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The Bryn Yr Odyn Solar Park, Tyn Dryfol, Soar, Anglesey

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  • T H A M E S
  • V A L L E Y

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

S E R V I C E S

The Bryn Yr Odyn Solar Park,
Tyn Dryfol, Soar, Anglesey

Desk-based Heritage Assessment by Steve Preston

Site Code TDA13/31
(SH3950 7380)

The Bryn Yr Odyn Solar Park, Tyn Dryfol,
Soar, Anglesey

Desk-based Heritage Assessment for New Forest Energy Ltd

by Steve Preston
Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd

Site Code TDA13/31

April 2013 Summary

Site name: The Bryn Yr Odyn Solar Park, Tyn Dryfol, Soar, Anglesey

Grid reference: SH3950 7380 Site activity: Desk-based heritage assessment Project manager: Steve Ford Site supervisor: Steve Preston Site code: TDA13/31 Area of site: 29ha

Summary of results: There are no known heritage assets on the site. There are, however, two Scheduled Monuments close enough to be in a position where their settings could be affected by its development. On balance it is not considered that the nature of the proposal would adversely affect the appreciation of these monuments.
The area around the site, particularly to the south and east, is comparatively rich in known archaeological sites, with several small Roman settlements besides the two Scheduled Monuments, and the speculative line of a Roman road. The site covers a very large area, increasing the probability of archaeological remains being present simply by chance. The landscape of the site has been farmland since cartographic depictions began, and most of the fields are comparatively recent constructions.
The proposal overall does not obviously carry any significant adverse impacts on archaeological remains but there may be the potential for localized disturbance in areas of electricity substation or deeper cable trenches. It is recommended that a watching brief be conducted in those areas but that the remainder of the proposal requires no archaeological mitigation.

This report may be copied for bona fide research or planning purposes without the explicit permission of the copyright holder. All TVAS unpublished fieldwork reports are available on our website: www.tvas.co.uk/reports/reports.asp.

Report edited/checked by: Steve Ford 11.04.13

i

Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd, 47–49 De Beauvoir Road, Reading RG1 5NR Tel. (0118) 926 0552; Fax (0118) 926 0553; email: [email protected]; website: www.tvas.co.uk

The Bryn Yr Odyn Solar Park, Tyn Dryfol, Soar, Anglesey
Desk-based Heritage Assessment

by Steve Preston

Report 13/31
Introduction

This report is an assessment of the archaeological potential of a large parcel of land located at Tyn Dryfol, Soar, Anglesey (Fig. 1). The project was commissioned by Mr Jeremy Hinton, of New Forest Energy Ltd, Meyrick Estate Office, Hinton Admiral, Christchurch, Dorset, on behalf of Bodorgan Environmental Management Ltd comprises the first stage of a process to determine the presence/absence, extent, character, quality and date of any archaeological remains which may be affected by redevelopment of the area.
Planning permission has been sought from Ynys Môn (Anglesey) Council (Appln No. 10C114A) to construct a solar farm with associated infrastructure. In order to inform the planning process and to provide sufficient information on which to base a programme of archaeological mitigation, a desk-based assessment and an initial evaluation by means of magnetometer survey have been proposed. This report deals with the deskbased assessment, and a separate report will cover the geophysical survey.

Site description, location and geology

The site is located at the farm of Tyn Dryfol, c.1.5km northeast of the hamlet of Soar and c.6km west of Llangefni, south of the centre of the Isle of Anglesey (Fig. 1). The eight fields which make up the site have a total area of 29.05ha centred on NGR, SH3950 7380 .They are all located to the north-west of the farm buildings on the south-west-facing slope of a hill that climbs from c.45m above Ordnance Datum in the south-west to c.65m in the north-east. An unnamed stream runs in a southwesterly direction past the site to the west and an unnamed road forms its eastern border (Pls 1–4). A roughly cobbled cart track bisects the site from the southeast to the northwest. All of the fields are under pasture although Fields 3 and 4 (Fig. 2) are marsh with drainage ditches running though them. The underlying geology for the majority of the site is described as boulder clay overlying Gwna Group schist with patches of schist without the boulder clay covering in the centre and eastern edge of the site (BGS 1974).

