Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Italy EUROPEAN STUDIES SERIES

General Editors Colin Jones, Richard Overy, Joe Bergin, John Breuilly and Patricia Clavin

Published

Robert Aldrich Greater France: A Short History of French Overseas Expansion Nigel Aston Religion and Revolution in France, 1780–1804 Yves-Marie Bercé The Birth of Absolutism: A History of France, 1598–1661 Christopher F. Black Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Italy Susan K. Foley Women in France since 1789 Janine Garrisson A History of Sixteenth-Century France, 1483–1589 Gregory Hanlon Early Modern Italy, 1550–1800 Michael Hughes Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806 Matthew Jefferies Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871–1918 Dieter Langewiesche Liberalism in Germany Martyn Lyons Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution Hugh McLeod The Secularisation of Western Europe, 1848–1914 Robin Okey The Habsburg Monarchy, c.1765–1918 Pamela M. Pilbeam Republicanism in Nineteenth-Century France, 1814–1871 Helen Rawlings Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Spain Tom Scott Society and Economy in Germany, 1300–1600 Wolfram Siemann The German Revolution of 1848–49 Richard Vinen France, 1934–1970 Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Italy

CHRISTOPHER F. BLACK © Christopher F. Black 2004 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2004 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 978-0-333-61844-8 hardback ISBN 978-0-333-61845-5 ISBN 978-0-230-80196-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-0-230-80196-7 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Black, Christopher F. Church, religion, and society in early modern Italy / Christopher F. Black. p. cm. — (European studies series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-333-61844-8 – ISBN 978-0-333-61845-5 (pbk.) 1. Christian sociology – Italy. 2. Catholic Church – Italy – History. 3. Italy – Church history. I. Title. II European studies series (Palgrave Macmillan (Firm)) BX1543.B55 2004 274.5’06—dc22 2004050022

109876 54321 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 For my Mother Roma Black In memory of departed children With gratitude for consolation from ‘the playthings of the Holy Spirit’ Contents

List of Tables and Maps x Preface xi Acknowledgements xiv List of Abbreviations xvi The Early Modern Popes xvii

1 Religious Crises and Challenges in Early Sixteenth-Century Italy 1

2 The Council of Trent and Bases for Continuing Reform 19 Background and Criticisms 19 The Council’s Main Work 23 General Problems over Implementation 32 Ready for Action? 35

3 Centre and Peripheries: The Papacy, Congregations, Religious Orders 37 The Papacy 38 Congregations 43 The Venetian Interdict Crisis 48 The Inquisition 51 Religious Orders 54

4 Episcopal Leadership 62 The Diocesan Map 63 ‘Model’ Bishops 67 Bishops at Work and Diocesan Organisation 73

vii viii CONTENTS

5 Parish Priests and Parishioners 86 Reforming the Parochial Systems 86 Finding Suitable Priests 89 The Duties of Parish Clergy 93 The Parish Church as Focus 96 Betrothal and Marriage 98 Confession 103 Peacemaking 106 Priest–Parishioner Relations and Immorality 107

6 Religious Education 112 Seminaries and Clerical Education 113 Education in the Parish and Christian Doctrine Schools 119 Preaching 125 Mission Work within Italy 127

7 Confraternities, Hospitals and Philanthropy 130 Confraternities 131 Philanthropy 141

8 Nunneries and Religious Women 149 Nunneries and Female Enclosure 150 Convent Culture 161 Some Other Religious Women 166

9 Repression and Control 171 Sentencing 175 Public Condemnation and Controlling Major Heresy 178 Censorship 181 Changing Inquisition Targets 186 Sexual Control 195

10 Churches, Cultural Enticement and Display 197 Churches and Chapels 198 Visual Arts 203 Music 209 Forty-Hour Devotions (Quarantore) 216 Processions, Pilgrimages and Theatricality 217 CONTENTS ix

11 Conclusions: Successes and Failures 223

Appendix: The Italian Bishoprics 229 Notes 250 A Brief Reading Guide 275 Bibliography 277 Index 300 List of Tables and Maps

Tables

9.1 Accusations and denunciations before Venice and Friuli Inquisition Tribunals, 1547–1720 187 9.2 Accusations and denunciations to the Neapolitan Inquisition 1564–1740; highlighting main categories only 189

