involved using responded in English with ease, choosing and photographs ( or other visual representation) using appropriate words effortlessly. in an interview and requesting participants to The researcher expanded the field comment on the images (Warren, 2005). This notes immediately after each interview and stimulated direct participant involvement and transcribed tape-recorded interviews promoted data collection. P articipants took verbatim to accurately reflect participants’ photographs of their professional development views. Data was cross-verified from different activities illustrating: mentoring and interviews and across different participants supervision; whole school staff and and further verified by checking field notes specialization meetings; subject cluster and Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 91

association meetings; lesson preparation, specialization. Singleton and Straits (1999) delivery and assessment. These photographs called this, “… capturing in their language and prompted examination and discussion of their letting them speak for themselves” (p. 349). professional development practices. The third interview, reflection on meaning, stimulated Findings reflection on their professional development The study investigated how PUPTs experiences in rural schools. professionally develop outside Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) in rural Data Analysis secondary schools. Data suggested that, these Content analysis was utilized to analyze data. PUPTs engaged in professional development Plunkett and Dyson (2011) view this process practices in interaction through domains of as involving “a careful, detailed, systematic formality (non-formal, informal) and examination and interpretation of a particular experience (experiential) in four main body of material to identify patterns, themes, situations (school structures, wider biases, and meanings” (p.37). Transcripts were professional sites, planned and unplanned read and audio tapes were listened to several meetings and the classroom). Firstly, school times to identify themes relevant to the key structures offered professional development question. Independent judges were involved to spaces through mentoring and supervision, validate themes of relevant meaning as whole school staff and subject specialization recommended by Cohen, Manion and Morrison meetings. Secondly, subject cluster and (2006). Consequently, the author’s promoter association meetings, and ministry of acted as the independent judge who read education (MoE) workshops provided spaces through the interpretations a n d offered an for professional development in wider outsider’s perspective on the findings, professional sites. Thirdly, informal identifying errors and/or omissions and gave the professional development occurred in researcher feedback (Mukeredzi 2013). This also interaction through both planned and enhanced credibility and trustworthiness. unplanned meetings; and fourthly, classroom Subsequently, the researcher counted practice provided space for experiential participants who made reference to particular professional development. Table 2 provides a themes (domains), sites and spaces. This is summary of responses. PUPTs are identified by shown in Table 2. Bullock (2012) emphasized codes (e.g. Teacher 1). data representation and analysis that inform findings and interpretations making it Domains of Professional transparent to others. In this paper, the Development author attempted to make data visible by In the context of this study, professional using quotations representative of each theme development at rural school level is understood from audio recorded discussions, and ensured as usually occurring through four domains representation across gender and subject (Figure 1).

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Figure 1 Domain-based typology of professional development (Mukeredzi, 2009).

Mukeredzi (2009) defined these four credit bearing, nor formally portable or domains as follows: 1) Formal domain, offered bankable, hence not directly contributing to a by a TEI, constituting creditable, portable and formal qualification (Mukeredzi, 2009). 3) bankable learning and contributing towards Informal domain which is incidental attaining a formal qualification (e.g., PGDE). 2) professional development oftentimes picked up Non-formal domain, which may be from, for example, collegial interactions. 4) characteristically planned, pre-arranged, Experiential domain which involves learning by organized and structured either internally or doing through classroom practice. This study externally to the school but, without direct set out to understand how the PUPTs contribution to a qualification. Non-formal professionally develop outside the TEI from learning may be formal in so far as it may be three domains: non-formal, informal and intentional, planned and structured, but non- experiential.