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Planning background and development proposals

Planning permission is to be sought for the development of a solar farm on the site (Fig. 2). This would include an electricity substation, cables and solar panels. Several small rocky outcrops and all of the site’s internal boundaries are excluded from the development proposals.
The Welsh Government’s Planning Policy Wales (PPW2012) aims to protect the historic environment, including archaeology and ancient monuments, listed buildings, conservation areas and historic parks, gardens and landscapes. This national policy provides guidance to local planning authorities and makes it clear that there is no need for local plans to duplicate national policy.
The following paragraphs are the most relevant:
‘6.4.2 Development plans should reflect national policies for the protection and enhancement of sites of archaeological interest and their settings. Archaeological remains scheduled as being of national importance should be identified for preservation. Not all nationally important remains meriting preservation will necessarily be scheduled. Such remains and, in appropriate circumstances, other unscheduled archaeological remains of more local importance, and their settings, may also be identified in development plans as particularly worthy of preservation.
‘6.4.3 Local planning authorities should not include in their development plans policies requiring developers to finance archaeological works in return for the grant of planning permission. Developers should not expect to obtain planning permission for archaeologically damaging development merely because they arrange for the recording of sites whose physical preservation in situ is both desirable (because of their level of importance) and feasible.
‘6.4.4 Development plans should include locally-specific policies for the conservation of the built environment that are relevant to development management decisions and which should be taken into consideration in the determination of applications for both listed building consent and conservation area consent.
Archaeology ‘6.5.1 The desirability of preserving an ancient monument and its setting is a material consideration in determining a planning application, whether that monument is scheduled or unscheduled. Where nationally important archaeological remains, whether scheduled or not, and their settings are likely to be affected by proposed development, there should be a presumption in favour of their physical preservation in situ. In cases involving lesser archaeological remains, local planning authorities will need to weigh the relative importance of archaeology against other factors, including the need for the proposed development.
‘6.5.2 The needs of archaeology and development can be reconciled, and potential conflict very much reduced, if developers discuss their proposals for development with the local planning authority at an early stage. Archaeological assessments commissioned by developers (sometimes as part of a wider Environmental Impact Assessment) can help to provide information on the archaeological sensitivity of a site before submitting a planning application. If important remains are thought to exist at a development site, the planning authority should request the prospective developer to arrange for an archaeological field evaluation to be carried out before any decision on the planning application is taken. The results of any assessment and/or field evaluation should be provided as part of a planning application. If this information is not provided, authorities should consider whether it is appropriate to direct the applicant to supply further information, or whether to refuse permission for inadequately documented proposals.
‘6.5.3 Where local planning authorities decide that physical preservation in situ of archaeological remains is not justified in the circumstances of the case, and that development resulting in the destruction of the archaeological remains should proceed, before granting planning permission the authority needs to be satisfied that the developer has made appropriate and satisfactory provision for the archaeological investigation and subsequent recording of the remains and the publication of the results. Archaeological investigations should be carried out before development commences, working to a project brief prepared by the planning authority.

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‘6.5.4 Local planning authorities may impose conditions to protect a monument and require that an archaeological watching brief is carried out. In order to secure the provision of an appropriate archaeological investigation and subsequent recording of remains, a negative condition may be imposed prohibiting the carrying out of the development until such time as works or other action (for example, an excavation), have been carried out by a third party.
‘6.5.5 Archaeological remains may only become apparent when development has commenced. Where such remains are deemed by the Welsh Government to be of national importance, the remains may be scheduled. In these circumstances, developers would need to seek separate Scheduled Monument Consent before continuing work. The local planning authority or the Welsh Government may revoke planning consent if deemed necessary.
‘6.5.6 Local planning authorities are required to consult the Welsh Government on any development proposal that is likely to affect the site of a scheduled ancient monument. Scheduled monument consent must be sought from the Welsh Government for any proposed works to a scheduled ancient monument. Consent can only be granted for detailed proposals, and planning permission alone is insufficient to authorise the works. Scheduled Ancient Monuments are exempt from conservation area control; however, where buildings are both scheduled and listed, ancient monument legislation takes precedence and scheduled monument consent, rather than listed building consent, is required for works. In these cases, when considering applications for demolition the Welsh Government will have regard to the need to explore alternative uses. Where alterations are proposed, regard will be had to the retention of important features.

