Aetobatus Ocellatus, Ocellated Eagle Ray

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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ ISSN 2307-8235 (online) IUCN 2008: T42566169A42566212

Aetobatus ocellatus, Ocellated Eagle Ray

Assessment by: Kyne, P.M., Dudgeon, C.L., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T.

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Citation: Kyne, P.M., Dudgeon, C.L., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T. 2016. Aetobatus ocellatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T42566169A42566212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en

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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™ Taxonomy

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family

Animalia Chordata Chondrichthyes Rajiformes Myliobatidae

Taxon Name: Aetobatus ocellatus (Kuhl, 1823)

Synonym(s): • Aetobatus guttatus (Shaw, 1804) • Myliobatus ocellatus Kuhl, 1823

Common Name(s): • English: Ocellated Eagle Ray Taxonomic Source(s): White, W.T., Last, P.R., Naylor, G.J.P., Jensen, K. and Caira, J.N. 2010. Clarification of Aetobatus ocellatus (Kuhl, 1823) as a valid species, and a comparison with Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) (Rajiformes: Myliobatidae). In: Descriptions of new sharks and rays from Borneo. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Paper 032: 141-164.

Taxonomic Notes: Aetobatus ocellatus (Kuhl, 1923) was previously considered to be an Indo-West and Central Pacific form of the wider ranging Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790). Comparative analysis of the morphology, molecular and parasite diversity has resulted in the redescription of A. ocellatus from tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Indian Ocean and West-Central Pacific Ocean with A. narinari being restricted to the Atlantic Ocean (Richards et al. 2009, White et al. 2010). Molecular analyses suggest greater levels of speciation within the Aetobatus genus, with distinguishable groups in the Western Indian Ocean and Northwest Pacific (Schluessel et al. 2010, White et al. 2010). This requires further examination to delineate species boundaries. Assessment Information

Red List Category & Criteria: Vulnerable A2bd ver 3.1

Year Published: 2016

Date Assessed: May 11, 2015

Justification: The Ocellated Eagle Ray (Aetobatus ocellatus) has recently been re-described as a separate species from the White-spotted Eagle Ray (A. narinari). This is a large eagle ray with a widespread distribution across the Indo-Pacific in tropical and warm-temperate waters. Recorded over the continental shelf from the surface to 60 m depth in coastal and open ocean environments. It sometimes enters lagoons and estuaries and is often associated with coral reef ecosystems.

The Ocellated Eagle Ray is recorded from landing sites across much of its range, particularly within Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. It is susceptible to capture from a variety of fishing gear and its

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 1 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en range overlaps with areas of intense and generally unregulated fisheries in coastal and offshore environments. Estuarine habitats in which it occurs are affected by development and pollution across parts of its range.

The Ocellated Eagle Ray has low population rebound potential with low fecundity (1-4 pups per litter); long gestation period (12 months) and possibly 2-3 years between pregnancies; late maturation (five years), and an approximate 12-year generation period. Molecular studies demonstrate considerable population structuring for this eagle ray within the Indo-Pacific region, suggesting limited recruitment to exploited populations. Based on inferred population declines of >30% across much of its range, with ongoing threats due to largely unregulated fishing pressure and habitat degradation and destruction, the Ocellated Eagle Ray has a global assessment of Vulnerable. In Australian and Oceania waters (Pacific Island nations) where there is limited fishing pressure and some conservation measures in place through the use of marine reserves, this species is assessed as Least Concern. Geographic Range

Range Description: A previous lack of taxonomic resolution of the 'spotted eagle ray' group has led to uncertainty over the exact distribution of the Ocellated Eagle Ray, which was previously considered to be an Indo-West and Central Pacific form of the wider ranging White-spotted Eagle Ray (Aetobatus narinari). The Ocellated Eagle Ray is probably widespread throughout the Indo-West and Central Pacific (White et al. 2010).