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Table 2 Professional development domains, sites and spaces Domains, Sites Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Total and Spaces 1 2 3 4 5 6 count Non –Formal Domain – School Site/Structures  Mentoring       6  Supervision  N N    4  Whole school N N     4 staff meetings  Subject  N     5 specialization meetings Wide professional site  Subject       6 Cluster meetings  Subject  N  N   4 Association  Ministry of   N N  N 3 Education Meetings Informal Domain – Community interactions Informal Interactions       6 Parents-teacher  N  N   4 interactions Experiential Domain – The Classroom Preparation and       6 planning Lesson delivery       6

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Professional Development Through the reflection, which promoted professional Non-Formal Domain development. A teacher is a reflective School Structures: Mentoring and practitioner (Villegas-Remers, 2003); and the Supervision mentor is someone to emulate, who stimulates All six participants reported m entoring as a his/her growth and development and who major process through which they experienced provides some sense of what he/she is professional development within school attempting to become(Kerry & Mayes, 1996). structures. Mentoring was viewed as a process Emphasising collaboration, Teacher 4 involving coaching/teaching, counselling, commented: guiding, developing and nurturing the We collaborate on everything, professional growth of a novice by a person of scheming, planning, teaching, and greater rank/expertise in an organization (Kerry assessment. He wants me to do a & Mayes, 1996). Collaboration in preparing, critical self-assessment after each planning, teaching and assessment were key lesson, mine or his before giving his among the professional development supports own assessment. … gives both oral the PUPTs received through mentoring. and written evaluations. This makes P articipants took photographs of mentoring me learn. meetings; others took photographs of or with their mentor. Looking at a photograph of her Teacher 2 expressed a similar sentiment: mentor Teacher 3 commented: Whenever I have a challenge, he … my mentor is helpful, very helps me. He has mentored me supportive, we collaborate. She is throughout PGDE overseeing my my teacher … conducts development. Seeing how he demonstration lessons, I learn a lot, handles has helped me to how to introduce lessons, manage grow. learning, and handle students. … in Collaborative lesson planning enabled the observing my lessons, we discuss PUPT to discover what was taken into account, before and after observation, I and in assessment collaboration, promoted joint learn from constructive criticisms, critical reflection and professional development. advice and feedback … it makes me Further, self-assessment provided evidence of re-play my lesson and learn. professional learning through constructive self- Modelling the lesson enabled learning criticism, a vital component for professional through mentor-practice, and being observed development. In lesson delivery, mentor or facilitated learning in three clinical phases: pre- mentee or both, taught different components, lesson observation conference, observation, and which promoted the trainees’ professional post-lesson observation conference, as suggested development through the joint practice. above. In the pre-lesson observation conference, Collaborative teaching fulfilled another the mentor and mentee address the ‘what’ ‘when’ mentoring function, where mentor and mentee ‘why’ and ‘how’ of the lesson. The cycle enabled engaged in specific tasks to foster and enable the mentor/supervisor to assist the PUPT to knowledge and skill acquisition “as equals”. The learn from his/her own practice and from mentor (nurturer) witnessed ability Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 95

development and maturity in the nurtured because they gave us scheme books (PUPT) through tasks performed and … The mentor tries but she needs dispositions displayed. One dimension of back-up by management (laughs). overseeing, protecting and nurturing was to An absence of in-school supervision ensure a safe, challenge-free environment and implied deprivation of the many dimensions of caring for both professional and other forms of professional development, and a whole development. Being a mentor also implied being repertoire of in-school guidance and support a close friend who provided a shoulder to lean beyond the mentor. Again, without in-school on. supervisory support from management, the In addition to mentoring, four participants quality of mentoring often suffered as highlighted in-school supervision by management supervision may reinforce and Head/Deputy Head or Head of Department enhance teaching practices. (HOD) which enhanced their professional development. To illustrate Teacher 6 explained: Whole School Staff Meetings See these lines and ticks, and Four PUPTs reported professional development this comment, the deputy made through in-school meetings: whole school staff them assessing my documents. meetings and subject specialization meetings. Teaching documents are also These pre-arranged and planned learning supervised by the HoD fortnightly. opportunities often promoted collaborative … they write comments like here learning where the instructional leader acted as (showing) I learn from these the facilitator. To illustrate some participants comments, it helps me said: professionally, I reflect more … I learn from colleagues’ ideas, The four PUPTs also alluded to benefiting they impart different ideas, they from lesson supervision by school management. trained at different colleges, so we For example, Teacher 5 commented: have a cross-pollination of ideas around teaching in staff meetings. I Every term I have two lesson benefit, we discuss issues