DOCSLIB.ORG

The Diolkos and the Emporion: How a Land Bridge Framed the Commercial Economy of Roman Corinth

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Diolkos and the Emporion: How a Land Bridge Framed the Commercial Economy of Roman Corinth CHAPTER SEVEN THE DIOLKOS AND THE EMPORION: HOW A LAND BRIDGE FRAMED THE COMMERCIAL ECONOMY OF ROMAN CORINTH David K. Pettegrew Introduction Territory has always formed a common theme in explanations of the wealth and power of the city of Corinth.1 Thucydides was the first to con- nect Corinthian wealth to the city’s situation on the Isthmus and its com- mercial facility (1.13.5). When the Greeks developed navies, he noted, the Corinthians built a fleet, suppressed piracy, and provided a trade market making their city wealthy and powerful. Roman writers repeated, expanded, and reinterpreted the explanation of Thucydides about the commercial facility of the Isthmus and its relationship to Corinthian wealth.2 By the end of antiquity, Corinth was inextricably associated with the image of a mari- time city whose Isthmus fostered commerce, prosperity, and power.3 In the 18th and 19th centuries, when Corinth became the subject of historical study, scholars again invoked territory to make sense of the city. Historians drawing on ancient texts regularly remarked on two factors in particular that influenced the city’s historical fortunes.4 They noted firstly that the commercial facilities of the Isthmus and the harbors created mar- kets that generated revenues in the form of duties on imports and exports, and profits through trade. They pointed secondly to the commercial flow of ships and cargoes over a trans-Isthmus portage road called the diolkos that created revenues for the city through traffic and services, transit duties, and transport fees. According to the first assertion, a commercial emporion made the Isthmus a market for merchants arriving from east 1 I am grateful to the participants in conference in Austin and to the others in atten- dance for their questions, comments, and suggestions. Thanks also to Melissa Hogan for her valuable feedback on this paper. 2 E.g., Strabo 8.20; Ael. Arist. Or. 27; Favorinus [Dio Chrys.] 37.8 and 36. 3 E.g., John Chrys. Hom. 1 Corinthians, Preface 1–2; Libanius Decl. 25.2.46. 4 Chandler 1776, 240; Dodwell 1819, 191; Lemprière and Anthon 1831, 408; Curtius 1852, 521, 539, 545–46, 596; Curtius 1868, 270–74; Wyse 1865, 326–27. the diolkos and the emporion 127 and west; according to the second, a portage road called the diolkos made the Isthmus a thoroughfare for maritime traffic and shipping between Italy and Asia. These arguments, which were already present when the first archaeologists began work in the Corinthia in the early 20th century, were quickly absorbed into scholarship related to Paul and the Corinthian epistles.5 Each has also reappeared in recent discussions of the social and economic background to the ancient city and Paul’s problematic assemblies.6 The arguments for the diolkos and the emporion have constantly influenced interpretations of the city. My goal in this paper is to reconsider each of the explanations about the commercial facilities of the Isthmus in light of the extant textual evi- dence. As I shall argue, the second of these ideas (the thoroughfare thesis) has no basis in ancient texts while the first (the commercial emporion) is found in an array of textual evidence. The ancients had little conception of the Isthmus as an actively used commercial thoroughfare but they did view it consistently as a commercial destination and marketplace for the exchange and redistribution of goods. In the conclusion of this paper, I will offer some thoughts on the implications of an emporion for address- ing the economy of Roman Corinth, the social opportunities, and forms of inequality. The Diolkos of Corinth and the Thoroughfare Thesis At the center of the thoroughfare thesis is the diolkos of Corinth. Scholars today use the term to refer to the paved limestone portage road that runs across the narrowest part of the Isthmus.7 This road, which was partially excavated by Nikolaos Verdelis in the late 1950s, was made of poros slabs 3.5–6.0 m wide and had deep parallel grooves spaced 1.5 m apart suggesting rails for moving heavy loads.8 Verdelis argued that the road was constructed by the tyrant Periander in the late 7th century bce, subsequently refurbished after the late 5th century bce, and used repeatedly throughout antiquity. 