Country Occurrence: Native: Australia (Coral Sea Is. Territory, New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia); Bahrain; Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China; Egypt; Eritrea; Fiji; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Israel; Japan; Jordan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kuwait; Madagascar; Malaysia (Sarawak); Maldives; Marshall Islands; Micronesia, Federated States of ; Mozambique; Myanmar; New Caledonia; Oman; Pakistan; Palau; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Singapore; Solomon Islands; South Africa; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Taiwan, Province of China; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Timor-Leste; United Arab Emirates; United States (Hawaiian Is.); Viet Nam; Yemen

FAO Marine Fishing Areas: Native: Indian Ocean - eastern, Indian Ocean - western, Pacific - eastern central, Pacific - northwest, Pacific - southwest, Pacific - western central

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en Population There is limited information on the population demography and structure of the Ocellated Eagle Ray. Molecular analysis of mitochondrial markers in the Indo-West Pacific showed considerable population structure between three main regions (East China Sea, Southeast Asia, and Australia) (Schluessel et al. 2010). Current Population Trend: Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information) The Ocellated Eagle Ray is found in tropical and warm-temperate waters in coastal regions and over the continental shelf from the surface to 60 m depth (Compagno and Last 1999). It sometimes enters lagoons and estuaries and is often associated with coral reef ecosystems (Michael 1993, Homma et al. 1994, Last and Stevens 2009). It is also encountered well offshore in open water (Last et al. 2010). Around coral reef environments, the Ocellated Eagle Ray often enters coral lagoons to feed (for example, Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia; Homma et al. 1994).

Reproduction is viviparous with aplacental histotrophy (Last et al. 2010). Little information is available on reproductive biology although it is known to have low fecundity, bearing up to four pups per litter (Last and Stevens 2009). Homma et al. (1994) observed three gravid females in the Caroline Islands, two individuals carrying a single embryo and one carrying two embryos. Schluessel et al. (2010) observed a single mature female in Australia with four embryos. Gestation has been reported at 12 months (Michael 1993) and reproductive periodicity may not be annual (Schluessel et al. 2010). Based on a few samples only, the left uterus appears to be functional (Schluessel et al. 2010). These factors combine for a limited reproductive output and generation length is approximately 12 years. This species is reported to reach sexual maturity after 4-6 years (Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum size of 330 cm disc width (DW) has been reported but the species is more commonly observed to about 160 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999, Last et al. 2010). Size at maturity is reported as >150 cm DW (Schluessel et al. 2010) for females, and 100-110 cm DW (Last et al. 2010) or 130 cm DW (Schluessel et al. 2010) for males. Size at birth is 33-36 cm DW (Last et al. 2010).

Catches taken in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, occur throughout the year but peak in summer (January and February) (Young 2001). The overall sex ratio is unity but there is a significant association between sex and time of year, with more males than females caught in summer and more females than males in winter. Median DW for each sex is 100 cm (Young 2001). Catches are rare in the southern part of the netted region, an apparent consequence of lower water temperatures (Young 2001).

Systems: Marine

Use and Trade The Ocellated Eagle Ray is caught for its meat and cartilage in Southeast Asia, including Indonesian and Malaysian waters, and elsewhere (White et al. 2006, Last et al. 2010). It is likely caught for their dorsal skin as well (Roy 2010). The species is also collected for the marine aquarium trade.

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 4 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en Details of catches of the Ocellated Eagle Ray throughout its range are scant. Nevertheless, its small litter size, schooling behaviour, inshore habitat and hence availability to a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl, etc.), its marketability, and the generally intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across large parts of the species' range, pose significant risks to the global population of this ray. The species is probably widely utilized across its range (Compagno and Last 1999) due to its availability to fisheries.

There are a few parts of its range where this eagle ray faces lower levels of threat, including the Maldives (where the exportation of ray product is banned), Australia, and parts of Oceania where human populations are low.

The Ocellated Eagle Ray occurs in coastal inshore waters where fishing pressure is typically very heavy, especially in Southeast Asian waters. The strong swimming nature of this species makes it quite susceptible to a range of fisheries, especially inshore gill net fisheries, which are extremely intensive in some regions (for example, Kalimantan, Indonesia). The species also enters estuarine waters where fishing pressure is extremely high and where (in Southeast Asia at least) pollution is also a major factor for all marine life.

This ray is likely to contribute substantially to numerous inshore artisanal fisheries across its range and regular landing sites are known. In Southeast Asia, the Ocellated Eagle Ray is landed in most countries within its range including: Indonesia (White et al. 2006, Last et al. 2010), Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002, Krajangdara 2014), the Philippines (Compagno et al. 2005), Taiwan (Schluessel et al. 2010), and Malaysia (Manjaji 2002, Last et al. 2010). In Indonesia this eagle ray is commonly taken by demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, inshore gillnet, and to a lesser extent, demersal longline (White et al. 2006, Last et al. 2010). These are all countries where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is intense and generally unregulated.