The site is not within a Conservation Area, World Heritage Site nor a historic landscape, park or garden, and there are no Listed Buildings in the vicinity, so paragraphs relating to these do not apply.

In Anglesey, the Local Plan (adopted 1996) is in the process of being replaced by a joint Anglesey and
Gwynedd Local Development Plan but it is understood that until replaced the 1996 polices remain in effect. In keeping with national advice not to repeat national policy, only three policies deal with the historic environment: ‘Policy 39. The Council will use its planning powers to ensure that Scheduled Ancient Monuments and their settings are retained intact. Unscheduled archaeological sites and their settings of sufficient importance to merit preservation will also be protected. Where proposals affect other unscheduled archaeological remains which do not merit preservation, provision will be made for an appropriate archaeological response. Schemes for the development of visitor and educational facilities on suitable sites will be permitted provided that the archaeological site is not put at risk.’
‘40. The character and appearance of all designated conservation areas will be protected from unsympathetic development. Enhancement of their characters will be achieved by carrying out improvements and permitting high quality new development. The Council will define and designate additional Conservation Areas within other areas of special architectural or historic interest where it is considered necessary to preserve and enhance the character and appearance of those areas.
‘41. Buildings of special architectural and historic interest and their settings will be protected from unsympathetic development, alterations or demolition. Appropriate uses which help to preserve their character and fabric will be permitted.’

In the case of Scheduled Ancient Monuments (and their settings), the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act (1979) also apply. Under this legislation, development of any sort on or affecting a Scheduled Monument requires the Secretary of State’s Consent. There are two Scheduled Monuments with the vicinity of the proposal area.

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Methodology

The assessment of the site was carried out by the examination of pre-existing information from a number of sources recommended by the Institute for Archaeologists paper ‘Standards in British Archaeology’ covering desk-based studies. These sources include historic and modern maps, the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust’s Regional Historic Environment Record, RCAHMW aerial photographic archive, geological maps and any relevant publications or reports.

Archaeological background

General background

As a review of the reports published in the journal Archaeologia Cambrensis in the last couple of decades demonstrates, the pace of archaeological research in Anglesey is not rapid, which presumably reflects the scarcity of modern development on the island (Lynch 1991 covers the extent of the previous 20 years’ research in a rather short addendum to her first edition of 1970). Nonetheless, the island does have a rich prehistoric (and later) archaeological record, and a long, if not especially intensive, history of archaeological research (RCAHMW 1937; Grimes 1938; 1951; cf Lynch et al. 2006). What follows deals in the main with the southern half of the island.
There appears to be no evidence of any Palaeolithic occupation, and the only significant early Mesolithic site is at Trwyn Du, with a very large collection of struck flints including two tranchet axes (Murphy 2002; Burrow 2003), although the radiocarbon dates from this site are questionable. Paradoxically a site at Capel Eithin has produced late Mesolithic radiocarbon dates but no finds or features of that period. Wales as a whole appears to have no Mesolithic radiocarbon dates later than the 2nd half of the 6th millennium, but the dating of the earliest Neolithic settlement cannot be pushed back beyond the early 4th (around 3800 cal BC). Attempts to have the early Neolithic occupation of the British Isles spread from an initial point of contact in the west (Ireland or Wales) (Sheridan 2003; Sheridan 2005) have not met with universal support (Whittle et al. 2011). Megalithic tombs form the commonest monument of this period, indeed, ‘Few areas of Britain have a greater density of megalithic tombs than Anglesey’ (Smith and Lynch 1987, v) and one has been partially excavated very close to the present study area (see below) but occupation sites are also known, if rare: e.g., Bryn yr Hen Bobl and Bryn Celli Wen for the earlier Neolithic, Capel Eithin, Bryn Celli Du (henge and passage grave) for the later, and a possible hengiform monument at Castell Bryn-Gwynn.

