A4DVol2-4CoverWeb 21/12/2009 9:39 pm Page 1 Agriculture for Development

Melville Memorial Lecture

Caribbean agricultural research

Ethiopia forest management

No. 8 Winter 2009 A4DVol2-4CoverWeb 21/12/2009 9:39 pm Page 2 A4DVol2-4Textweb 21/12/2009 9:41 pm Page 1

The TAA is a professional association of individuals and Contents corporate bodies concerned with the role of agriculture for 2 Editorial | COP15: will it succeed? development throughout the Articles world. TAA brings together individuals and organisations 3 Melville Memorial Lecture | Where theory and practice meet: Innovation, from both developed and less- communication and extension among smallholder farmers | Chris Garforth developed countries to enable 8 Agricultural research in the Caribbean: an outline from Victorian times until today them to contribute to | Bruce Laukner international policies and actions aimed at reducing poverty and 13 Agroforestry and Conservation Agriculture: complementary practices for improving livelihoods. Its sustainable development | Brian Sims, Theordor Freidrich, Amir Kassam and Josef mission is to encourage the Kienzle efficient and sustainable use of 19 Conservation agriculture: south-south technology transfer from Brazil to East local resources and technologies, to arrest and reverse the Africa | Brian G. Sims degradation of the natural South-West Group resources base on which 21 Historical background to forest management in Ethiopia | Stephen Sandford agriculture depends and, by 26 Doing development: why small can be beautiful, some perspectives from a Kitchen raising the productivity of both agriculture and related Table Trust | John Rosewell and Tigist Grieve enterprises, to increase family Newsflash incomes and commercial 30 Red Button Design | Amanda Jones investment in the rural sector. 31 GM Maize could contmainate natural varieties Particular emphasis is given to rural areas in the tropics and 31 Fall in rice strains highlights China’s biodiversity gap subtropics and to countries with 31 Savour tree turns scourge in Kenya less-developed economies in 32 ‘Green Muscletm’ wrestles locusts temperate areas. TAA recognizes 32 Wild fruits as African cash crops the interrelated roles of farmers and other stakeholders living in Bookstack rural areas, scientists 33 Governing Africa’s Forests in a Globalized World | Edited by Laura A. German, (agriculturists, economists, Alain Karsenty and Anne-Marie Tiani sociologists, etc.), government 34 Farmer First Revisited: Innovation for Agricultural Research and Development and the private sector in achieving a convergent approach |Edited by Ian Scoones and John Thompson |Review by Keith Virgo to rural development. This 35 Food Security Journal includes recognition of the 35 Seed Trade in Rural Markets: Implications for Crop Diversity and Agricultural importance of the role of Development | Edited by Leslie Lipper, C. Leigh Anderson and Timothy J. Dalton women, the effect of AIDS and other social and cultural issues 35 Energy, Environment and Development (2nd Edn) | José Goldemberg and on the rural economy and Oswaldo Lucon livelihoods.

35 Forestry & Climate Change | Edited by Peter H. Freer-Smith, Mark S. J. Publications Committee Broadmeadow and Jim M. Lynch Garry Robertson Mailbox Jim Waller Amir Kassam 36 Does Britain need an Integrated Agricultural Research System? | Roger Smith Geoff Hawtin 36 Reality versus climate change | Hugh Brammer Declan Walton 37 Minimum tillage needs fertilisers and agro-chemicals |Stephen Carr Caroline Hattam Ed Hamer 38 Preserving rainfall for crops in drier areas of Africa | Andrew Seager TAA Forum contact: 39 Annual General Meeting reports [email protected] 43 TAAF News Tel: 01582 715223 47 Upcoming Events ISSN 1759-0604 (Print) ISSN 1759-0612 (Online)

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Editorial COP15: Will it succeed?