5 E.g., Davies 1877, 165–66; Farrar 1879, 555–56; Linton 1881, 3–4. 6 Wiseman 1979, 438–47; Engels 1990, 59; Hafemann 2000, 22–25; Murphy-O’Connor 2002, 61–62; Horrell and Adams 2004, 1–8. 7 For overviews of the archaeology of the road, see Verdelis 1956a, 1956b, 1957, 1958, 1960, 1966a and 1966b; Raepsaet 1993; Papafotiou 2007; Pettegrew 2011b; Lohmann forth- coming; and Koutsoumba and Nakas forthcoming. 8 Lewis 2001..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Greece Day 1: Departure from US Paul’S Stay
    First Class 8 Day Package Greece Day 1: Departure from US Paul’s stay. Another important stop is a visit to Diolkos where we Today we embark on our Journey to the lands of ancient treasures view the paved trackway which enabled boats to be moved over - and Christian history with an overnight flight to Athens. Prepare land across the Isthmus of Corinth and served as a life line for yourself for a life-changing experience. Get some rest on the Corinth. This shortcut allowed ancient vessels to avoid the long flight…Tomorrow you will be walking where the apostles walked! and dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnese peninsula. Before returning to Athens, we will visit Cenchreae, the ancient Day 2: Arrive Athens port region of Corinth. Acts 18:18 states the Apostle Paul stopped We arrive in Athens and check into our hotel. You will have the re - at Cenchreae during his second missionary journey, where he had mainder of the day free to relax or take a stroll along the streets of his hair cut to fulfill a vow. Athens to enjoy the flavor of the city. This evening our group will enjoy the first of many delectable European style dinners. Day 4: City of Athens Following breakfast this morning we tour Athens, the foundation Day 3: Ancient Corinth & Cenchreae of democracy. We visit the Acropolis, the Parthenon, and Erec - We depart Athens this morning and travel west with a rest stop theum before viewing Athens atop Mars Hill where Paul stood and and photos at the Corinth Canal.
    [Show full text]
  • Determining the Significance of Alliance Athologiesp in Bipolar Systems: a Case of the Peloponnesian War from 431-421 BCE
    Wright State University CORE Scholar Browse all Theses and Dissertations Theses and Dissertations 2016 Determining the Significance of Alliance athologiesP in Bipolar Systems: A Case of the Peloponnesian War from 431-421 BCE Anthony Lee Meyer Wright State University Follow this and additional works at: https://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/etd_all Part of the International Relations Commons Repository Citation Meyer, Anthony Lee, "Determining the Significance of Alliance Pathologies in Bipolar Systems: A Case of the Peloponnesian War from 431-421 BCE" (2016). Browse all Theses and Dissertations. 1509. https://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/etd_all/1509 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at CORE Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Browse all Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of CORE Scholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. DETERMINING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ALLIANCE PATHOLOGIES IN BIPOLAR SYSTEMS: A CASE OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR FROM 431-421 BCE A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts By ANTHONY LEE ISAAC MEYER Dual B.A., Russian Language & Literature, International Studies, Ohio State University, 2007 2016 Wright State University WRIGHT STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES ___April 29, 2016_________ I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY Anthony Meyer ENTITLED Determining the Significance of Alliance Pathologies in Bipolar Systems: A Case of the Peloponnesian War from 431-421 BCE BE ACCEPTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Master of Arts. ____________________________ Liam Anderson, Ph.D.