Maps

1 Map of Italy: Political divisions 1559 xix 2 Northern Italian bishoprics xx 3 Central Italian bishoprics, with Corsica and Sardinia xxi 4 Southern Italian and Sicilian bishoprics xxii 5 Places where groups of Protestant sympathisers were revealed 1540s–1560s xxiii

x Preface

Preliminary words are desirable about the book’s title, its coverage, and orientation. While the title is similar to Helen Rawlings’ on Spain,1 my book was conceived differently long ago, and does not fol- low hers in structure and coverage. This book derives from a project – too grandiose – envisaged 30 years ago, to write a very full study of the pre- and post-Tridentine Italian church, including its religious culture. One drafted chapter became my Italian Confraternities in the Sixteenth Century (1989; reprinted 2003), which led to more studies on confraternities, and indirectly to my Early Modern Italy. A Social History (2000–01). This book takes up part of that original challenge. In the intervening years much has changed, and a huge amount more mate- rial is published to complicate life for a single author trying to tackle all of Italy. Originally this book had ‘Counter Reformation’ in the title, though ‘Catholic Reform’, as an increasingly current alternative con- cept from the 1970s, would have been highlighted as an alternative thread. Both terms have been rejected as unhelpful and outdated overarching concepts; though both phrazes may occasionally appear later as minor descriptors. ‘Counter Reformation’ implies that what the Roman Church was doing and recommending was primarily negative, and reacting against Protestant threats and criticisms. ‘Catholic Reform’ ties in with theories that reforms of western Christendom were attempted before the Luther-Zwingli-Melanchthon challenges surfaced, including in geographical areas such as Italy and Iberia which remained loyal to the central Roman Catholic authority. It pos- tulates a common Christian reform background that affected Luther, Loyola and Calvin – and men like Seripando, Contarini, Giberti, Pole,

xi xii PREFACE

Miani and others active in Italy. ‘Catholic Reform’ can also be attached to persons and policies in the post-Tridentine period that aimed at continuing earlier ecumenical reform trends, without hav- ing a key focus on the Protestant challenges. John O’Malley’s argu- ments for using a more neutral ‘Early Modern Catholicism’ are persuasive. He concludes:

Early Modern Catholicism suggests both change and continuity without pronouncing on which predominates .... This term seems more amenable to the results of ‘history from below’ than the four just discussed (Counter Reformation; Catholic Reform or Catholic Reformation; Tridentine Reform and Tridentine Age; The Confessional Age or Confessional Catholicism), all of which indicate more directly the concerns and actions of ecclesiastical, political, or politico-ecclesiastical officialdom. Early Modern Catholicism more easily allows consideration of the resistance to control attempted by any social, ecclesiastical or intellectual elite. It allows for the negotiation that seems to have occurred at all levels – between bishops and Rome, between pastors and bishops on the one hand and pastors and their flock on the other, between accused and inquisitors – with even illiterate villagers emerging as effective negotiators when their interests were at stake. [and the term] has space for the new roles played by Catholic women, lay and religious.

However that term can cover from the late fifteenth century to the French Revolution.2 Partly because of word limits, I focus on only part of ‘early modern’ Catholicism: on the post-Tridentine period till the mid- or late seven- teenth century. The closure of the Council of Trent in December 1563 was a defining moment for Italy, if not for all parts of the Catholic world. The period before this is covered in Chapter 1 in terms of the religious crises, and discussions throughout Italy of het- erodox ideas; and in other chapters when considering developments of institutions, policies and ideals that fed into the multi-faceted reformation of Italian church and society. Tridentine legislation set some programmes and norms for further reform, but many other agencies of change were at work. The book balances descriptions of church organisation and social life, with assessments of the problems of restructuring. Discussion and overall analysis is complicated by Italy being politically divided into about 17 significant states, and 290 PREFACE xiii or more bishoprics. Church and cultural leaders saw ‘Italy’ as a single entity for some purposes, but the other divisions militated against a monolithic or uniform Church. We are in the pursuit of ‘local knowledge’, in the words of Simon Ditchfield’s pertinent survey article.3 This suggests many churches, rather than one Church. Part of my stress is on the positive and negative interactions between centre and periphery, but also between people and institutions locally, and even conflict within the centre – Rome. The chosen title points to a selective bias in my coverage, affected by word limits, personal interests and expertise. Predominantly, I am concerned with the interactions of the church institutions and their clergy with the wider lay public – ‘society’ – within the Italian penin- sula; and with the position of the laity not only in the parish structure, but in relation to ‘good works’. Famous church intellectuals (like Roberto Bellarmino and Cesare Baronio) appear, but for their impact on wider society, rather than brilliant writings on theology, history, philosophy and science. The recent production of Anthony Wright’s very valuable study of the Papacy, allows me to limit consideration of Popes, and largely to roles within Italy.4 The Religious Orders are discussed primarily for their general religious educational and philanthropic contributions, not for higher scholarship and education or internal life. Nuns and nunneries have a broader consideration because Tridentine attempts to enforce strict enclosure constitute a major revolutionary attempt, with wide social implica- tions. Visual and musical attempts to overwhelm and entice the faith- ful are deemed highly significant. Colour plates and high quality black and white photos are not feasible in the series book; but the notes suggest readily accessible illustrations in art books and CDs for the music.

