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Mastering Malolactic Fermentation – How to Manage the Nutrition of Wine

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Mastering malolactic MAGALI fermentation – how to DÉLÉRIS-BOU & SIBYLLE manage the nutrition of KRIEGER-WEBER Lallemand SAS, Blagnac, wine bacteria and minimise France the effect of inhibitors Keywords: Malolactic fermentation, nutrition, inhibitors. 1. Introduction Malic acid penetrates into the cell in its anionic form to be Wine bacteria are characterised as having complex nutritional needs. decarboxylated into lactic acid in the cell’s cytoplasm. The de­­ In this review, we will detail the wine bacteria’s requirements for carboxylation allows the consumption of an intracellular proton and carbon, and for nutrients containing nitrogen, vitamins and minerals. the expulsion of protons by lactate/H+ symporters. A proton gradient When a must or wine lacks certain nutritional elements, it can have – or “proton-motive force” – from the wine medium towards the cell a major impact on malolactic fermentation (MLF). Therefore, it is interior maintains the intracellular pH of the bacteria (about 6.0) and important to understand the nutritional needs of wine bacteria and to leads to forming energy as ATP. learn about the tools that are available to the winemaker for successful MLF. 2.2.2 Citric acid 2. Wine bacteria have complex nutritional Citric acid, an important component of grape must and wine, has a concentration that varies from 0.1 to 0.7 g/L. The degradation requirements pathway of citric acid by lactic bacteria leads to the formation of 2.1 Carbohydrate metabolism three types of compounds: acetic acid, lipids and acetoinic derivatives (acetoin, butanediol and diacetyl). The metabolism of citric acid is In wine, sugars are the primary source of energy for lactic bacteria, also a source of energy for O. oeni. playing an essential role in their growth. The main sugars in wine In general, the consumption of citric acid begins later than malic (hexoses) are glucose and fructose. Lactic bacteria are capable of acid. With the O. oeni species, the effect of the strain is important in utilising both sources, although Oenococcus oeni prefers fructose, terms of the moment of attack of the citrate and the speed of and with Oenococcus oeni, the co-metabolism of glucose and consumption of the citric acid. While certain strains that produce high fructose is advantageous in terms of energy. levels of diacetyl begin to consume citric acid from the mid-point of At the end of alcoholic fermentation (AF), the glucose-fructose MLF, other strains – of greater interest to winemakers in order to concentration is low, but still meets the bacteria’s needs, because the avoid buttery notes – do not start metabolising citric acid until there concentration of bacteria is also low. Indeed, most lactic bacteria are is no more malic acid left to consume (Krieger, 2012). capable of utilising other monosaccharides present in the wine (e.g. arabinose, mannose, galactose, xylose, etc.), as well as the poly- 3. Metabolism of nitrogen sources saccharides and glycosylate compounds. O. oeni has extracellular The free amino acids and those that come from the hydrolysis of glycosidase activity (Guilloux-Benatier et al., 1993 & Guilloux- peptides are the main sources of nitrogen used by wine bacteria. Benatier et al., 2000). Several other studies have identified this Contrary to what happens in yeast, the amino acids necessary for glycosidase activity, including Grimaldi et al. (2000), MacMahon et wine bacteria cannot be synthesised from ammonia nitrogen. al. (1999) and Mansfield et al. (2002), and we now know that Therefore, the amino acids must either come from the medium or be numerous aroma precursors are conjugated with glucose residues or synthesised by the bacteria, via the carboxylic precursor amino acids. glucose disaccharides. These aroma compounds are released through the action of wine bacteria and the sugars are consumed. 3.1 Amino acids 2.2 Organic acid metabolism The bacteria’s need for amino acids depends not only on the species but on the strain as well. The identification of the essential amino The main organic acids present in grape must and wine at the end of acids for O. oeni has been the subject of numerous studies. The AF and transformed by Oenococcus oeni are malic and citric acids. preferred technique consists of comparing the growth of the bacteria in a medium containing all the necessary amino acids (a complete 2.2.1 Malic acid medium) with the bacteria in a medium from which one of these The concentration of malic acid in the must depends on the degree amino acids is missing. of maturity of the grape and varies from 0.7 to 8.6 g/L (Cabanis & The research of Garvie (1967), Fourcassié et al. (1992), Remize et Cabanis, 1998). The main reaction of MLF is the decarboxylation of al. (2006) and Terrade et al. (2009) has explored the needs of, diacid L-malic acid in wine into monoacid L-lactic acid. In wine, the respectively, nine, six, five and two strains of O. oeni. The differences malolactic system is a mechanism that allows O. oeni to recover in the methodologies utilised by the researchers (e.g. growth medium, energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis and to strains utilised, washing the biomass stage, successive transplanting, maintain an intracellular pH level favourable for enzyme activities etc.) explain the differences among the results obtained with this and cell growth. research. WynLand · November · 2014 103 The following table, adapted from the book “Les bactéries The absence of proline or alanine in the medium does not affect the lactiques en oenologie” by Alexandre et al., summarises the results growth of most strains. Consequently, they are considered indifferent of this research. amino acids. Depending on each case, the amino acid missing from the culture The results obtained by Remize et al. (2006) for two selected O. medium is said to be: oeni strains are presented in Figure 1 and 2. Researchers are also interested in the requirements for Lactobacillus • “Essential” when the biomass formed represents less than 20% of strains. In Terrade et al. (2009), the authors conclude that the number the biomass in the control culture. of amino acids essential to a strain of L. buchneri and a strain of L. • “Necessary” when the biomass formed represents from 20% to hilgardii is fewer than the number required by two strains of O. oeni: 80% of the biomass in the control culture. five and eight amino acids are essential to L. buchneri and L. hilgardii • “Indifferent” when the biomass formed represents more than 80% respectively, compared to 13 and 16 amino acids essential to the two of the biomass in the control culture. strains of O. oeni. Arginine is an essential amino acid for the 22 strains studied. Amino In practice, the number of amino acids essential to a strain is acids such as glutamic acid, isoleucine, tryptophan, methionine, important, indicating that in a medium lacking amino acids the valine, cysteine, tyrosine, histidine and phenylalanine are essential Lactobacillus strains, which are usually undesirable, will develop for the growth of the majority of strains. more easily than the O. oeni strains. TABLE 1. Comparison of the amino acid needs of 22 strains of Oenococcus oeni (adapted from “Les bactéries lactiques en oenologie” by Alexandre et al.). Garvie Fourcassié et al. Remize et al. Terrade et al. 1967 1992 2006 2009 Essential (1/2) Glutamic acid Essential Essential Essential Indifferent (1/2) Arginine Essential Essential Essential Essential Essential (3/5) Isoleucine Essential Essential Essential Necessary (2/5) Essential (7/9) Essential (4/5) Tryptophan Essential Essential Necessary (2/9) Necessary (1/5) Essential (4/9) Methionine Essential Essential Essential Necessary (5/9) Essential (3/6) Essential (4/5) Valine Essential Essential Necessary (3/6) Necessary (1/5) Essential (4/6) Essential (1/5) Cysteine Essential Essential Indifferent (2/6) Necessary (4/5) Essential (1/6) Tyrosine Essential Essential Essential Indifferent (5/6) Essential (7/9) Essential (1/6) Phenylalanine Essential Essential Necessary (2/9) Indifferent (5/6) Essential (6/9) Essential (1/6) Essential (3/5) Histidine Essential Necessary (3/9) Indifferent (5/6) Necessary (2/5) Essential (2/9) Essential (1/2) Serine Necessary (5/9) Essential Necessary (1/2) Indifferent (2/9) Essential (1/6) Essential (1/5) Lysine Indifferent Necessary (3/6) Necessary (4/5) Indifferent (2/6) Essential (1/5) Necessary (3/9) Aspartic acid Necessary Necessary (3/5) Indifferent (6/9) Indifferent (2/5) Essential (1/9) Essential (3/6) Essential (4/5) Leucine Necessary (1/9) Essential Necessary (3/6) Necessary (1/5) Indifferent (5/9) Essential (1/9) Essential (1/5) Threonine Necessary (1/9) Indifferent Necessary (2/5) Essential Indifferent (7/9) Indifferent (3/5) Essential (2/9) Essential (1/5) Glycine Necessary (1/9) Indifferent Necessary (2/5) Essential Indifferent (6/9) Indifferent (3/5) Necessary (3/5) Proline Indifferent Indifferent Essential Indifferent (3/5) Necessary (1/5) Alanine Indifferent Indifferent Indifferent (4/5) 104 WineLand · November · 2014 FIGURE 1. Lalvin 31®: Growth in a complete synthetic medium or in the same medium where an amino acid is missing (results expressed as a percentage of optical density [OD] to 600 nm). FIGURE 2. Alpha™ MBR: Growth in a complete synthetic medium or in the same medium where an amino acid is missing (results expressed as a percentage of optical density [OD] to 600 nm). 3.2 Peptides various peptides to a Chardonnay wine. The results were obtained after adding a peptide considered to be particularly stimulating. Besides free amino acids, peptides can constitute a distinct source of nitrogen. Wine bacteria have both proteolytic activities (protein Experiment protocol: degradation) and peptidolytic activities (peptide degradation), and • Medium: Chardonnay white wine (pH 3.2, ethanol 12.9%, total they can obtain the amino acids necessary or essential to their growth SO2 <25 mg/L and free SO2 <5 mg/L).
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  • Saccharomyces Cerevisiae in the Production of Fermented Beverages