    [Show full text]
  • Ancient Greece - Moving Ships Over Land
    Ancient Greece - Moving Ships Over Land In ancient times, there was no waterway for sailors to easily reach Athens if they were traveling to and from Greece’s Ionian coast. A piece of land, called the Isthmus of Corinth, was “in the way.” Without a “shortcut,” across the Isthmus, ships would have to sail from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean Sea by rounding the Peloponnesian Peninsula. Not only was that a long sail, it was a dangerous one. Gale-force winds often trouble sailors at Cape Matapan and Cape Maleas (with its treacherous shoreline). So ... the ancients invented a way to help boats cross the Isthmus on land. They made a road - known as “The Diolkos” - which served as an overland passage between the relatively quiet waters of the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. This image depicts what is left of the Diolkos (which today lies next to the Corinth Canal). We’re not exactly sure when it was first created, but ancient writers referred to it. Those writings reach-back to Aristophanes (at least) who lived between 446 BC and c. 386 BC. Scholars believe that his phrase “as fast as a Corinthian” referred to the Diolkos (and a Corinthian’s ability to swiftly move from Corinth to Athens via the overland passage). Ships carrying goods, or ships bound for war, could cross the Isthmus via the Diolkos. It measured somewhere between 3.7 to 5.3 miles (6 to 8.5 km) and likely remained in use from circa 600 BC to the middle of the first century AD.
    [Show full text]
  • Olympian Gods Tour Duration: 12 Days
    12 Olympian Gods Tour Duration: 12 days Suggested Itinerary 3 overnights in Athens 2 overnights in Porto Heli Zeus – Hera – Poseidon – Demeter – Athena – Apollo – Artemis – Ares – Aphrodite – 2 overnights in Delphi Hephaestus – Hermes – Dionysus 2 overnights in Kalambaka 2 overnights in Thessaloniki Sites and Places of Interest in Athens Acropolis of Athens The Acropolis, and the Parthenon in particular, is the most characteristic monument of the ancient Greek civilization. Put the best of science, art and New Acropolis Museum philosophy together in one creation and you have the definitive monument The new Acropolis Museum has a total area of human civilization. of 25,000 square meters, with exhibition space of over 14,000 square meters, ten UNESCO calls it the symbol of World times more than that of the old museum Heritage. The world calls it the Athenian on the Hill of the Acropolis. Acropolis! The Acropolis Museum is an archaeological museum focused on the findings of the archaeological site of the Acropolis of Athens. The museum was built to house every artifact found on the rock and on its feet, from the Greek Bronze Age to Roman and Byzantine Greece. It also lies on the archaeological site of Makrygianni and the ruins of a part of Roman and early Byzantine Athens. National Archaeological Museum of Athens The National Archaeological Museum of Athens is the largest archaeological museum in Greece and one of the most important museums in the world devoted to ancient Greek art. Its abundant collections, with more than 11,000 exhibits, provide a panorama of Greek civilization from the beginnings of Prehistory to Late Antiquity.
    [Show full text]
  • The Movable Stage in Hellenistic Greek Theatres. New Documentation from Messene and Comparisons with Sparta and Megalopolis
    https://publications.dainst.org iDAI.publications ELEKTRONISCHE PUBLIKATIONEN DES DEUTSCHEN ARCHÄOLOGISCHEN INSTITUTS Dies ist ein digitaler Sonderdruck des Beitrags / This is a digital offprint of the article Ryūichi Yoshitake The Movable Stage in Hellenistic Greek Theatres. New Documentation from Messene and Comparisons with Sparta and Megalopolis aus / from Archäologischer Anzeiger Ausgabe / Issue 2 • 2016 Seite / Page 119–133 https://publications.dainst.org/journals/aa/1936/5967 • urn:nbn:de:0048-journals.aa-2016-2-p119-133-v5967.7 Verantwortliche Redaktion / Publishing editor Redaktion der Zentrale | Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Weitere Informationen unter / For further information see https://publications.dainst.org/journals/aa ISSN der Online-Ausgabe / ISSN of the online edition 2510-4713 Verlag / Publisher Ernst Wasmuth Verlag GmbH & Co. Tübingen ©2017 Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Zentrale, Podbielskiallee 69–71, 14195 Berlin, Tel: +49 30 187711-0 Email: [email protected] / Web: dainst.org Nutzungsbedingungen: Mit dem Herunterladen erkennen Sie die Nutzungsbedingungen (https://publications.dainst.org/terms-of-use) von iDAI.publications an. Die Nutzung der Inhalte ist ausschließlich privaten Nutzerinnen / Nutzern für den eigenen wissenschaftlichen und sonstigen privaten Gebrauch gestattet. Sämtliche Texte, Bilder und sonstige Inhalte in diesem Dokument unterliegen dem Schutz des Urheberrechts gemäß dem Urheberrechtsgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Die Inhalte können von Ihnen nur dann genutzt und vervielfältigt werden, wenn Ihnen dies im Einzelfall durch den Rechteinhaber oder die Schrankenregelungen des Urheberrechts gestattet ist. Jede Art der Nutzung zu gewerblichen Zwecken ist untersagt. Zu den Möglichkeiten einer Lizensierung von Nutzungsrechten wenden Sie sich bitte direkt an die verantwortlichen Herausgeberinnen/Herausgeber der entsprechenden Publikationsorgane oder an die Online-Redaktion des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts ([email protected]).