1 Helen Rawlings, Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Spain (Basingstoke, 2002). 2 O’Malley, Trent and All That, 141. 3 Ditchfield, ‘ “In search of local knowledge”: Rewriting early modern Italian religious history’. 4 Wright, Early Modern Papacy. Acknowledgements

Research on this book has been built up intermittently since the mid-1970s, interwoven with other projects. For enabling research vis- its to Italy, and giving papers at international conferences, I am grate- ful to the following bodies: the British Academy, the Arts and Humanities Research Board, the Carnegie Trust, the University Court and the Arts Faculty Planning Unit of Glasgow University, as well as my own Department research fund. Many intellectual and personal debts in pursuing this subject have already been acknowledged in my two previous books. The late Eric Cochrane personally provided encouragement in the early 1970s, fos- tering a sceptical approach to much past and then current writing on the Italian Church. Special thanks are owed to Danilo Zardin, who since taking a very supportive interest in my book on Confraternities, has been a major supplier of books and offprints, notably on confraternities, and on the religious-social history of Lombardy. His research work and interpretations have affected much discussed below. My interest in, and knowledge of, the fascinating Friuli region, has been fostered by Maria Bortoluzzi, a family friend from Spilimbergo, and Aldo Colonello of the Circolo Culturale Menocchio in Montereale Valcellina who have not only been friendly guides to their region, but providers of interesting books. Jenny Greenleaves Manco has been a kind host in Fiesole, recently facilitating research in Florence, as well as being a guide intermittently since student days to Florence, the city of her birth, and remoter parts of Tuscany. Among many other academic colleagues, and some former students, who have helped me (possibly long past their recalling in some cases), with advice, encouragement, references, books, offprints, conference

xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xv invitations etc., I would particularly like to thank Tricia Allerston, Charles Avery, Elizabeth Black, Michael Bury, Sam Cohn, Bruce Collins, Nick Davidson, Andrea Del Col, Niki Dialeti, Simon Ditchfield, Simon Dixon, John Durkan, Konrad Eisenbichler, Mario Fanti, Giovanna Farrell-Vinay, Costas Gaganakis, David Gentilcore, Olwen Hufton, Mary Laven, Lance Lazar, Oliver Logan, Richard Mackenney, Eilidh MacLean, Adelina Modesti, Thomas Munck, John O’Malley, Giorgios Plakotos, Irene Polverini Fosi, Paolo Prodi, Brian Pullan, Helena Roach, Roberto Rusconi, Nick Terpstra, Marcello Verga, Andrea Vianello, Susan Verdi Webster, Anthony Wright. Mike Shand helpfully developed the Maps, as for my Early Modern Italy, though responsibility for any errors of course remains mine. List of Abbreviations

AABol Archivio Arcivescovile, Bologna AAF Archivio Arcivescovile, Florence AdiSP Archivio di Stato, Perugia ASB Archivio di Stato, Bologna A.S.Pietro Archivio di S.Pietro, Perugia APV Archivio della Curia Patriarchale, Venice ASV Archivio di Stato, Venice ASVR Archivio Storico del Vicariato, Rome BCP Biblioteca Comunale, Perugia S. San, Sant’, Santo, Santa. Meaning Saint or Holy (in the singular). Abbreviated when a prefix to names of churches, confraternities and institutions. SS. Santi (plural, Saints or Holy); Santissima, Santissimo, Santissimi (Most Saintly, Most Holy). Similar usage. SU Sant’Uffizio (Section of Inquisition records in ASV)