    Saccharomyces Cerevisiae in the Production of Fermented Beverages

    beverages Review Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the Production of Fermented Beverages Graeme M Walker 1,* and Graham G Stewart 2 1 Abertay University, Dundee, Scotland DD1 1HG, UK 2 Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland EH14 4AS, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-1382-308658 Academic Editor: Edgar Chambers IV Received: 20 October 2016; Accepted: 11 November 2016; Published: 17 November 2016 Abstract: Alcoholic beverages are produced following the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, mainly (but not exclusively) strains of the species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The sugary starting materials may emanate from cereal starches (which require enzymatic pre-hydrolysis) in the case of beers and whiskies, sucrose-rich plants (molasses or sugar juice from sugarcane) in the case of rums, or from fruits (which do not require pre-hydrolysis) in the case of wines and brandies. In the presence of sugars, together with other essential nutrients such as amino acids, minerals and vitamins, S. cerevisiae will conduct fermentative metabolism to ethanol and carbon dioxide (as the primary fermentation metabolites) as the cells strive to make energy and regenerate the coenzyme NAD+ under anaerobic conditions. Yeasts will also produce numerous secondary metabolites which act as important beverage flavour congeners, including higher alcohols, esters, carbonyls and sulphur compounds. These are very important in dictating the final flavour and aroma characteristics of beverages such as beer and wine, but also in distilled beverages such as whisky, rum and brandy. Therefore, yeasts are of vital importance in providing the alcohol content and the sensory profiles of such beverages. This Introductory Chapter reviews, in general, the growth, physiology and metabolism of S.