    [Show full text]
  • Three North Delta Nomes Author(S): D
    Three North Delta Nomes Author(s): D. G. Hogarth Source: The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 24 (1904), pp. 1-19 Published by: The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/623979 . Accessed: 11/12/2014 01:51 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Hellenic Studies. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Thu, 11 Dec 2014 01:51:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions THREE NORTH DELTA NOMES. [PLATE I.] BEING desirous, after the revelation of intimacy between prehistoric Crete and Egypt which the Cnossian excavations had made, to know if there were indeed no 'Aegean' remains in the Lower Delta, I searched the author- ities for an account of the extant antiquities of its north central region-north, that is, of the ' Berari' railway, which links Dessuk on the Rosetta Nile with Sherbin on the Damietta arm. But in vain. Nor, for that matter, could I find any description of the scenery of the region itself, more detailed and recent than the romantic sketch of the marshes with which Heliodorus opened his Aethiopica.
    [Show full text]
  • Sample Itinerary Greece
    Your Logo Greece: In the Footsteps of St. Paul Includes 4-Day Mediterranean Cruise with 3 Shore Excursions Led by: Led by Your Name Here Travel Dates: Your Dates Here $x,xxx.00 from City, State (Includes: US and Intl. departure taxes and std. gratuities) charges Contact Devotion Travel 310-857-5000 [email protected] to Travel Dates: May 14 - 23, Custom Design your Group Trip. from Los Angeles, CA (Includes: US and Intl. departure taxes, std. gratuities, and current port charges and taxes) DAY 4 - THESSALONIKI/METEORA/ ATHENS This morning we leave Thessaloniki and we drive to Verea (Berea of Paul’s day). Here “the Jews were more fair-minded than those in Thessalonica, for they received the word with all willingness and examined the scriptures daily to determine whether these things were so” (Acts 17: 11). From Verea we travel south through Meteora to visit the world-famous Byzantine monasteries perched high atop summits of gray rock. From Meteora, we continue south, reaching Athens for dinner, and we overnight in Athens.(B, D) DAY 5 - ATHENS/ PIRAEUS (embarkation)/ MYKONOS After breakfast, we transfer to the port of Piraeus and board the Celestial Olympia to begin our 3-day/4-night Aegean cruise, stopping first on the beautiful island of Mykonos to stroll along the waterfront and explore the unique blue & white city and its windmills! We have dinner tonight aboard ship and enjoy the evening DAY 1 - DEPART USA/THESSALONIKI activities. (B, L, D) We depart for Greece on our International flight to Thessaloniki. DAY 6 - KUSADASI (EPHESUS), TURKEY/ PATMOS, GREECE DAY 2 - THESSALONIKI Early this morning we visit Ephesus (Kusadasi of We arrive in Thessaloniki where St.