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There appears to be a tendency for earlier prehistoric occupation to favour the coastline, and the south coast in particular, but this might be a by-product of the nature of previous study rather than a real pattern of past activity (there has for example been a thorough study aimed entirely at coastal archaeology: Davidson 2002).
The Bronze Age and Iron Age see a more even spread of settlements, and certainly more of them in total
(Longley 2006, esp. figs 4.4 to 4.6). Barclodiad y Gawres has a remarkable chambered cairn around 30m in diameter, probably of early bronze Age date (Powell and Daniel 1956). Anglesey is, however, perhaps most noted in the public perception for its association with the Iron Age druids and resistance to the Roman invasion in AD 59, and the massacre of AD 60/61, as recorded in grisly detail by Tacitus, and perhaps also the exquisite workmanship of the Llyn Cerrig Bach hoard or votive deposit (Fox 1946). Holyhead was a Roman port and there were military installations along the north and probably the south coast but there is little other Roman evidence of much significance; known ‘hut groups’ previously unhesitatingly assigned to this period are increasingly being seen as Iron Age in origin and may continue long after the Roman period.
The archaeology of the post-Roman period is also rather scant, but many small settlements are known from place name evidence. The early medieval period has left little trace of the presumed importance of the island, but excavations at Rhosyr have revealed a building that may by the court (llys) and again, numerous small settlements have medieval roots (Roberts 2006).
Work in advance of the construction of the A55, not far to the north of the site, revealed several unsuspected new sites, including prehistoric and Roman settlements, a Bronze Age and early Christian cemetery, and stretches of turnpike road (Maynard et al. 1999).

Regional Historic Environment Record

A search was made on the Regional Historic Environment Record (HER) on 7th March 2013 for a radius of 2km around the proposal site. This revealed 47 entries within the search radius. These are summarized as Appendix 1 (excluding five for desk-based assessments, four for synthetic regional or national surveys, and one for a landscape characterization project) and the locations of those closest to the proposal site are plotted on Figure 1.

Prehistoric The most significant archaeological site in the study area is the Scheduled Monument of Din Dryfol Neolithic

chambered tomb [Fig. 1: 1], which is discussed more fully below; this is located 500m south of the southern tip of the proposal area. A Late Bronze Age founder’s hoard, composed of at least two palstaves, a socketed axe and two sword fragments (and reportedly more objects) was discovered during the burial of a sheep well to the north

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of the site, beyond the limits of Figure 1 [Appendix 1: 2]. There is always doubt as to whether these burials of groups of bronze objects are intended for later re-cycling and have been buried for temporary safe-keeping or whether they were never intended to be recovered but are votive offerings. The absence of obvious waste pieces or offcuts might suggest the latter in this case, but as the hoard was evidently only partly recovered, that suggestion must be treated with caution. There is an entry for a mound to the south of the site [3], where the place name Din/Dinas suggests a hillfort, but the mound is thought more likely to represent a Bronze Age barrow; it may even simply be a natural feature. There are several ‘hut groups’ in the area, at least some of which, as noted above, could have prehistoric roots. The HER, however, only assigns a broad prehistoric date to one of these, also in the vicinity of the chambered tomb to the south [4] (although finds reported from here in the 19th century included Roman pottery). Roman Three of the site type known as ‘hut groups’ are recorded in the 2km search radius, and at least two of them have

produced positive Roman evidence. Finds from the one just mentioned [4] included mortaria (Roman food preparation vessels), among other finds that are less period-specific, and the site apparently consisted of several small enclosures, each with two or three huts. This site had already been mostly destroyed when it was reported in the 19th century. considerably more detail is known from a site at Plas bach to the south-east [5], also from 19th-century excavations, which reported on buildings, roads and pavements. Subsequent work nearby revealed a substantial circular stone foundation, and a stone hut floor with Roman pottery, including imported samian ware, quernstones, whetstones and a crucible, which indicates metalworking in the vicinity. The third hut group to the east of the site is a Scheduled Monument [6] which survives as a series of earthworks. A possible Roman road line [7] has been projected through the area, just east of the proposal site, but there appears to be little positive evidence for it at any point, and none in the current study area. If it did exist, its route should cross the proposal area. Finally, the finding of a (?Roman) copper ingot at the bottom of a well at Tyn Dryfol may be further evidence for metalworking of this period in the area [8]. There is also hearsay evidence for the finding of Roman coins to the south of the site [21]. Medieval Two medieval period entries are for the locations of chapels, presumably from documentary sources [9, 10]

while the third is the site of a mill, known both from documentary sources and the remains of its mill pond and two leats [11]. The possible location of one of the chapels [10] is close to the proposal site but this is not likely to be especially accurate.