that affect observations by HoD and departments and individuals. I Deputy/Head apart from my learn through that, you ask any mentor. We sit and discuss, I learn questions, they explain. (Teacher 3) from feedback and advice. We gather for staff meetings. Two PUPTs indicated an absence of any Yes, I benefit, from sharing, this form of supervision apart from mentor gives opportunities for sharing supervision. Teacher 2 complained: views and learning from others. No, somewhere somehow Interaction is collegial, which is something is wrong here. … We useful for sharing new insights and don’t have such things. We are ideas. (Teacher 4) supposed to be supervised by HoD, The teachers, with diverse biographies, D/Head or senior teacher, but backgrounds, experiences, disciplines, management doesn’t care, they knowledges and understandings, created a rich believe we scheme and teach 96 Global Education Review 3(4) environment for cross-fertilization of ideas and Subject Specialization Meetings sharing of knowledge at meetings. Collaboration Five PUPTs highlighted subject specialization received emphasis as essential for personal meetings as spaces for professional development learning since personal mastery and which promoted discipline specific professional collaborative mastery feed on each other. The learning. aspect of asking and receiving answers also … at the beginning and end of points to personal strength in inquiry, which the term we meet for term planning, goes hand-in-hand with effective collaborative then reflection on problems and learning (Villegas-Remers, 2003). All this successes. At half-term it’s sharing therefore underscores the centrality of teachers and learning from each other, one learning individually and collaboratively, which teacher presents something. We Graven (2004) defined as double-loop learning. acquire new subject information, However, Teacher 1 highlighted unproductive it’s developmental. (Teacher 5) meetings. He explained: McLaughlin (2008) asserted that subject Yes, we have meetings every specialisations around classroom practice Monday at break … He wants resemble ‘knowledge collectives’ with meetings, but they are just for collaborative responsibility for students’ announcements and not quite learning and colleagues’ professional beneficial because he gives the development. Dialogues promote acquisition of announcements, we do not discuss. new knowledge and skills of an active nature as Teacher 2 also said: teachers reflect on what they hear, see and practice (Villegas-Remers, 2003). Such collegial No, we have never had any… sharing implies elements critical for teacher We are left on our own… Something learning where they are not being dictated to, is wrong here … but enabled to engage in interaction, with ample Knowledge acquisition was through occasions for discussion, critiquing, evaluating, prescriptions, instructions and announcements agreeing and disagreeing and, being treated and for Teacher 1. Such autocratic tendencies treating each other like professionals negated cultures of collaborative – interactive (Mukeredzi, 2013). Cultures of this nature professional learning, instead cultivating usually view teacher learning as life-long, which collective compliance (Day, 1995, Villegas- teachers themselves direct, and on which an Remers, 2003). The ‘one jacket fits all’ ongoing part of their professionalism is built. prescriptions and instructions often bind teachers to practices which are unlikely to match Wider Professional Sites their diverse needs and those of their learners. Subject Cluster and Association Thus, rather than developing conducive Meetings environments through structured meetings, for Wider professional sites in this study refer to teacher learning and peer support, to broaden subject specialisation cluster and association their knowledge of classroom practices and of meetings, and MoE meetings/workshops their learners, opportunities were invariably through which PUPTs experienced professional denied. development. All PUPTs concurred that they professionally benefitted from specialisation Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 97

cluster meetings through collaboration, sharing, In the geography association we learning from and supporting each other in discuss critical teaching and planning, teaching and assessment. Teacher 6 assessment issues. We learn and explained: our students benefit. We get reports on candidates’ performance in We exchange information and previous external examinations do seminars. All schools set which makes us revisit our questions and exchange for students strategies to prepare students for to research and make presentations. subsequent exams. You learn from specialization colleagues and students. Workshop content described as ‘critical’ promoted reflection and re-examination of As language teachers we help teaching strategies. Teachers apparently adopted each other with difficult topics, set a test-focussed approach to teaching content and common papers for mid-year and any workshops that dealt with examinations end of year local examinations. were likely to be regarded highly if they prepared When you need material, you ask, students for external examinations. Through this they give you. … I benefit, especially whole process, the PUPTs developed me, other teachers tell me how to professionally. Two of the six participants were handle discipline and manage not aware of any subject specialisation students. (Teacher 2) associations in their disciplines. For instance, Comments such as those above support Teacher 4 made this comment: “I have never Chikoko (2006) who noted that clusters, as heard anybody talking about this, just the groups of schools within close geographical clusters” … (Teacher 4). McLaughlin (2008) proximity of each other, share ideas, resources, indicated that effective teacher professional and challenges