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Time-Dependence of Electromagnetic Transfer Functions and Their

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Time-Dependence of Electromagnetic Transfer Functions and Their TIME-DEPENDENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH TECTONIC ACTIVITY E.R. NtBLETT Division of Geomagnetism Earth Physics Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, KIA O Y3, Canada and Y. HONKURA Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Abstract. Laboratory experiments and theoretical considerations have suggested that anomalous dilatant regions can develop in the earth's crust during the period of strain accumulation prior to an earthquake. For moderate and major earthquakes such anomalous regions could be tens or even hundreds of kilometers in extent and should be detectable at the surface with appropriate survey or sounding techniques. Since electrical resistivity is one of the rock properties likely to be strongly modified in a dilatant zone, magnetoteUuric impedance and geomagnetic transfer functions might be expected to show time-dependent precursory effects if monitored over a period of time above the focal region of an impending earthquake. Such experiments have been conducted in Japan and in other parts of the world and several examples ofresitivity changes in the crust prior to earthquake occurrence have been reported. These results and their association with local seismicity are reviewed in this paper. The avai- lable evidence indicates that transfer functions and impedance can display significant time-dependent response to changing crustal conditions in some regions. However, the correspondence between these effects and earthquake occurrence is usually not very clear. Introduction During the last ten years important advances have been made in the study of earthquake precursors and the development of techniques for earthquake prediction. In seismically active regions many crustal properties are subject to change during the period of stress accumulation prior to the onset of an earthquake. Some of the properties in which im- portant diagnostic changes have been observed are long-term tilt, strain, crustal uplift, seismic velocities, magnetic susceptibility and remanence, radon emission from ground water, earthquake recurrence and electrical resistivity. Most of the results achieved to date are only empirically related to earthquake occurrence. However, a physical model of stress-induced dilatancy'in the crust has had some success in relating and explaining a number of independent observations of changing geophysical conditions preceding a seismic event. Dilatancy in stressed rock is an inelastic volume increase which occurs prior to fracture. The effect has been observed and documented by Brace and his co-workers at Massachu- Contribution from the Earth Physics Branch No. 85 8. Geophysical Surveys 4 (1980)97-114. 0046-5763/80/0041 - 0097502.70. Copyright 1980 by D. Reidel Publishing Company. 98 E.R. NIBLETT AND Y. HONKURA setts Institute of Technology during a series of laboratory experiments in the deformation of rock specimens under triaxial compression (e.g. Brace et al., 1966). The volume increase is produced by cracks forming and propagating within the rock. The onset of the phenomenon depends not only on the applied stress, but also on the rate of stress accu- mulation. Dilatancy can begin in rock at stresses as low as half the breaking strength (Scholz et al., 1973). The volume increase in stressed rock leads to an increase in effective porosity. For fluid-saturated rock, this in turn can produce significant changes in electrical resistivity. Laboratory studies of the effect of pressure on the electrical resistivity of water-saturated Earthquake Vp/Wvs I ~ Stage ~E ,.75 /-I-- 'o-2O~ \ rr r~ / t Change \~ -~/ J ,.s • - I I I IT Electrical ~ f Resistivity ~ 15o/0 C~_nge ~,~ Rote of Flow of Water (or Radon Emission)~ 111 3E y ' -=~S2--- I I \ Geodetic Measurements Vertical Motion~Several cm Tilts~lO -s rad. Volumetric Strain /I TIT ~'lO-S-lO-S/ ~+~rf I r / L.._ Number of Ig+V Seismic Events Foreshocks ' _~tershocks 3~ ~-- Time Stage I DilitaI[ncy influx]~Weter Elastic Strain ,-Aftershocks-~- Buildup Dam nant Dominant --Earthquake and SuddenStress Drop Fig. 1. Typical predicted changes of various physical parameters as a function of time based on the dilatancy model for an earthquake cycle. (After Scholz et aL, 1973). EM TRANSFER FUNCTION TIME-DEPENDENCE AND TECTONIC ACTIVITY 99 rocks have been described by Brace et al. (1965), Brace and Byerlee (1967), Brace and Orange (1968a, b) and others. General implications of earthquake prediction based on the development of a dilatant region in the earth's crust have been discussed by Nur (1972), Aggarwal et al. (1973), Scholz et al. (1973) and in a series of papers by Brady (e.g. Brady (1976)). Various types of precursory phenomena implied by the dilatancy model are depicted in Figure 1 from Scholz et al. (1973). Note that fairly prominent changes in electrical resistivity (15%) are predicted by the model in a dilatant region prior to the onset of an earthquake. The anomalous or dilatant region in which