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Post-medieval An 18th or 19th-century folly is depicted on early Ordnance Survey maps (off Figure 1) [12]. Bodwrdin, well to

the south, is a 17th-century listed house [13]. There is a record for the old road from Fferam Rhosdyd to Tyn Dryfol-bach [14] and two gardens are also noted in the HER, at Tyn Dryfol itself [15] and Tre’r-gof (beyond

Figure 1) [16].

Modern, Undated The only modern entry in the HER for the area is for a listed telephone kiosk, well away to the north-west [17].

A number of entries are not assigned to any specific period. Those which also lie beyond the limits of Figure 1 are summarized in Appendix 1 and not discussed here. Of the remainder, just to the north of the site [19] was the location of a standing stone which was removed during building of the A55; it is unclear whether this was an antiquity at all. Of more significance for the current study, two entries relate to observations made during (nonarchaeological) excavations at two further hut groups, one at Tyn Dryfol itself [20] and one further south [21], the finds from which have not been assigned to a date but which presumably would be later prehistoric, Roman or possibly early medieval. Details for both of these are necessarily uncertain.

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    ROYAL COMMISSION THEMATIC RESEARCH FRAMEWORK DOCUMENT Comisiwn Brenhinol Henebion Cymru Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales ROYAL COMMISSION THEMATIC RESEARCH FRAMEWORK DOCUMENT COMMO TO Edited by Louise Barker & Toby Driver Version 1.0 March 2015 Comisiwn Brenhinol Henebion Cymru Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales Plas Crug, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 1NJ www.cbhc.gov.uk / www.rcahmw.gov.uk Cover: Detailed earthwork survey of Castell Grogwynion Iron Age hillfort, Ceredigion (NPRN 303671) 2 ROYAL COMMISSION THEMATIC RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ‘For our historic environment to survive deliver strategic outcomes for the people and thrive it has to be valued; and to be of Wales. valued it has to be understood’ (Historic This Thematic Research Framework Environment Strategy for Wales, Cadw Document enables the Commission to 2013, 5). This is at the heart of the Royal decide upon priorities and provides Commission’s Thematic Research guidance when evaluating funding Framework. Research supports a virtuous opportunities and partnerships. It circle whereby it improves our knowledge recognises the Commission’s strategic and understanding, enables conservation work areas, its particular strengths and and protection, engages owners and expertise and encourages projects across communities and encourages enjoyment a range of timely and forward-looking and participation in the heritage of Wales. themes. Our work in this area will continue to set national and international standards for recording and investigation, Introduction archive and data, and will pursue innovative and creative approaches to As the investigation body and national record, interpret and present the historic archive for the historic environment of environment.
  • RESEARCH FRAMEWORK for the ARCHAEOLOGY of EARLY MEDIEVAL WALES C

    RESEARCH FRAMEWORK for the ARCHAEOLOGY of EARLY MEDIEVAL WALES C

    RESEARCH FRAMEWORK FOR THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF WALES 2016: EARLY MEDIEVAL RESEARCH FRAMEWORK FOR THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF EARLY MEDIEVAL WALES c. AD 400–1070 Nancy Edwards, Tudur Davies and Katie A. Hemer INTRODUCTION It is now over a decade since the first publication of the Research Framework for the Archaeology of Wales. The early medieval section of the document reviewed the current state of knowledge and understanding of Wales in the period c. AD 400–1070 (Edwards et al. 2005). It also highlighted both the strengths and weaknesses in our knowledge and understanding as they were perceived at the time, as well as research issues and opportunities for the future. It concluded with a set of recommendations, which are still relevant, and are therefore restated here. It was proposed that the following should be given priority: 1. Identification of potential early medieval sites, particularly secular settlements, through collation and assessment of new and existing information sources. 2. Confirmation of potential early medieval sites through fieldwork, trial excavation and the application of dating techniques. 3. Full archaeological investigation and characterisation of a sample of identifiable early medieval sites, both secular and ecclesiastical, in different regions, through fieldwork and 1 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK FOR THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF WALES 2016: EARLY MEDIEVAL excavation, and an understanding of their location in the wider landscape, both physical and temporal. 4. Detailed analysis of early medieval artefacts and their contexts and characterisation of site assemblages. 5. Identification and analysis of environmental evidence from excavated samples and increased pollen sampling. 6. Analysis of human remains for information on origins, demography, health, nutrition and transfer of pathogens.
  • Early Medieval Wales: a Framework for Archaeological Research