all intended to development also emerged from membership in improve education quality and relevance in their professional associations and communities that respective institutions. All these activities led to transcend institutional and geographical professional development. School-to-school boundaries. Such communities converge interdependence enables teachers to transcend teachers from diverse backgrounds, experiences their own school and classroom contexts, to and knowledges who have something in meet other possibilities and colleagues common; their subject specialization. confronted with, and solving similar challenges (McLaughlin, 2008). Thus, clusters promoted MoE Workshops inter-school interdependence and sharing of Three participants concurred that ministry both material and psychological mediational workshops were beneficial but they had become tools. Through this joint work, as reflective sporadic and cascaded. The following extracts practitioners (Villegas-Remers, 2003) teachers exemplify their comments: reflected on their own practice and consequently Yes, we learnt a lot ... discuss learnt from both own reflection and colleagues’ teaching, examinations, syllabus practices and experiences. updates, tackle difficult topics. But Four PUPTs also reported professional this time just the head goes and gains from subject association meetings. Teacher then trains teachers. He can only 5 commented: 98 Global Education Review 3(4)

discuss general policy stuff, content Four PUPTs highlighted teacher-parent he can’t … (Teacher 1) interactions as a source of professional development. Sentiments by Teacher 5 below They do not help us anymore; illustrate: the head cannot tackle subject- specific information. (Teacher 3) At parents-teacher meetings they examine children’s books, I tell It appears as if professional development them weaknesses and strengths, through MoE workshops previously, was they also indicate weaknesses and valuable, but participants criticised the cascaded strengths … I get to understand approach to training which had then been parents’ attitudes towards educating adopted. Cascading approaches to teacher their children which helps on how professional development adopted by the to deal with some pupils. government have been criticised for distortion of information (see for example Ono & Ferreira, Contrary to comments by Teacher 5 2010; Harley & Wedekind, 2004). above, Teacher 2 indicated school-community boundaries: “we never have such meetings with Professional Development Through the parents, they don’t come when invited.” Informal Domain However, good teacher-parent relations are Informal Interactions effective in fostering teacher professional Participants highlighted informal interactions as development, classroom practice and learner a source of professional learning. Emphasising discipline (Anaxagorou, 2007). Such liaison professional development through this domain. and networking acknowledges parents as Day (1995) pointed out that informal complementary educators and knowledgeable interactions facilitate checking against bias in ‘others’ which enhances teacher personal and self-reporting and self- evaluation and enable professional learning and heightens school school-to-school classroom practice image and standing within the community comparisons. School structures and the wider (Bhengu, 2007; Villegas-Remers, 2003). professional sites enabled informal interactions and enhanced informal/incidental professional Professional Interaction Through the development within the planned/intended Experiential Domain activities and meetings, as this kind of learning PUPTs experienced professional development sits at the verge of any gathering (Mukeredzi, through the experiential hands-on process in 2009). One PUPT commented that: “… just classroom practice, in performing the essential talking to colleagues, you learn something about teacher roles. Participants talked about lesson your job. Jaah! … we share teaching experiences planning and delivery, particularly teaching and challenges, and discuss solutions (Teacher strategies, classroom management, assessment, 2). Interactions touched their personal and and reflection and evaluation as some of the professional lives including school contextual practices through which they professionally issues, thus learning from experiences and developed. For example, preparation and practices of colleagues as the way in which planning - the immediate translation of the challenges were addressed provided learning for scheme of work into action, showing a similar contexts in one school. summarized version of how the lesson would proceed. The quotation below is typical of Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 99

teacher sentiments: abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn which are I read and summarize concepts tested to guide creation of new experiences from various books, I also ask (Sternberg & Zhang, 2000). Questioning colleagues, re-visit my scheme, oneself usually creates avenues for viewing learner activities and teaching thoughts and experiences from new strategies, making sure I know what perspectives, and acceptance of theory which I will do with pupils. This is emerges out of convincing experiential learning ... (Teacher 4) evidence grounded in practice. PUPTs may Comments such as above suggest some thus, be empowered to think through professional development through planning classroom complexities and practices and, processes as the process involves reading, experience positive results as well as personal choosing materials, learner activities and and professional growth. methods/strategies for use in lesson delivery. The comments also suggest interdependence Discussion where colleagues are the knowledgeable ‘other’ The study explored how PUPTs professionally (Villegas-Remers, 2003). develop in rural Zimbabwe