Extensive trawling in the Arafura Sea (Blaber et al. 2005) and in the Java Sea (Blaber et al. 2009) is likely to affect eagle rays in these regions. Documented large declines in shark and ray catches associated with corresponding increases in fishing effort in the Java Sea (Blaber et al. 2009) are likely to have a large effect on eagle rays in Indonesian waters and may be representative of fishing effects across the region.

In Australian waters eagle rays contribute to bycatch and byproduct in the East Coast Inshore Fin Fish fishery (Harry et al. 2011), and bycatch in the Pilbara Trawl fishery (Western Australian Department of Fisheries 2010). Eagle rays contribute to the minor catch in the ‘Other Sharks and Rays’ category by purse seine and longline in the Tuna Fisheries of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (Oceanic Fisheries Program 2010).

A prawn trawl fishery consisting of about nine vessels operates in the Gulf of Papua in southern Papua New Guinea; the fishery is managed under national laws and regulations, and there are some seasonal closures in place. While bycatch reduction devices are not currently in place, there are plans to implement these in the near future (L. Baje, National Fisheries Authority, pers. comm. 2015). Detailed species composition data for the bycatch is currently being investigated (L. Baje, National Fisheries Authority, pers. comm. 2015), however the Ocellated Eagle Ray is caught in low numbers.

Pressure on the inshore environment through artisanal fishing activities in the Bay of Bengal is likely

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 5 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en affecting this species. Landings are recorded from India (Theivasigamani and Subbiah 2014), Bangladesh (Hoq et al. 2014), and the Thailand Andaman Sea (Krajangdara 2014).

The Ocellated Eagle Ray is a popular public aquarium species and is collected for the marine aquarium trade. In some localities it is likely to be persecuted when considered a pest of mollusc aquaculture farms, as has occurred with other myliobatid species, for example, the Bat Ray (Myliobatis californicus) (Gray et al. 1997) and annual culls on the Longheaded Eagle Ray (A. flagellum) (Yamaguchi et al. 2005).

While there is some taxonomic uncertainty for this species in the Western Indian Ocean with molecular analyses separating samples from Qatar from the rest of the Indo-Pacific region (White et al. 2010), the following information from that region may relate to the Ocellated Eagle Ray or a conspecific.

Off eastern Africa, it is commonly caught by artisanal fishermen, in bottom set gillnets, trawls, and longlines in Tanzania (Bianchi 1985), by artisanal gillnet fisheries off northern Madagascar (Doukakis and Jonahson 2003), and by hook and line and harpoon off Somalia (Sommer et al. 1996). Eagle rays are also reported from fish markets in the Red Sea (Saudi Arabia; Spaet and Berumen 2015), the Persian Gulf (Iran; Paighambari and Daliri 2012) and Oman (Henderson et al. 2007).

In South Africa, between 1981 and 2000 there was a non-significant increasing trend in catch of this eagle ray in the protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal (Young 2001). Of the mean annual catch of 16 animals, 82% were released alive. This species contributed 4.6% to the total batoid catch. It is also taken in small numbers as bycatch in a shallow water prawn trawl fishery that operates off central KwaZulu- Natal (Fennessy 1994).

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information) Fisheries taking the Ocellated Eagle Ray are generally unmanaged throughout large parts of the species' range. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass.

Of highest priority is the resolution of taxonomic issues to better define the actual ranges of the various forms/species within the 'spotted eagle ray' species-complex.

The species is afforded protection on the east coast of Australia in the extensive Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (although only a third of the park is closed to commercial fishing) and the use of turtle exclusion devices (TEDs) in prawn trawl fisheries across northern Australia is mandatory. TEDs are likely to decrease the catch of at least large individuals, as was shown for numerous batoid species by Stobutzki et al. (2002). The spiritual significance of these rays to some indigenous communities has limited traditional catches in parts of northern Australia (Puruntatameri et al. 2001).

In the Maldives, the species is afforded protection in marine reserves created around diving sites in recognition of the high value of sharks and rays to tourism (Anderson and Waheed 2001). The Maldives also banned the export of rays in 1995 and the export of ray skins in 1996. Again, this was to protect the tourism resource (Anderson and Waheed 2001).

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 6 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes eagle rays. Credits

Assessor(s): Kyne, P.M., Dudgeon, C.L., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T.

Reviewer(s): Walls, R.H.L. & Dulvy, N.K.

Facilitators(s) and Kyne, P.M., Walls, R.H.L., Simpfendorfer, C. & Chin, A. Compiler(s):

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Blaber, S., Dichmont, C.M., White, W.T., Buckworth, R.C., Sadiyah, L., Iskandar, B., Nurhakim, S., Pillans, R.D., Andamari, R., Dharmadi and Fahmi. 2009. Elasmobranchs in southern Indonesian fisheries: the fisheries, the status of the stocks and management options. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 19: 367–391.