The world’s attention is firmly focused before 2020; proposals by the on Copenhagen, the host city for the industrial countries add up to about In this UN Conference on Climate Change, 15 percent, but China and other where negotiators are trying to agree developing countries want cuts by at issue the outlines of a new global deal for a least 40 percent, although this might treaty next year to succeed the Kyoto be unrealistic. There is no agreement is the 27th Ralph Melville Memorial Protocol. International meetings since on how much rich countries should Lecture delivered by Professor Chris Kyoto, including the recent G8 pay in the short or medium term Garforth on the adoption and summit, have all stressed the need for because rich nations are suggesting adaptation of technology by farmers. industrialized countries to cut only $10 billion per year from 2010- The “old” idea of taking technology emissions and for substantial funding 2012. This has been rejected by the direct from researchers to farmers did to enable developing countries to developing nations that want $200- not work well; farmers accepted new combat climate change. $300 billion climate aid per year by varieties if they gave more income but 2020. European leaders announced a The overall impression from the so-called improved agronomic paltry $3.5 billion a year from 2010- media is that very little progress has technology was problematic. Present 2012 to help developing countries. been made at COP15 to narrow the day involvement of farmers in the gap between the desires and needs of On a worldwide basis, climate change design process and farmers’ the developing countries and the is going to have the greatest effect on modification of practices willingness of the developed nations the agricultural sector in developing – adaptation – is vital for success. As to ensure realistic reductions in gas countries. Subsistence farmers will be Chris Garforth points out emissions and supply adequate hardest hit and lower yields will push communication with farmers is not a finance for the world effort to tackle more people into poverty. For one-way system but an interactive the effect of climate change. Quite example, the millions of hungry process, and learning is also a social frankly it is a mess, and the meeting people in sub-Saharan Africa, where activity. has not made sufficient progress on there is an ever-present drought The cover photograph of coconut any of the major issues. The problem, cannot wait till 2020 or 2050 palms growing on the coast of a West negotiators must have something while the developed countries make Indian island is to remind you that the ready in the next couple of days for the up their minds to step up their efforts birth of the Tropical Agriculture world’s political leaders to sign. That to tackle climate change in a sensible Association is closely associated with something must be a step in the right and realistic manner. Developing the Institute of Tropical Agriculture at direction from Kyoto so that steady countries not only want financial help St Augustine, Trinidad where, until progress can be made in the next but also need the technology to the 1960s, aspiring young British decade to combat climate change. establish sustainable climate-resilient graduates obtained their Diploma in agriculture. Let’s hope COP15 brings So far there is no agreement on the Tropical Agriculture before being sent an improved legally binding protocol long-term goal to avoid dangerous to work in many countries around the to the table to for the benefit of climate change. There is no world. Bruce Lauckner’s article traces mankind. agreement as to how much industrial the development of agricultural nations should cut their emissions research in the Caribbean.

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27th Annual Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture delivered at the Annual General Meeting held at the Royal Over-Seas League on 9th December 2009 Where theory and practice meet: Innovation, communication and extension among smallholder

Chris Garforth farmers Chairman of the Tropical Agriculture Association and Introduction Professor of Agricultural Extension When Everett Rogers wrote the first and Rural edition of ‘Diffusion of Innovations’ 47 Development at the University of Reading. years ago, the idea of innovation was

straightforward: it was something – a

technology or a way of doing things –

that was new to the people who were

faced with the decision of whether or

not to use it, or ‘adopt’ (Rogers 1962). within a geographical area. Many of us

Adoption and diffusion of innovations are familiar with his five adopter

became an accepted way of thinking categories, from the ‘innovators’ and

about the way in which change in ‘early adopter’ to the ‘laggards’, and

agriculture took place at farm level and the S-shaped diffusion curve.

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The latest edition of Rogers’ book, published a Tales from the tropics and year before his death in 2004, refers to several hundred research studies that have used this beyond basic model for exploring changes in I’d like to share three stories, from research behaviour in agriculture, health, information visits to three Asian countries earlier this year. technology and many other spheres. All The first two relate to holes in the ground – along, however, there’s been a problem: the holes which offer windows through which we model doesn’t really describe what actually can see processes of innovation at work. happens in most farming situations. To be fair to Rogers, he did acknowledge this in a In China, in the semi-arid Gansu Province, famous critique – ‘The passing of the holes are appearing in concrete floors outside dominant paradigm’ – in 1976; but the the houses of many farmers. They are the passing of the paradigm has taken some time visible sign of a major change in the way that to work its way through and still dominates rainwater is managed and used. Discussion thinking in some quarters. It has dominated with farmers in ten locations in Huining not just theorising about change, but also the County in September about the changes they design of extension and advisory services for had seen in ecosystems and farming systems promoting change: think of the ill-fated during their lifetime led to the construction of ‘Training and Visit’ system popularised – with a set of timelines. Common features in these the help of very large, low-interest loans from timelines include the perception that rainfall the World Bank in the 1980s and 1990s – patterns have changed, prompting changes in before finally being discarded in the 1990s. cropping patterns; how the decrease in T&V still lives on in ‘modified’ form in some rainfall has stimulated the use of plastic film public sector advisory services. More recently, mulch; and how, with the support of though, theory has been catching up with government grants, households have been what happens on the ground, and this is digging underground storage tanks into leading reflexively to change also in practice. which rainwater falling on newly constructed cement floors is channelled through those holes in the ground (Fig. 1).

Fig.1. Drawing water from an underground So far, this sounds like a Rogerian model of storage tank, Gansu Province, China adoption and diffusion: government promotes a new technology – the one-two- one system (one cement floor, two underground storage tanks, one irrigated vegetable plot) – through technical advice and subsidised inputs – which is taken up by a few people and then spreads rapidly to others. But what this interpretation fails to point out is that the technology has been modified by many households. In particular, the recommended practice of lining the tank walls with cement to prevent loss of water has been dropped in favour of packed soil walls. The reason? The water tastes better. What we see here is a process of innovation that doesn’t stop with the introduction of a new technology to the population of an area. People adapt the technology, they continue to innovate. Innovation is not a thing, a fixed