xvi The Early Modern Popes

Papal name Papal Name Home city/ Papal ‘nephew’, Reign town or other family aid

Adrian VI 1522–23 Adrian Dedal Utrecht Clement VII 1523–34 Giulio de’ Florence Medici Paul III 1534–49 Alessandro Rome Card. Alessandro Farnese Farnese Julius III 1550–55 Ciocchi del Rome Monte Marcellus II 1555 Marcello Montepulciano Cervini Paul IV 1555–59 Gian Pietro Naples Carlo Carafa Caraffa Pius IV 1559–65 Giovanni Milan Card. Carlo Angelo de’ Borromeo (St) Medici Pius V (St) 1565–72 Michele Bosco Card. Michele Ghislieri Bonelli

Gregory XIII 1572–85 Ugo Bologna Card. Filippo B. Buoncompagni (nephew) and Giacomo B. (bastard son) Sixtus V 1585–90 Felice Peretti Grottommare Card. Alessandro (Ancona) Peretti Urban VII 1590 Giov. Batt. Castagna Rome Gregory XIV 1590–91 Niccolò Sfondrati Somma (Lombardy)

xvii xviii THE EARLY MODERN POPES

(Continued)

Papal name Papal Name Home city/ Papal ‘nephew’, reign town or other family aid Innocent IX 1591 Giov. Antonio Bologna Facchinetti Clement VIII 1592–1605 Ippolito Fano Card. Pietro Aldobrandini Aldobrandini Leo XI 1605 Alessandro de’ Florence Medici Paul V 1605–21 Camillo Borghese Rome (and Card. Scipione Siena) Borghese Gregory XV 1621–23 Alessandro Ludovisi Bologna Card. Lodovico L. Urban VIII 1623–44 Maffeo Barberini Florence Card. Carlo (brother); Taddeo, Card. Antonio (nephews) Innocent X 1644–55 Giov. Batt. Pamphili Rome Card. Camillo Pamphili Alexander VII 1655–67 Fabio Chigi Siena Card. Flavio Chigi Clement IX 1667–69 Giulio Rospigliosi Pistoia Clement X 1669–76 Emilio Altieri Rome Innocent XI 1676–89 Benedetto Como Odescalchi Alexander VIII 1689–91 Pietro Ottoboni Venice Card. Pietro Ottoboni Innocent XII 1691–1700 Antonio Pignatelli Spinazzola (Puglia) Clement XI 1700–21 Francesco Albani Urbino xix

FEDERATION OF SWITZERLAND

DUCHY OF HOLY ROMAN SAVOY EMPIRE

Valtellina

DUCHY OF Bergamo MILAN Friuli PRINCIPATE OF PIEDMONT Milan REPUBLIC OF Verona Tur in Pavia VENICE AquileiaA q u i l e i a DUCHY OF Piacenza MANTUA Padua KINGDOM MARQUISATE Parma Mantua Venice OF OF SALUZZO DUCHY OF HUNGARY Genoa PARMA Modena Ferrara REPUBLIC DUCHY OF DUCHY OF Istria OF GENOA MODENA Bologna FERRARA PAPAL MARQUISATE Lucca STATE Ravenna OF REPUBLIC MONFERRATO OF LUCCA Florence Rimini OTTOMAN Pisa EMPIRE Livorno DUCHY OF DUCHY OF Urbino URBINO TUSCANY

Marches The Elba Siena Loreto Assisi PAPAL STATE Umbria

Abruzzi Rome

Corsica

Campania a p i t a n a t a KINGDOM OF Naples NAPLES Bari (Spain) Puglia

Basilicata

KINGDOM OF SARDINIA Lecce (Spain)

Palermo Calabria Messina

Reggio KINGDOM OF SICILY (Spain)