Blaber, S.J.M., Dichmont, C.M., Buckworth, R.C., Badrudin, Sumiono, B., Nurhakim, S., Iskandar, B., Fegen, B., Ramm, D.C. and Salini, J.P. 2005. Shared stocks of snappers (Lutjanidae) in Australia and Indonesia: Integrating biology, population dynamics and socio-economics to examine management scenarios. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 15: 111-127.

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Fennessy, S.T. 1994. Incidental capture of elasmobranchs by commercial prawn trawlers on the Tugela Bank, Natal, South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 14:287-296.

Harry, A.V., Tobin, A.J., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Welch, D.J., Mapleston, A., White, J., Williams, A.J., and Stapley, J. 2011. Evaluating catch and mitigating risk in a multispecies, tropical, inshore shark fishery within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Marine and Freshwater Research 62: 710-721.

Henderson, A.C., McIlwain, J.L., Al-Oufi, H.S. and Al-Sheili, S. 2007. The Sultanate of Oman shark fishery: Species composition, seasonality and diversity. Fisheries Research 86: 159-168.

Homma, K., Maruyama, T., Takeda, Y. and Ishihara, H. 1994. A study on the biology of rays occurring in the Pohnpei Island, Caroline Islands. In: S. Monkolprasit (ed.) Proceedings of the Fourth Indo-Pacific Fish Conference. pp: 87–107.

Hoq, M.E., Haroon, M.K.Y., Karim, E. 2014. Shark fisheries status and management approach in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh. In: Wahab, M.A., Shah, M.S., Hossain, M.A.R., Barman, B.K. and Hoq, M.E. (eds), Advances in Fisheries Research in Bangladesh: I. Proc. of 5th Fisheries Conference & Research Fair 2012. 18-19 January 2012 1 1: 233-246. Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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Krajangdara, T. 2014. Sharks and Rays in Thailand - Country Report. Andaman Sea Fisheries Research and Development Centre, Department of Fisheries, Phuket, Thailand.

Last, P.R. and Stevens, J.D. 1994. Sharks and Rays of Australia. First Edition. CSIRO Division of Fisheries, Hobart.

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 8 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en Last, P.R. and Stevens, J.D. 2009. Sharks and Rays of Australia. Second Edition. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.

Last, P.R., White, W.T., Caira, J.N., Dharmadi, Fahmi, Jensen, K., Lim, A.P.K., Manjaji-Matsumoto, B.M., Naylor, G.J.P., Pogonoski, J.J., Stevens, J.D., Yearsley, G.K. 2010. Sharks and Rays of Borneo. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Collingwood.

Manjaji, B.M. 2002. New records of elasmobranch species from Sabah. In: S.L. Fowler, T.M. Reed and Dipper, F.A. (eds) Elasmobranch biodiversity, conservation and management. Proceedings of the International Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia, July 1997. pp. 70–77. Occasional paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 25.

Michael, S.W. 1993. Reef Sharks and Rays of the World. A Guide to their Identification, Behavior and Ecology. Sea Challengers, Monterey, California.

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Paighambari, S.Y. and Daliri, M. 2012. The bycatch composition of shrimp trawl fisheries in Bushehr coastal waters, the northern Persian Gulf. Journal of the Persian Gulf 3(7): 27-36.

Puruntatameri, J., Puruntatameri, R., Pangiraminni, A., Burak, L., Tipuamantymirri, C., Tipakalippa, M., Puruntatameri, J., Puruntatameri, P., Pupangamirri, J.B., Kerinaiua, R., Tipiloura, R., Orsto, M-M., Kantilla, B., Kurrupuwu, M., Puruntatameri, P.F., Puruntatameri, T.D., Puruntatameri, L., Kantilla, K., Wilson, J., Cusack, J., Jackson, D. and Wightmann, G. 2001. Tiwi plants and animals. Aboriginal flora and fauna knowledge from Bathurst and Melville Islands, northern Australia. Northern Territory Botanical Bulletin No. 24. Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory, Palmerston.

Richards, V. P., Henning, M., Witzell, W., Shivji, M. S. 2009. Species delineation and evolutionary history of the globally distributed spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari). Journal of Heredity 100: 273-283.