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technology, but the moulding of that In discussing with Domingo and other gas technology by that population to their needs, plant innovators, a whole network of people circumstances, preference and ingenuity. And and institutions was identified that together of course, they were only interested in the had created the conditions in which this technology in the first place because it successful process of innovation was able to provided a solution to a problem that had happen. Joan Gervacio, a PhD student at been growing more and more serious – the University of Reading, is exploring this as one shortage of domestic water as groundwater of several case studies of innovation in sources dried up and surface sources became farming systems in The Philippines, to increasingly unreliable. understand the communication and interaction that inform and support farmers’ I came across a second hole in the ground a innovation processes. To me, one of the key couple of weeks later in Mindanao in The lessons from the gas plants in Mindanao’s pig Philippines. This is a hole through which pig slurry vanishes into a gas plant. It is in the backyard of the home of Domingo Lopez and Fig. 2. Domingo’s pigs are now clean and smell sweet his family. He had a problem: his neighbours were complaining about the smell. Rearing pigs in a suburban setting (Fig. 2) is an anti- social activity in any society, no matter how much pork is celebrated as part of the food culture. He set out to look for a solution, before his neighbours’ complaints forced the municipal authorities to close his pig unit down. He had heard, perhaps on the radio, in the newspaper or through conversation with friends in the town, of a man who knew about turning animal slurry into gas that could be used for cooking. He found out how to contact him and invited him to visit. One thing led to another, and with the encourage- ment of the municipal agricultural office, a seminar was arranged for pig producers to Fig. 3. Gas in the kitchen from the pig slurry discuss the possibility of converting their pig slurry to gas. After a lot of trial and error, Domingo now has a functioning gas plant, which is providing fuel for the family kitchen (Fig. 3); he is also supplying gas to his neighbours, whose quality of life has improved considerably; another eight pig producers in the municipality – including a local religious community – have installed gas plants with adaptations to suit the layout and scale of their pig operation; and the producers now function as a group that meets to discuss problems and possible further development of their units. They are discussing with various people ways in which they might bottle the surplus gas for sale.

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units is that farmers were taking the initiative; Theory meets practice it was their search for a solution to a problem that was the starting point of a complex What do these three stories tell or remind us process. Another was the reminder that about innovation processes? And how can innovation is a social process: the local social these lessons inform the theory of innovation context is the environment that shapes the in smallholder farming contexts? Here are perception of the problem and the four lessons, among the several that we could opportunities, and ultimately shapes the draw. technology that emerges from the process of Communication is not just telling people, innovation. advising people, passing on messages. It is My third story is from India – no holes in the equally – or more importantly – about asking, ground this time, but a groundswell of listening, exchanging, learning together. interest among members of women self-help Status and assumptions often get in the way groups (WSHGs) in dairying as an income of good communication. Extension staff, who generating activity. One of the things dairy are afraid to admit they don’t know, are not cattle owners are encouraged to do is make going to be very supportive of the idea of co- sure their animals get as much green fodder production of knowledge. And yet there is a as they need, which in most cases, growing body of evidence of the effectiveness particularly in the drier areas, means as much of approaches akin to Farmer Field Schools, green fodder as they can get. In one part of which have themselves spread or diffused Andhra Pradesh, women were complaining from their original home in Indonesian rice that after rain when green fodder was readily fields, to a diverse set of agro-ecosystems and available, yields did indeed go up – but the fat enterprise contexts. Not as a fixed way of content went down. In an area where buffalo doing things, but as a set of principles which milk is prized (and priced) for its high fat are continually being adapted to new content, this was not a good result. Income situations. Yes, innovation in the diffusion of from sale of milk went down. Farmers, as we innovations is itself a process. Cees Leeuwis at all know, do not always think like scientists; Wageningen University has suggested a set of or, more importantly, do not think like communication roles for professionals who scientists assume that farmers think. support rural innovation: not transferring In the same area, a group of women were messages, knowledge and technology, but concerned about the advice they had been networking, negotiation, conflict resolution given about straining milk before selling it, to and platform building. remove solid particles that shouldn’t be there. There is a thirst for knowledge, for new ideas, They wondered if this would further reduce for solutions to problems, for information the fat content. The veterinary and animal about opportunities among farmers and husbandry extension staff who were advising farming households. The development and the group did not know the answer; an spread of mobile phones has demonstrated obvious opportunity for a bit of local this very clearly; there is now a experimentation to see if the fat content was communication technology that allows affected by straining the milk, resulting in the farmers to search, to ask, to connect; a co-production of knowledge. As in many (or technology that can be harnessed to make most?) situations, the attempt to ‘transfer outside expertise more accessible. And one of technology’ or recommend ‘improved the many lessons of the mobile phone as practices’ raises questions that can best be innovation is that people do not always use it answered by ‘let’s try it and see’. in the way that experts expect. WSHGs in Kerala, who have been given the opportunity to interact with external sources of