    [Show full text]
  • ATLAS of CLASSICAL HISTORY
    ATLAS of CLASSICAL HISTORY EDITED BY RICHARD J.A.TALBERT London and New York First published 1985 by Croom Helm Ltd Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003. © 1985 Richard J.A.Talbert and contributors All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Atlas of classical history. 1. History, Ancient—Maps I. Talbert, Richard J.A. 911.3 G3201.S2 ISBN 0-203-40535-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-71359-1 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-03463-9 (pbk) Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Also available CONTENTS Preface v Northern Greece, Macedonia and Thrace 32 Contributors vi The Eastern Aegean and the Asia Minor Equivalent Measurements vi Hinterland 33 Attica 34–5, 181 Maps: map and text page reference placed first, Classical Athens 35–6, 181 further reading reference second Roman Athens 35–6, 181 Halicarnassus 36, 181 The Mediterranean World: Physical 1 Miletus 37, 181 The Aegean in the Bronze Age 2–5, 179 Priene 37, 181 Troy 3, 179 Greek Sicily 38–9, 181 Knossos 3, 179 Syracuse 39, 181 Minoan Crete 4–5, 179 Akragas 40, 181 Mycenae 5, 179 Cyrene 40, 182 Mycenaean Greece 4–6, 179 Olympia 41, 182 Mainland Greece in the Homeric Poems 7–8, Greek Dialects c.
    [Show full text]
  • Piracy in the Ancient World
    Q1Q Piracy in the Ancient World: from Minos to Mohammed Philip Charles de Souza University College Thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D. in History 1992 ABSTRACT This thesis is an historical analysis of the phenomenon of piracy in the ancient world from the Bronze Age to the Arab conquests. It is based on detailed examination and discussion of the ancient sources. There is a short introduction (Part One) which establishes the scope of the enquiry, defmes the subject and surveys modern scholarly literature. Part Two (The Image of Ancient Piracy) consists of a study of the Greek and Latin vocabulary for piracy, and six separate studies of Classical literature, from Homer to the fourth century A.D. These studies analyze the development of the literary image of pirates and piracy, from the ambivalent attitude of the Homeric poems, to the wholly negative presentation of pirates and piracy found in the works of later writers. Part Three (War and Piracy) analyzes the early similarity between warfare and piracy, the gradual emergence of distinctions between the two, warfare as a promoter of piracy, and the involvement of pirates in warfare. Part Four (Trade and Piracy) is an analysis of the relationship between piracy and various forms of trade. The importance of piracy as both a contributor and a threat to long-distance maritime trade is analyzed, as well as the involvement of pirates in the slave trade. The link between trade and the suppression of piracy is also discussed. Part Five (The Suppression of Piracy) examines in detail attempts to suppress piracy from the Classical period to the end of the Roman Empire.
    [Show full text]
  • Fortifications of Mount Oneion, Corinthia 329
    hesperia 75 (2006) Fortifications of Pages 327–356 Mount Oneion, Corinthia ABSTRACT Recent investigations on the Isthmus of Corinth by the Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey (EKAS) have revealed a series of relatively humble fortifications situated along the ridge of Mt. Oneion, which forms the south- ern boundary of the Isthmus. These Late Classical–Early Hellenistic walls, along with a nearby series of later Venetian fortifications, were designed to block access to the south through several low passes. Controlling the passage of northern armies through the Isthmus to the Peloponnese was clearly a long-term strategic concern for diverse regional powers. The Isthmus of Corinth is one of the most strategically important regions in the eastern Mediterranean.1 It lies at the junction of the main north–south roads between central Greece and the Peloponnese and the sea routes be- tween the eastern and the western Mediterranean. The Corinthians, with their imposing citadel of Acrocorinth, traditionally controlled the Isthmus, which runs from the city’s western port of Lechaion to its eastern port at Kenchreai (Fig. 1). At numerous times, however, a foreign power such as Rome or Venice has sought to dominate this strategically significant corridor. The Isthmus is both a relatively fertile, flat agricultural area and the natural point of defense for the Peloponnese against any attack from the north.2 Only 7 km wide at its narrowest point, the Isthmus is cut today by the Corinth Canal and was crossed in antiquity by the Diolkos road. It is 1. We would especially like to thank also like to thank Ronald Stroud, thanks are due to the many members Daniel Pullen, codirector, and Thomas James Wiseman, and Merle Langdon of EKAS who trudged up and down Tartaron, field director, of the Eastern for advice and for reading earlier the steep paths of Oneion in hot and Korinthia Archaeological Survey drafts of the article.