Roy, B.J. 2010. Catch monitoring and assessment of shark and allied fisheries in the Bay of Bengal. pp. 33-42. In: Hoq, M. E., Yousuf Haroon, A. K. and Hussain, M. G. (eds.). 2011. Shark fisheries in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh: Status and potentialities. Support to Sustainable Management of the BOBLME Project, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), Bangladesh. 76 p.

Schluessel, V., Broderick, D., Collin, S.P., Ovenden, J.R. 2010. Evidence for extensive population structure in the white-spotted eagle ray within the Indo-Pacific inferred from mitochondrial gene sequences. Journal of Zoology 281: 46–55.

Sommer, C., Schneider, W. and Poutiers, J.M. 1996. The living marine resources of Somalia. FAO species identification field guide for fishery purposes. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.

Spaet, J.L.Y. & Berumen, M.L. 2015. Fish market surveys indicate unsustainable elasmobranch fisheries in the Saudi Arabian Red Sea. Fisheries Research 161: 356-364.

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Theivasigamani, M. and Subbiah, S. 2014. Elasmobranch fishery resources of Gulf of Mannar, southeast coast of India. World Journal of Fish and Marine Sciences 6(1): 24-29.

Vidthayanon, C. 2002. Elasmobranch diversity and status in Thailand. In: S.L. Fowler, T.M. Reed and F.A. Dipper (eds). Elasmobranch Biodiversity, Conservation and Management: Proceedings of the International Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia, July 1997. pp:104–113 IUCN SSC Shark Specialist

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White, W.T., Last, P.R., Naylor, G.J.P., Jensen, K. and Caira, J.N. 2010. Clarification of Aetobatus ocellatus (Kuhl, 1823) as a valid species, and a comparison with Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) (Rajiformes: Myliobatidae). In: Descriptions of new sharks and rays from Borneo. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Paper 032: 141-164.

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Young, N. 2001. An analysis of the trends in by-catch of turtle species, angelsharks and batoid species in the protective gillnets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. MSc thesis, University of Reading

Citation Kyne, P.M., Dudgeon, C.L., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T. 2016. Aetobatus ocellatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T42566169A42566212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016- 1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en

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Habitats (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Major Season Suitability Habitat Importance? 9. Marine Neritic -> 9.4. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy Resident Suitable -

9. Marine Neritic -> 9.8. Marine Neritic - Coral Reef -> 9.8.4. Lagoon Resident Suitable -

9. Marine Neritic -> 9.10. Marine Neritic - Estuaries Resident Suitable -

10. Marine Oceanic -> 10.1. Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic (0-200m) Resident Suitable -

Threats (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score 5. Biological resource use -> 5.3. Logging & wood Ongoing Majority (50- Unknown Unknown harvesting -> 5.3.2. Intentional use: (large scale) 90%) [harvest] Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality 5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting Ongoing Majority (50- Unknown Unknown aquatic resources -> 5.4.1. Intentional use: 90%) (subsistence/small scale) [harvest] Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality 5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting Ongoing Majority (50- Unknown Unknown aquatic resources -> 5.4.3. Unintentional effects: 90%) (subsistence/small scale) [harvest] Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality 5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting Ongoing Majority (50- Unknown Unknown aquatic resources -> 5.4.4. Unintentional effects: 90%) (large scale) [harvest] Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

Conservation Actions in Place (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions in Place In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning

Action Recovery plan: No

Systematic monitoring scheme: No

In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 11 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en Conservation Actions in Place Conservation sites identified: Yes, over part of range

Occur in at least one PA: Yes

Area based regional management plan: Yes

Invasive species control or prevention: Not Applicable

In-Place Species Management

Harvest management plan: No

Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: No

Subject to ex-situ conservation: No

In-Place Education

Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No

Included in international legislation: No

Subject to any international management/trade controls: Yes

Conservation Actions Needed (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions Needed 3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.1. Harvest management

3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.2. Trade management

Research Needed (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Research Needed 1. Research -> 1.1. Taxonomy

3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends

3. Monitoring -> 3.2. Harvest level trends

3. Monitoring -> 3.3. Trade trends

Additional Data Fields

Distribution Lower depth limit (m): 60

Upper depth limit (m): 0

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 12 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en Habitats and Ecology Generation Length (years): 12

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Aetobatus ocellatus – published in 2016. 13 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42566169A42566212.en The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ ISSN 2307-8235 (online) IUCN 2008: T42566169A42566212

The IUCN Red List Partnership

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.

The IUCN Red List Partners are: BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International; Microsoft; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London.

THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™