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information and advice through a mobile extension initiatives build on this idea and phone connected to a roving microphone and give the interaction among farmers a sharper a loudspeaker, have chosen their own focus on learning and innovation processes. preferred sources – perhaps calling up the bank manager, or a paediatrician, rather than Conclusion the veterinarian who was expecting their call. Social learning, innovation systems, building Farmers do not have to be persuaded to take innovation platforms, co-production of up innovations; they need to be listened to, to knowledge, interactive communication – is have opportunities to find out what they want this simply a new set of jargon to replace to know, to interact with people who they stages of adoption, diffusion, innovators and think can help them find out, learn, adapt. laggards, transfer of knowledge? Perhaps; but New ideas come from many sources. Steven I sense that we now have a set of theoretical Biggs has been telling us about ‘multiple concepts and tools that are a closer match sources of innovations’ for years. Andy Hall with the real world of dynamic change in and others more recently have taught us the agricultural practices and systems that TAA language of ‘innovation systems’ – systems members know from their own professional with a mix of planned and unplanned work. We have a body of theory that allows us elements which we find in the real world if we to explore and understand the process of look for them, and which we can seek to farming systems change, and through which REFERENCES strengthen and ‘feed’ with knowledge we can build more effective ways of Bandura, A. (1977). Social interventions. The DFID-funded Research supporting innovation processes at farm and Learning Theory. General Learning Press, New York. Into Use programme has adopted – or should system levels. I say adapted and developed for its own Biggs, S. D. (1990). A Multiple TAA EAST ANGLIA ROUNDTABLE EVENT Source of Innovation Model of programme purposes and contexts – the idea Agricultural Research and of ‘innovation platforms’ as a means of The recent Questionnaire Survey of TAA members made it clear that "Networking" was a Technology Promotion. World supporting innovation processes around the high priority for many.TAA East Anglia therefore Development 18 (11), 1481- farm-level application of agricultural research, arranged a Roundtable Networking Luncheon to 1499. enable members and their guests to meet, mingle an idea that is now being adapted to Nigerian and interact with others in an informal manner.We Hall, A.J., Yoganand, B., Sulaiman, V.R., Raina, R., contexts by public sector R&D organisations. met on 13th November in a pub on the outskirts of Cambridge. Fifteen people took part and came Prasad, S., Niak, G. and Clark, from all parts of East, North,West and Central Learning is a social activity. We all learn with N.G. (eds.) (2004). Innovations Anglia and beyond. in Innovation: reflections on and from those around us. The social context There was a continuous flow of coffee and partnership and learning. of learning gives us the opportunity and participants bought their own lunches and drinks. International Crops Research Starting at 11.30 am, everyone talked informally confidence to explore new ideas, bounce them Institute for the Semi-Arid until lunch at 1.00 pm. Four members had around, try them out, find out about others’ volunteered to give 5-minute presentations after Tropics, Andhra Pradesh, India and National Centre for experience in using them, positive lunch.Topics included Forestry in China (David Billing), Green Water Credits (David Dent), Agricultural Economics and reinforcement for when things work out and Indigenous Knowledge in Irian Jaya (Patrick Haynes) Policy, New Delhi, India. 238pp. encouragement when they don’t. Smallholder and Eco-tourism in India (Keith Virgo).The meaning of “5 minutes” stretched somewhat but the result Leeuwis, C. (2004). farming is a risky and visible activity that was a fascinating mix of ideas and plenty of Communication for Rural takes place within strong social settings. informal discussion. Innovation. Blackwell, Oxford. Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning, The session closed at around 4.00 pm. Everyone RIU. (2009). Research into Use agreed that the format was very successful, with website – Tanzania programme. first published in 1977, has been picked up by about 75% of the time spent in informal discussion http://www.researchintouse.com/ communication scholars as highly relevant to and conversation, and only 25% in listening to presentations. It was agreed that the event should index.php?section=4&subsectio the smallholder farming context. Just about be repeated next year and volunteers from East n=41 every survey that has ever been done about and West Anglia have already indicated their Rogers, E. (1962). Diffusion of willingness to participate. how farmers are exposed to new ideas and Innovations. Free Press, New Our thanks go to the participants for their York. where they go to for advice highlights the fact enthusiasm, and to the speakers for standing up Rogers, E. (2004). Diffusion of that other farmers are their primary source. and speaking up without the aid of PowerPoint! Innovations (fifth edition). Free Keith Virgo and Bill Thorpe Farmer Field Schools and farmer-to-farmer Press, New York.

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Bruce Laukner Bruce Lauckner is Agricultural Head Strategic Alliances /Biometrician CARDI, PO Bag 212 research in the St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago [email protected] Caribbean: an outline from Victorian times until today

The Tropical Agriculture United Kingdom who Association (TAA) wished to pursue a perhaps owes its birth to career in agriculture in the Imperial College of the former colonies in Tropical Agriculture tropical Africa, the which was established in Caribbean, Asia and the Trinidad in 1923. For Pacific. about 50 years the

Diploma in Tropical Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in 1957 Agriculture or DTA (Trinidad) awarded by that institute was regarded as the foremost qualification for persons from the