    [Show full text]
  • The International Canal Monuments List
    International Canal Monuments List 1 The International Canal Monuments List Preface This list has been prepared under the auspices of TICCIH (The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage) as one of a series of industry-by-industry lists for use by ICOMOS (the International Council on Monuments and Sites) in providing the World Heritage Committee with a list of "waterways" sites recommended as being of international significance. This is not a sum of proposals from each individual country, nor does it make any formal proposals for inscription on the World Heritage List. It merely attempts to assist the Committee by trying to arrive at a consensus of "expert" opinion on what significant sites, monuments, landscapes, and transport lines and corridors exist. This is part of the Global Strategy designed to identify monuments and sites in categories that are under-represented on the World Heritage List. This list is mainly concerned with waterways whose primary aim was navigation and with the monuments that formed each line of waterway. 2 International Canal Monuments List Introduction Internationally significant waterways might be considered for World Heritage listing by conforming with one of four monument types: 1 Individually significant structures or monuments along the line of a canal or waterway; 2 Integrated industrial areas, either manufacturing or extractive, which contain canals as an essential part of the industrial landscape; 3 Heritage transportation canal corridors, where significant lengths of individual waterways and their infrastructure are considered of importance as a particular type of cultural landscape. 4 Historic canal lines (largely confined to the line of the waterway itself) where the surrounding cultural landscape is not necessarily largely, or wholly, a creation of canal transport.
    [Show full text]
  • Classical Seafaring
    ANTH 613: CLASSICAL SEAFARING Fall 2019 / Thursdays 9:00 am - 12:00 pm / ANTH 113 Dr. Deborah Carlson, Associate Professor Instructor: Deborah Carlson, Nautical Archaeology Program, Dept. of Anthropology Office Hours: Tuesdays 9:00 am -12:00 pm and by appointment Office: ANTH 124 / Tel: 845-6690 / E-mail: [email protected] INA Scholar in Residence: John McManamon / Office: ANTH 115 / E-mail: [email protected] I. Course Schedule (Summary) (1) Aug 29 Introduction and Orientation (2) Sep 5 Iron Age Greeks and Phoenicians (3) Sep 12 Archaic Greek Colonization (4) Sep 19 Greek Harbors and Shipsheds (5) Sep 26 Fleets of the Athenian Empire paper #1 due (6) Oct 3 Classical Shipwrecks review #1 due (7) Oct 10 Hellenistic Fleets (8) Oct 17 Commerce in Comestible Cargoes (9) Oct 24 High Commerce and the Roman Economy (10) Oct 31 The Red Sea and the Erythraean Sea paper #2 due (11) Nov 7 Mare Nostrum: Defending the Empire review #2 due (12) Nov 14 Roman Harbors (13) Nov 21 Votive, Cultic, and Symbolic Ships (14) Dec 3 Conclusion Dec 5 paper # 3 due Dec 12 review #3 due II. Course Structure Our primary goal for this seminar is to explore the evidence (archaeological, literary, iconographic, and epigraphic) for seafaring in the Mediterranean from the Iron Age until the Roman Empire. Our secondary goal is to locate this evidence within a framework of broader historical developments (trade, commerce, economy, defense, technology, culture). For some of you, this course will require additional reading of a supplementary nature (see V). Each class will begin with a general historical introduction and a discussion of assigned readings from primary and secondary sources.
    [Show full text]