secondary schools Participants further highlighted outside TEIs. From the data, PUPTs experienced professional development from lesson delivery: professional development in domains of My work is central to my formality and experience. Within the non-formal professional development ... in domain, professional development occurred in teaching you learn, you reflect and school structures and in wider professional sites. evaluate your performance, analyze, In the informal domain, PUPTs developed see your mistakes, what worked or professionally in interaction within the context didn’t and why? then take of planned and unplanned meetings, while corrective action … learn from professional development in the experiential mistakes. When marking, I reflect, domain was through hands-on experience in questioning myself … Without self- classroom practice. questioning, I don’t learn, don’t School structures, provided four spaces develop. (Teacher 5) for professional development: mentoring, supervision, whole school staff and subject The comments depict the cyclical nature specialization meetings. All participants of experiential learning, portraying two highlighted professional development through dialectically related modes of grasping mentoring where they benefitted from experience: Concrete Experience and Abstract collaborative planning and teaching, lesson Conceptualization, and two dialectically modelling and lesson observations and related modes of transforming experience: feedback. Mentoring has been publicized as a Reflective Observation and Active means of effective school-based professional Experimentation (Sternberg & Zhang, 2000). development and practice where mentees From the four-stage learning cycle, benefit from supervisory guidance, critique, and concrete/immediate experiences are the basis feedback, and from their own reflection as was for observations and reflections. These the case in this study. Villegas-Remers (2003) reflections are assimilated and distilled into emphasized interaction with knowledgeable 100 Global Education Review 3(4)

‘others’ (mentors, parents, colleagues, etc.) who experiences, disciplines, knowledge and facilitate and support the PUPT’s knowledge understandings that merged to build an construction. In-fact Du Plessis et al. (2010) enriched environment for professional argued that “if practice teaching is the most interaction, sharing and learning. Villegas- single intervention in teacher professional Remers (2003) argued for effective professional development, then mentoring is the single most development through interaction and debate. powerful process of that intervention” (p. 328). Inter-departmental meetings seemingly The PUPTs seemingly worked with effective promoted development of collaborative mentors who articulated expectations and capabilities where teachers were sitting beside, provided advice, observed them teach, provided sharing and feeding off each other thus, learning oral and written feedback, and further feedback with and from one another, promoting both on their self-evaluation of their teaching. individual and organizational professional Mentoring and supervision enabled learning (Guskey, 2002). Two of the six professional development experiences through participants had no professional development three clinical phases: pre-lesson observation experiences from joint meetings as their schools conference, observation, and post-lesson did not have such professional gatherings. Joint- observation conference. These phases promoted staff meetings cut across disciplinary teacher professional learning from their own boundaries, fostering teacher discussion around practice, from self-assessment, self-criticism pedagogy, often making the PUPTs think deeply and reflection. Professional development is about their practice, and inspiring them to rooted in self-enquiry, self-criticism, self- examine their work from a global perspective. evaluation, and reflection (Mukeredzi, 2009); An absence of teacher professional gatherings these processes generally involve playing back contradicts the social aspect of professional and thinking about direct encounters with the development as the school community, with its phenomenon under scrutiny (teaching), rather structures and practices, is the context in which than merely thinking about the encounter or PUPTs (as learners) learn to teach through only considering the possibility of doing participation in socially and contextually something about it. School-based teacher determined activities (Villegas-Remers, 2003). educators in this study helped the PUPTs to Five participants reported professional acquire teaching knowledge as a product of their development experiences at subject own reflection and self-critique “exploring and specialisation meetings. Subject meetings differ critiquing their emerging teaching philosophies from whole school staff meetings as they involve and practices as teachers” (Olsher & Kantor only teachers in the subject specialization and 2012, p.36). These are vital components for thus provided space for the PUPTs to engage in professional development given that it is when specialized professional development. Subject one admits to own shortfalls, that one opens up departments resemble ‘talking departments’ to new learning (McLaughlin, 2008). The one marked by an active interchange of professional PUPT who did not have in-school supervision ideas and information, bound by a clear and missed out on a whole range of in-school shared sense of vision (Darling-Hammond, guidance and professional development. 1996). In this study, as professional development From whole school staff meetings, four experiences emanated from within the participants emphasized collaborative learning specialization, PUPTs seemingly took advantage from the diverse biographies, backgrounds, of the planned and structured opportunities to Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 101