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Exactly why Trinidad in the Caribbean, rather Augustine in 1961. UCWI became the than somewhere in Africa or India became the University of the West Indies (UWI) in 1962. centre for learning in Tropical Agriculture Meanwhile ICTA offloaded its research may be open to debate but the origin of function to the Regional Research Centre agricultural research in the Caribbean goes (RRC) in 1955 – note that the RRC did not back to the network of botanical gardens have any apparent aspirations beyond the which the British set up throughout the Caribbean Region. When UCWI, later UWI, Empire in Victorian times. This network was opened in Trinidad the teaching functions of particularly dense in the Caribbean with ICTA were absorbed and therefore the name practically every island ruled by the British ICTA formally ceased to exist. However the establishing a botanic garden. publication Tropical Agriculture (TA), which Most of the botanic gardens still exist today, was started in 1923, continued to be officially usually near the centre of the capital cities of promoted as the Journal of the Imperial the Caribbean islands and often with the College of Tropical Agriculture and the TA Ministry (or Department) of Agriculture front cover carries this promotion to this day. administrative centre within or adjacent to The RRC was integrated into UWI Faculty of the gardens. The gardens themselves are Agriculture in 1965, but it was funded by the usually well kept, but perhaps somewhat British government for a further 10 years. lacking in visionary management and the UWI continued to offer the DTA but the days of growing crops for research purposes number of students pursuing this have long passed. Only a few of the many qualification declined from several dozen to a tourists, who visit the Caribbean primarily for mere handful and in 1973 the decision was sun, sea and sand, take a few hours to visit the made not to admit any more students into the gardens, but the gardens are visited to some DTA programme. By that time UWI was extent by local residents who seek a bit of offering various other postgraduate options in solitude near the centre of what are usually agriculture, at both the Master and Doctorate hot noisy bustling urban centres. They level and was also annually producing 30-40 provide a floral setting popular for wedding agriculture first degree students. parties. When the British government announced Agricultural research in the Caribbean withdrawal of support for RRC from 1975, a became more formalised in 1898 when the dilemma occurred. The UWI Faculty of Imperial Department of Agriculture for the Agriculture was primarily dependent on West Indies (IDA) was established in Caribbean students (usually subsidised by Barbados. This was moved to St. Augustine their governments) for funding. Resources to Trinidad in 1922 and “rebranded” as the take over the research programmes of RRC Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture were just not available to UWI. (ICTA). This rebranding clearly indicated a mission well beyond the Caribbean and The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) had besides the postgraduate DTA, ICTA became been formed in 1973 comprising 12 famous for breeding and research with the Commonwealth countries, only four of whom export plantation crops (e.g. sugar, cocoa, were at the time completely independent. citrus and banana); also soil profiles of most These 12 countries decided to take over the of the former British Caribbean were functions of RRC in a new institute called the completed in the 1950s and 1960s. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and the The University College of the West Indies governance was placed under the 12 Ministers (UCWI) was founded in Jamaica in 1948 and of Agriculture with the CARICOM Secretariat the Trinidad campus was opened at St. in Guyana as the umbrella body.

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Governments wishing to join or resign from not have field stations directly controlled by CARDI have to apply to CARICOM. A CARDI. representative of the CARICOM Secretariat In Trinidad, CARDI continued to have access sits on the Board of Governors with the to the UWI Faculty of Agriculture Field Ministers of Agriculture. CARDI was the first Station, some 3 miles from the St. Augustine CARICOM regional institute; today there are campus. However on the St. Augustine nearly 20. Campus CARDI did have various facilities The separation of RRC from UWI into CARDI such as a soils laboratory and greenhouses. In caused a lot of friction and discontent Barbados a tissue culture laboratory was set amongst the academics at St Augustine as up in the late 1970s but CARDI had to wait they saw it as a considerable weakening of the about 20 years before being given access to Faculty of Agriculture. Nevertheless CARDI land at the Ministry of Agriculture for was set up with headquarters on the St. exclusive field work (before that work had Augustine Campus of UWI. CARDI also been done on shared land wherever it could inherited three “outreach” offices from RRC, be found). In Guyana, CARDI did work at two of these were on the UWI Campuses in several sites, most were a considerable Jamaica and Barbados and the other outreach distance from the offices in Georgetown, but office was in Antigua. The offices in Barbados the sites served the needs of agriculture in the and Antigua had been the RRC centres for the areas where work was carried out. Windward and Leeward Islands, respectively. By the time CARDI was started in 1975, the Within a few years, new CARDI offices opened Ministries of Agriculture of the more in the Windward and Leeward Islands that developed countries of Barbados, Guyana, were previously only served from Barbados Jamaica and Trinidad had substantial research and Antigua. The countries with new offices capabilities; these continued to expand in the were Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia and St. 1980s with Guyana starting the National Vincent (Windward Islands); Montserrat and Agricultural Research Institute which is not St. Kitts (Leeward Islands). within the Ministry of Agriculture. New CARDI offices were also opened in the In the early 1980s field sites (and small CARICOM (and CARDI) member countries of offices) were set up by CARDI in the islands of Belize and Guyana. These relatively large Tobago (part of country state of Trinidad and mainland territories had not previously been Tobago) and Nevis (part of St. Kitts Nevis). directly served by the RRC. Thus there were 12 CARDI offices in the 12 member countries The 1980s were a boom time for CARDI and most of these had a field station adjacent. largely because of the availability of There were three important exceptions as international donor funds in that decade. initially Trinidad, Barbados and Guyana did CARDI’s research transitioned from