time-dependent effects are expected corresponds to the focal region of an impending earthquake (Brady, 1976). Over 25 years ago time-dependent changes in electrical resistivity in the crust associated with tidal loading were observed in Japan at the Aburatsubo Crustal Movement Observa- tory. This early work, which has been reviewed by Rikitake (1976a) and Yamazaki (1977), led to the important conclusion that relative changes in earth resistivity (Ap/p) exceeded the linear strain (AL/L) by a factor of about 300 for tidal loading in this area. It was therefore evident that earth resistivity might be a sensitive indicator of stress changes in the crust. Rikitake and Yamazaki (1970), using a sensitive instrument designed to measure changes in resistivity, recorded a stepwise change at the time of Tokachi-oki earthquake (M = 7.9) of 1968 at an epicentral distance of more than 700 kin. Since then many similar abrupt changes in resistivity have been recorded simultaneously with major seismic events in Japan and some of these have been preceded by a precursory change of a few hours duration (Yamazaki, 1977; Rikitake, 1976a). Long baseline (6 Ion) d.c. resitivity measurements were made in the Garm seismic region of USSR over a number of years commencing in 1967. Some of the results have been reported by Barsukov (1972) and Sadovsky et al. (1972). Their data are shown in Figure 2 (adapted from Scholz et al. 1973). Apparent resistivity values are seen to be strongly time-dependent with values decreasing before the occurrence of an earthquake and increasing again afterwards. The strong correlation between resistivity minima and 110 M--5 I M:4 i/ I ,' 1OO '~ 90 g l l 80 t967 1968 1969 Fig. 2. Electrical resistivity changes and earthquakes observed at Garm, U.S.S.R. (After Scholz et al., 1973 and Sadovsky et al., 1972). 100 E.R. NIBLETT AND Y. HONKURA earthquakes is consistent with what one would expect from the dilatancy model. A decrease in resistivity of over 15% took place during the months preceding an event of M = 6. Mazzella and Morrison (1974) have also reported a large (24%) precursory change in apparent resistivity prior to a magnitude 3.9 earthquake in central California. They moni. tored resistivity with a dipole-dipole array with receivers located near the current dipole and at distances of 10 and 15 km. These experiments provide direct evidence that the electrical properties at depth in the crust can be strongly time-dependent in seismic regions. It is therefore reasonable to expect that natural geomagnetic and teUuric fields should also contain a time-dependence related to seismicity which might be detected through the analysis of transfer functions. The purpose of this paper is to review variations which have been observed in geomagnetic and magnetotelluric transfer functions and to examine the manner in which these are associated with seismic events and a tectonic environment. Transfer Functions and Crustal Structure In studies of natural electromagnetic induction in the earth, the concept of a transfer function is associated with the observation that at many locations the three components of geomagnetic variation field show a persistent tendency of linear interdependence. Such a tendency was first demonstrated around the Australian coast by Parkinson (1959), and since then empirically derived relationships such as Z=AH+BD orZ=A'Hx+B'Hy (1) have been used by Everett and Hyndman (1967), Schmucker (1970), Lilley and Bennett (1973) and many others in the study of local induction anomalies and their structural implications. In these relations D is the magnetic declination and H, Z, Hx, Hy are the horizontal, vertical (downward), true north and true east components. The numbers A and B (or A', B ~) are called transfer functions. Generally speaking these numbers are complex and frequency dependent. In magnetotellurics a similar linear dependence between horizontal components of electric and magnetic field measured at any point has long been known. In this case the transfer function is dimensionally equivalent to impedance and is defined by the relation (2) Here E x and Ey are the north and east components of the telluric field and Zxx , etc., are elements of the impedance tensor. Transfer functions derived from geomagnetic or magnetotelluric fields have tradition- ally been regarded as parameters which are essentially controlled by - and therefore diagnostic of - the electrical conductivity of the crust and upper mantle. For interpreta- EM TRANSFER FUNCTION TIME-DEPENDENCE AND TECTONIC ACTIVITY 101 tions of earth structure it is necessary to compute these functions over a fairly broad range of frequencies in such a way that time-dependent effects caused by varying distribu- tion and intensity of ionospheric or spheric source fields are either eliminated or at least reduced to manageable proportions. This can usually be achieved by modern methods of time-series analysis or by very careful selection of individual events for analysis. The transfer function is considered to be meaningful at any point if it is found to be nearly invariant when computed from data collected at different times.
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