0 100 200 km

Map 1 Map of Italy: Political divisions, 1559 xx Zara Udine Gorizia Portogruaro Caorle Senigallia Veneto Vittorio Fano Belluno Pordenone Pesaro Venice Chioggia Fossombrone Rimini Cagli Treviso Comacchio Ravenna Urbino Bolzano Forli Cesena Citta di Padua Castello Ferrara Vicenza Trent Rovigo Sursina Bertinoro San Sepolcro Faenza Imola Bologna Verona Arezzo Nonantola Modigliana Fiesole Mantua Carpi Florence Cortona Prato Guastalla d'Elsa Pistoia Colle di Val Colle di Brescia Modena Siena Pescia Emilia Reggio San Cremona Fidenza Miniato Bergamo Pisa Parma Volterra Crema Lucca Massa Sarzana Pontremoli Lodi Como Livorno Milan Piacenza Bobbio Vigevano Pavia La Spezia Tortona Novara Chiavari Genoa Acqui Biella Alessandria Vercelli Casale Asti Alba Albenga Savona Ivrea Tur in Aosta Mondovi Fossano 100 km Ventimiglia Saluzzo Cuneo 0 2–4 Italian bishoprics The following maps indicate the location of most seats Italian Bishoprics, and relate to Appendix have not managed to record everyon the Bishoprics. We single one, especially in the areas around Naples. (To be considered in connection with the Appendix on Bishoprics. Locations guided by Jedin et al . (eds), Atlas d’histoire de l’Eglise. ) Map 2 Northern Italian bishoprics xxi Cattaro Ragusa Brindisi Monopoli Spalato Corzola Bari Castellaneta Molfetta Sebenico Lessina Bitonto Matera Altamura Trani Bisceglie Manfredonia Andria Gravina Tricarico Acerenza Venosa Minervino Foggia

Adriatic Sea San Ascoli Severo Melfi Muro Troia Bovino Lucano Teggiano Potenza Conza Termoli Lacedonia Lucera Larino Ariano Nusco Campagna Avellino Vallo di Vallo Lucania Salerno Pescara Cerrato Sannita Benevento Campobasso Dei Goti Nola S. Agata S. Lanciano Sarno Alife Trivento Isernia Loreto Tirreni Cava dei Cava Ancona Chieti Acerra Sulmona Macerata Caiazzo Fermo Ascoli Teano Piceno Teramo Caserta Badia Naples Capua di' Cava Osimo San Aversa Sora Sorrento L'Aquila Recanati Iesi Ischia Severino Montalto Sessa Castellammare Amalfi Norcia Avezzano Veroli Alatri Camerino Fabriano Cagli Gaeta Nocera Subiaco de' Pagani Rieti Foligno Nocera Gubbio Palestrina Ferentino Ter ni Tivoli Terracina Spoleto Citta di Castello Velletri Assisi Segni Civita Todi Castellana Frascati Perugia Pieve Citta d. Albano San Martino Bagnoregio Ostia Orvieto Montpulciano Nepi Rome Cortona Grotttaferrata

Chiusi a Viterbo 100 km Porto Pienza S e Montefiascone Sovana- Pitigliano Acquapendente Siena

Tarquinia n Montalcino i a Grosseto n Massa

Marttima e h r

r 0 y T

Elba Half Scale

Corsica Ajaccio Nuoro Tempio Lanusei Sassari

Bosa Sardinia Alghero Oristano Cagliari Ales Iglesias Map 3 Central Italian bishoprics, with Corsica and Sardinia xxii 100 km Otranto Brindisi Lecce Nardo Ugento Gallipoli Sea Oria Ionian Taranto Castellaneta 0 Crotone Cariati Rossano San Tursi Severina Squillace Umbriatico Catanzaro Bisignano all' Ionio Nicastro Cassano Cosenza Locri San Marco Mileto Teggiano Oppido Policastro Mamertina Tropea Reggio Calabria Bova Vallo di Vallo Lucania Messina Acrireale Syracuse Catania Lipari Noto Patti Nicosia Piazza Armerina Cefalu

Sicily Palermo Agrigento Monreale Trapani Mazara del Vallo Map 4 Southern Italian and Sicilian bishoprics xxiii

Locarno

Trento Bergamo Milan Strigno Gardone Valsugana Udine Brescia Asolo Casale Vicenza Cittadella Cremona Padua Mantua Venice Rovigo Genoa Capo Modena d' Istria Lunigiana Ferrara Fivizzano Bologna Faenza Garfagnana Casola Lucca Florence

Siena

Elba

Viterbo Adriatic Sea

Corsica T y r r h Fondi e n Waldensians Manfredonia i a n Naples Bovino

S e a

Sardinia Waldensians

Cosenza

Palermo Squillace

Ionian Sicily Sea

0 100 200 km

Map 5 Places where groups of Protestant sympathisers were revealed, 1540s–1560s (• indicate major centres of interest ° indicate lesser centres of interest)