CARDI Headquarters at St Augustine

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supporting the export plantation crops to governments were also to blame for the loss working with the vegetables, roots, legumes of donors as many appeared to have little and fruits needed for local food consumption. interest in agriculture as they pursued There was also a vibrant livestock research tourism (and in the case of Trinidad and programme. Tobago industrialisation) as the way to prosperity. CARDI therefore went into an The plantation crops were now well served by inevitable decline as government revenues the specific commodity research organ- froze and donor revenues dwindled. Many of isations (which had been set up by 1975). the countries previously without research Some of these had a national focus such as capabilities in the Ministry of Agriculture tried the sugar and coconut research capabilities in to set up research units, but in most cases the Jamaica; others were regional and critical mass of scientists was just not sub-regional bodies such as the Windward available and a weakened CARDI was Islands Banana Association and the sometimes criticised for not being able to West Indies Central Sugar Cane Breeding meet the demand. Station. Unfortunately this position did not improve The 1990s saw the beginning of hard times as the 21st Century got underway and by that for agriculture and agricultural research in time many of the commodity research centres the Caribbean. The international donor funds had closed. Individual country agriculture of the 1980s were redirected elsewhere, ministries and research institutes were also perhaps because donor governments no run down. CARDI has had to continue longer feared that the newly independent contraction and some of CARDI’s member countries would lurch politically well to the countries no longer have a qualified left of where North America and Europe agricultural scientist in the resident teams. would wish them to be. The Caribbean

Open day at CARDI Field Station in St Lucia. Ronnie Pilgrim (holding papers), CARDI’s representative in St Lucia with visitors.

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The UWI agriculture capabilities have also had Some excellent research centres remain. The some rather turbulent times. In the 1980s, UWI Cocoa Research Unit has managed to the Faculty of Agriculture enjoyed the same maintain an international reputation with favorable donor relations as CARDI and like funds from the chocolate industry helping to CARDI, much research was done. However supplement government funds. This agriculture student numbers began to decline demonstrates that the Caribbean is still quite and this led to less curriculum emphasis on capable of good work in agricultural R&D. agriculture as a science and more emphasis UWI has started a summer internship on agriculture as a business. In the 1990s the programme for its agriculture UWI agriculture faculty was merged with undergraduates. CARDI has taken 6-10 of science to become what is now (after several these over the last 2-3 years and all have been name changes) the Faculty of Science and excellent performers. With government Agriculture. This merger met with support perhaps returning, a revival is considerable resistance in the faculty as it was definitely possible. felt that the history of agriculture at St. A plea to the developed countries: do not turn Augustine going back to ICTA was not all donor aid into a competitive funding appreciated and agriculture was being pushed situation. There have been instances where to the back burner, perhaps in response to Caribbean agencies wishing to pool limited perceived government policies and public resources have been told that they must put apathy to agriculture. In reality this merger in separate bids and compete. Other times it took place at the time when universities all is clear that a project stands a better chance of over the world were merging faculties. funding if a research consortium is led by an The situation today for agricultural research agency from outside the region – and in the Caribbean is fairly bleak but certainly sometimes that agency may be little more not without hope. Recent events with respect than a director with a secretary and a huge to cost of food have jolted the public and electronic list of “experts”. Unfortunately we politicians have taken note. Letters to and have also had visits by funding agency teams articles in newspapers demanding more who have tried to show us how to identify and attention to agriculture are now regular prioritise the problems we are already aware occurrences. Governments have begun to of. state the importance of agriculture to the future of the region, but old policies have not yet been completely abandoned. Caribbean agricultural

Enrollment in agriculture at UWI has soared, science is not dead. but most students are studying agri-business There are many good rather than agricultural science and trained people still around, and researchers (e.g. entomologists, pathologists, animal nutritionists, etc.) are hard to find. the governments are There is some evidence that research funds beginning to support us may slowly be beginning to return, but again. Any help with finding scientists to do the work is not easy. Salaries are low and as there is a natural genuine interests of resentment to offering higher salaries to non- developing the region’s nationals, who may not be noticeably superior agriculture is always to the local scientists, attracting overseas personnel is not easy. welcome and most definitely needed.

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CA—Congress

A summarised version of a paper presented at the II World Brian Sims1 Congress of Agroforestry 23-28 August 2009, Nairobi, Kenya Theodor Friedrich2

Amir Kassam2 and Agroforestry and Josef Kienzle2 1 Engineering for Development, UK. Conservation Agri- [email protected] 2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the culture: comple- United Nations, Rome, mentary practices Italy for sustainable development Introduction The concept of CA and compatibility with AF