learn specific knowledge and skills from shape teacher attitudes, beliefs and values colleagues with particular subject expertise. (Ono & Ferreira, 2010). Within wider professional sites, subject Data suggested that within the informal cluster and association meetings provided domain, participants experienced professional spaces for PUPTs’ professional development. development through informal interactions in Participants indicated that cluster meetings school structures and wider professional. Day promoted learning in collaboration, where they (1995) noted that informal professional shared, learning from and supported each other development occurs naturally and individuals in planning, teaching and assessment. themselves may not be aware that they are Professional learning was at a collegial stratum contributing to their professional development. where teachers interacted and seemingly These PUPTs highlighted informal interaction developed communities in which the PUPTs with colleagues and parents as having effectively could openly and confidently, non-formally and contributed to their professional development. informally discuss their practice and learn from However, two participants indicated boundaries qualified and experienced colleagues in a between their schools and communities which trusting and non-threatening atmosphere. Four contradicted findings by Kline, White and Lock participants also spoke in positive terms about (2013) that school-parents’ partnerships provide professional development through subject a strong basis for community strengthening, associations which they portrayed as exerting teacher learning, and improved student learning dominant influence in setting national outcomes. examinations and, subject syllabi. Little, (2000) In the experiential domain all found that subject associations, notwithstanding participants indicated professional their nearly invisible position in mainstream development in the hands-on processes of professional development literature, are classroom practice. Experiential learning prominent in teachers’ professional lives, creates opportunities for engagement in shaping teacher attitudes, beliefs and values and professional development practices around exerting influence on teachers’ dispositions to practical knowledge on preparation, planning particular policies and reform. Professional and organization of the teaching/learning development through specialization cluster and process like: teaching strategies, pupil association meetings are all in tandem with motivation, time management, classroom and Villegas-Remers (2003) who emphasized group organization and monitoring (Caires & collaboration in effective professional Almeida, 2005). Generally defined as learning development. by doing, experiential learning is a meaning- The PUPTs reported that ministry making process - a knowledge construction workshops had been beneficial, but had process of the individual’s experience which become ineffective due to sporadic and occurs in the process of performing core- cascaded approaches adopted. Teachers functions of being a teacher. It does not reported that when cascaded approaches were require a teacher, neither is it learning about used there seemed to be a lack of consideration being a teacher or listening to people talking of the diverse teacher needs, contexts, about being a teacher, – rather it is practice in experiences and countless expectations for the diverse roles of being a teacher effective professional development which (Mukeredzi, 2009). Consequently, the teacher aspects promote professional learning and reflects on and questions his/her 102 Global Education Review 3(4) performance, beliefs, and organizational professional sites, planned and unplanned modes of practice. Oftentimes, practical gatherings, and the classroom. School structures experiences with positive results promotes provided spaces for professional development conceptual change and acceptance of theory. through mentoring and supervision, whole This effectively occurs through reflection on school and subject specialization meetings. In and about practical experiences. This supports wider professional sites, professional Villegas-Remers’ (2003) observation that development occurred within cluster and professional development is context association meetings. These non-formal spaces dependent and rooted in the daily activities of also enabled informal professional development teaching/learning. through informal interactions. Experiential A key aspect of professional professional development took place through development which resulted from classroom hands-on experience in classroom practice. practice was reflection. Participants However, some PUPTs missed out on emphasized critical self-evaluation of and self- professional development through in-school reflection on their work and learning from management supervision, whole school staff and that experience. Reflection for these PUPTs subject association meetings. No participants may, for example, result from had effective professional development from pleasant/unpleasant experiences in MoE workshops. teaching/learning. This is followed by critical These findings have a number of reflection- trying to understand the incident implications. First, they suggest that supervisory better, explaining to oneself, going through support cultures shape teacher professional the motions, comparing with previous development. School management can instances, determining matches and contribute to improved student learning by mismatches, self-evaluating and evaluating supervising and providing meaningful feedback against some norm, and then developing a and direction to teachers as this can have a way forward based on the experiences of profound effect on the learning that occurs in others (e.g., the mentor) who may have had classrooms. As student learning is the primary similar experiences. Discussion with the function of schools, effective supervision of mentor, results in further self-evaluation and instruction is one of the most critical functions critical reflection. This leads to crafting new of school management if equal access to quality knowledge and beliefs about content, educational programs for all students is to be pedagogy and student learning and, enhanced (Guskey, 2002). Where professional consequently, application of this new learning development practices lack school management in subsequent lessons (Mukeredzi, 2013). support, even the most promising approaches may not succeed. Conclusions and Implications Second, findings suggest that to support The study addressed the question: “how do teacher professional development experiences in PUPTs experience professional development in rural schools, in-school support should be built Zimbabwe in rural secondary schools outside into structures that constantly and tenaciously TEIs.” Findings suggest that they professionally bring teachers together to promote professional develop in domains of formality and experience learning and development (Villegas-Remers, – non-formal, informal and experiential through 2003). Developing cultures, structures and four main sites: school structures, wider opportunities for promoting in-school teacher Teacher professional development outside the lecture room 103

professional development is the responsibility of debates are rooted in the shared subject: the school head (Graven, 2004). Failure to teaching/learning. provide for such collaborations deprives Third, subject specialization gatherings teachers of a whole repertoire of professional and associations promote professional development as holistic learner improvement is development through engagement with generally achieved from aggregating colleagues, questioning and observing them, professional development of individual teachers appraising one’s own and others’ practices (Guskey, 2002). Again, professional overtly or covertly (McLaughlin, 2008). development is not an individual process purely Interaction provides opportunity to discuss, located at a psychological level, but it is criticize, evaluate, agree and disagree, without extremely mediated (Mukeredzi, 2013). being dictated to but being treated and treating Motivation to learn for the PUPT may be each other as professionals (Villegas-Remers, intrinsic, but much of his/her professional 2003). Hence, cluster and association development is through, with, and from others. networks, meetings and conferences that Hence, the most important aspect of facilitate teacher collaborative work on their professional development is interaction curriculum, listening and engaging in their (Villegas-Remers, 2003). This implies that work should be strongly constituted and school heads need to pay attention to teacher supported as they are a vital way of upholding learning individually and collectively. effective teacher professional development and Individual teacher professional development is engagement within subject specializations in central to classroom practice, learner wider contexts (Graven, 2004). achievement, and organizational professional Fourth, while cascaded multiplier development (Guskey, 2002). Thus, providing approaches are often adopted due to various occasions for interaction and collaborative constraints to reach many participants in a learning through staff meetings and other school short space of time (Harley & Wedekind, 2005) gatherings is critical. Schools with structures they are based on the type of knowledge and cultures for effective inter-departmental teachers must know worth teaching in schools, meetings are viewed as institutions in double- and characterized by transmission where loop learning which foster both teacher teaching is “telling”, and learning is professional development and improved student “absorption” (Ono & Ferreira, 2010, p.2). Such learning through reduction of disciplinary ‘one jacket fits all’ sets of professional margins (Graven, 2004). Such learning and development are ineffective as they are fraught sharing is often not marked by disciplinary with distortion and often lead to no significant boundaries but is within a ‘feel equal factor’. In change in practice when teachers return to addition, school communities with collaborative classrooms (Mukeredzi, 2013). Ono and learning practices reduce subject specialization Ferreira argue that professional development boundaries, promote teacher professional programmes should be participant/learner development, and enhance student learning as centered, knowledge centered, assessment they strengthen and promote—rather than centered and community centered to optimize weaken teacher professional learning (Day, teacher learning. 1995). By extension, when teachers are brought Fifth, findings indicate that strong together to learn with and from one another, teacher-parent relations are essential for PUPTs’ they take responsibility for students’ learning as professional development. An understanding of 104 Global Education Review 3(4) mechanisms through which parent-teacher and Nigerian primary English lessons. Language linkages promote student academic achievement and Education, 21(1), 1-15. doi:10.2167/le684.0 Anaxagorou, G. (2007). Teachers’ and community would point to logical interventions. 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to Social Research (3rd Ed.). Oxford: About the Author Oxford University Press. Tabitha Grace Mukeredzi is a Lecturer and coordinator at the Durban University of Technology in the Unit, Faculty of Arts and Design. Her research interests are in teacher education, teacher professional learning and development, rural education and, mixed mode/distance education methodologies.