    Early Medieval Wales: a Framework for Archaeological Research

    A Research Framework for the Archaeology of Wales0 Version 01, Final Paper Early Medieval EARLY MEDIEVAL WALES: A FRAMEWORK FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH Nancy Edwards,1 Alan Lane,2 Ian Bapty,3 Mark Redknap4 INTRODUCTION The early medieval period in Wales (c AD 400-1070), spanning the centuries between the end of Roman rule and the coming of the Normans, embodies a process of fundamental social, political and economic transition from which – in language, human landscapes, culture and belief – the recognisable beginnings of Wales itself first emerged. Yet it is still a period about which we know remarkably little archaeologically and the evidence to date leaves many of the most fundamental questions unanswered. The documentary sources, though they are also notoriously sparse and frequently difficult to interpret, continue to provide a basic chronological framework. However, historical questions have tended to frame our knowledge or lack of it and have often been seen to drive the archaeological research agenda. Thus, the end of Roman imperial control, Irish settlement in the west, the establishment of distinct regional kingdoms, the emergence and ideological triumph of Christianity, increasing Anglo-Saxon pressure in the east, the Viking impact, Anglo-Norman conquest and the Welsh response, provide datable, or otherwise, markers to what might be expected to be major changes, if indeed they are recognisable in the archaeological record. The impact these factors had on the population, settlement and land use are for archaeology to answer. 1 Department of History and Welsh History, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG. 2 School of History and Archaeology, Cardiff University, PO Box 909, Cardiff, CF10 3NU.
  • Archaeology Scrutiny Report

    Archaeology Scrutiny Report

    Report No. 2/2013-14 REPORT OF THE SCRUTINY PANEL SUBJECT: How effective is the Brecon Beacons National Park Authority in conserving and enhancing the Park’s archaeological heritage? Carreg Cennen 1 CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 3 FOREWORD .......................................................................................................................................... 4 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 6 CURRENT PRACTICE ........................................................................................................................... 6 KEY QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 9 Topic Question: .................................................................................................................................. 9 Framework Questions ........................................................................................................................ 9 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 32 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 33 GLOSSARY ..........................................................................................................................................
  • A History of England Under the Anglo-Saxon Kings

    A History of England Under the Anglo-Saxon Kings

    HISTORY OF ENGLAND UXDER THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS o ^t CransIatcK from tfjc ©crman^trf. J. M. LAPPEXBERG,* F.S.A., FORMERLY KEEPER OP THE ARCHIVES OF THE CITY OF HAMBURG BY THE LATE BENJAMIN THORPE^ F.S. A., EDITOR OF THE ' ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE,' 'ANCIENT LAWS AND INSTITUTES OF ENGLAND,' ETC. NEW EDITION REVISED BY E. C. OTTE O IN TWO VOLUMES. Vol. I. \T LONDON': GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET, COY EXT GARDEN. 1881. LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWE8 AND SONS, LIMITED, BIAVFOKD STRKET AND CHABQI NOTE Mr. Thorpe's Translation of Dr. Lappenberg's History of the Anglo-Saxons having been for some years out of print, it has been thought expedient to republish it in the cheaper and more convenient form of the Standard Library. A thorough revision of the Trans- lation has been made for the present edition, while a few of the passages, originally omitted with the full concurrence of the Author, have been restored. These and" other alterations, including the division of the matter into chapters, together with the addition of an Index, and occasional notes, giving the more recent dates of the publication of works referred to in the text, will, it is hoped, be found to have increased the value of Mr. Thorpe's Translation. E. C. 0. 1 London, 1880. — CONTENTS OF VOL. I. Author's Preface ...... Page xi Translator's Preface xvii Literary Introduction xxi PAET I. BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS, B.C. 54. CHAPTER I. Earliest Knowledge of Britain—Descent and Tradilions Language — Religion — Government — Customs— Tribes First Appearance of Romans—Julius Caesar ; his Account of Britain—Departure of Roman Legions .