The impact of many current In summary, CA (www.fao.org/ag/ca/) can be agricultural practices is having a described as a concept for resource-saving deplorable effect on the world’s agricultural crop production that strives to soils, water resources and rural achieve acceptable profits together with high environments. It is not just the and sustained production levels while con- quantity of soil that is being currently conserving the environment. CA is lost as a result of unsustainable characterized by three principles that are agricultural practices, soil linked to each other, namely: quality suffers as soil fertility is 1. Continuous minimum mechanical soil associated with the preferen- disturbance. tially eroded smaller soil particles: water resources, 2. Permanent organic soil cover. biodiversity and ecosystems are 3. Diversified crop rotations in the case of also affected negatively. The annual crops or plant associations in the judicious combination of the case of perennial crops. environmentally friendly practices of conservation agri- CA as a forest mimic culture (CA) and agroforestry (AF) will be solid building CA tends to mimic natural systems, partic- blocks on the road to producing ularly that of the rainforest. In forest systems, sustainably greater harvests nutrients are recycled via leaf fall and from the world’s agriculture decomposition which requires a rich soil

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biota. Removal of this cover, resulting in the Improved soil health, nutrient status and destruction of the natural channels for water structure will, almost by definition, result in infiltration and gaseous exchange, means that greater crop production capacity. natural sustainable systems would need to be replaced by expensive and damaging tillage The need for a holistic approach to for crop production. Permanent soil cover soil management also provides other important benefits to the In both AF and CA optimum soil management soil (the control of soil temperature and for sustainable production intensification is moisture content are two of them) but above achieved by treating a soil as a biological all, cover protects the soil from the degrading system and by working with nature and rural effects of wind and water erosion. Erosion communities in an all-encompassing way. rates under CA, AF and forest systems can be Concentrating only on the physical or reduced to practically zero. chemical aspects of soil improvement whilst Compatibility of CA and AF disregarding the social impacts of AF and CA adoption is unlikely to result in successful Agroforestry is a multifaceted concept, but at management and sustained adoption. heart it integrates trees into farmland and rangeland and in so doing diversifies and Rehabilitating degraded lands and sustains production for increased benefits for water resources through CA and AF farmers and the environment (Elevitch, AF is particularly well suited to the 2004). Table 1 gives an analysis of the rehabilitation of land that has been degraded compatibility and complementarity of AF and through wind and water erosion (often as a CA system benefits. direct consequence of inappropriate and Soil health and productive capacity damaging mechanical tillage practices). AF is under CA and AF frequently judiciously combined with other agronomic practices to enhance the stab- Undisturbed soils under AF and CA practices ilising and rehabilitating impact of trees and have much lower erosion rates than shrubs. Some of the most important practices mechanically tilled soils and this results in an include: accumulation of soil organic matter (SOM), Q Strip cropping, alley cropping and an increase in soil nutrients (especially N) hedgerow intercropping. Contour hedge- coupled with an increase in cation exchange row systems (especially using N-fixing tree capacity, greater crop resistance to pests and species) are widely used to reduce soil diseases; enhanced soil porosity and aeration, erosion in hillside environments. The high water holding capacity and infiltration rates labour input required with tree-based and improved soil structure. contour systems can be greatly reduced by Improved soil health, in terms of a healthier substituting grass (e.g. vetiver). soil biota, results in a healthy soil food web Q Improved fallow systems. Seeding land which performs the following vital functions being fallowed between cropping periods (Ingham, 2004): with leguminous trees (e.g. Leucaena) Q Disease suppression can rehabilitate soils and prepare them for Q Nutrient retention the next cropping period. This system mimics traditional shifting cultivation Q Nutrient recycling practices. Q Decomposition of plant residues and Q Natural vegetative strips. This is a low cost plant-toxic compounds and very simple way of reducing slope Q Well structured and aerated soil length. Strips are left to re-vegetate

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Table 1

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naturally (with tree, shrub, grass and Sub-Saharan Africa as, according to the other species) along the contour at regular Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, spacings. the African continent gets set to bear the

Q Buffers. These include windbreaks and brunt of global warming (www.ipc.ch). CA snow fences, riparian buffers, filter strips and AF can contribute to solving the problem and watershed protection areas. In AF in two ways: adaptation and mitigation. They systems buffers can be multipurpose with can improve agricultural system adaptation to soil protection and rehabilitation com- the impact of change by improving their bined with fruit, nut, timber, and fodder resilience through providing better soil production. structure and infiltration rates which will Q Live fences. Live fences of fast growing, reduce the danger of flooding and consequent often leguminous, trees (such as Gliricidia soil erosion resulting from extreme weather sepium) can serve not only as fences for events. Increased SOM will also improve soil livestock and soil erosion control but also water holding capacity that will, in some seed banks, sources of fodder and cases, allow a crop to reach maturity in fuelwood and for fruit, flower and extreme drought situations where conven- medicine production. The provision of tionally tilled soils will dry out completely. fodder from tree crops can alleviate the pressure on crop residues so that they can The soil is a major reservoir of the earth’s be left as mulch in the CA system. carbon (El-Swaify, 1999) containing more than 50% of the carbon pool and land plants Although CA is best suited to well managed, (and especially forests) are a further major productive agricultural areas, the concepts reservoir for C. Increasing forestation, rather can also be used for land rehabilitation. The principle of permanent soil cover is very than increasing deforestation, which is the appropriate to absorbing raindrop and wind current trend, sequesters C and reduces GHG energy and so reducing or eliminating wind emissions. and water erosion. No-till techniques also Carbon sequestration in CA and AF systems retain the soil in situ and so prevent particle have the potential to contribute to mitigating detachment and erosion. The natural channel the impact of climate change as greenhouse system built up by undisturbed soil biota gas (GHG) release is reduced and the increase promotes better water infiltration and so in global warming could be slowed. With reduces runoff and floods. increased C sequestration (in SOM and The strength of CA, however, is that it biomass) under CA and AF, carbon can be improves the sustainability of agricultural stored for long periods, if not permanently. land use and conserves the available land But there are other ways in which GHG resources. By increasing soil productive emissions can be reduced: capacity and crop productivity it reduces the pressure on land and this can be very Q Soil erosion releases vast amounts of CO2 important where unsustainable land use leads into the atmosphere through organic to abandonment and expansion into matter oxidation, contributing to the unsuitable areas which should be protected. greenhouse effect and global warming. Soil erosion is reduced to close to zero in CA and AF for climate change CA and many AF systems. mitigation and adaptation Q No-tillage is an appropriate technology to The effects of climate change are already achieve more efficient energy use in being felt. Desertification is on the increase in agriculture. In NT, crops are planted

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in just one pass of the tractor, animal combining production with conservation, the powered seeder/planter or person equip- AF approach can increase the adoption of ped with a jab-planter. sustainable practices.

In summary it can be seen that both CA and Reduction of risks and AF aim to improve soil health, biodiversity enhancement of resilience and ecosystem services, and increase land with CA and AF productive capacity and enterprise diversi- fication to provide sustainable livelihoods for By providing much greater environmental farmers, especially smallholder farmers. stability, both CA and AF offer sustainability of production, even when climatic change is CA and AF as engines for making smallholder farming more risky. sustainable production Eliminating soil erosion and improving the intensification quality of agricultural soils through increases in SOM resulting from residue management Farm power shortages drive the poverty and no mechanical tillage, means that crop spiral. The availability of farm power and production is more stable, nutrients are ability to cultivate sufficient land have long steadily supplied and soil moisture regimes been recognized as source of poverty in SSA can be sustained for longer periods. and two strategies can be proposed to counter the challenge: Production system risks can be reduced and resilience enhanced in AF and CA systems by Q Making existing tasks easier and increas- the observance of some fairly straightforward ing the productivity of existing labour and guidelines distilled by Roland Bunch and his draught power; colleagues (http://newfarm.rodaleinstitute. Q Changing farming practices to methods org/features/1002/roland_bunch/index.shtml) that use less farm power. Q Maximise organic matter production. OM Conservation Agriculture is a potential solu- will dramatically improve the resilience of tion to save energy and labour as well as cop production to adverse conditions. reduce drudgery in both these scenarios. CA Many cover crop and AF systems reduce overcomes the critical labour peaks of land the labour requirement for weed control, preparation and weeding by planting directly thereby increasing OM production while into mulch or cover crops, with weed control reducing costs. being achieved by soil cover as well as by hand Q Keep the soil covered. tools and herbicides. Q Do not till the soil. AF systems are not necessarily labour saving but they certainly have the potential to be Q Maximise biodiversity. highly complementary to traditional liveli- Q Supply crop nutrients largely through hoods strategies with which they are mulch. culturally compatible (Elevitch, 2004). They are locally based, incorporating species and All these points will be familiar to CA and AF techniques that have been used traditionally practitioners and it is interesting to note that in the tropics and sub-tropics for many empirical guidelines have emerged through generations. They are adaptable to changing years of observation of actual farm situations, farm-family, climatic and economic circum- most of them not previously described as stances and they are acceptable, as by either CA or AF.

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Conclusions: Complementary CA anchorage through the establishment of and AF for broader synergistic tree species whilst maintaining cover and impact eliminating tillage with CA is a logical solution to rehabilitation. The exploration of the many facets of CA and Q Crop and enterprise diversification are AF in this paper has led us to the following encouraged by CA and AF. One of the key conclusions on the highly desirable components of CA is the use of crop compatibility and complementarity that exists rotations (for both main and cover crops) between the two connected paradigms: to exploit different soil strata and so Q Both AF and CA seek to emulate natural recycle more nutrients. More and different recycling mechanisms and other crops can facilitate growth into new ecosystem services (especially the enterprises, such as livestock production. elimination of soil erosion) found in AF has vast scope for diversifying into fruit forests. and timber production as well as livestock

Q Both CA and AF promote soil health and to exploit the additional feed produced. biodiversity and so both will enhance soil Q Family livelihoods are improved through fertility and hence its productive capacity. CA and AF as labour requirements for soil

Q AF systems (especially versions of alley reparation and weeding are reduced, crop cropping or live fences with leguminous production is increased and so incomes tree species) produce nutritious browse can be raised. Diversification of crops leads which can alleviate pressure on cover to better diets and a more constant supply crops. Free grazing of cover crops after of food crops throughout the year. main crop harvest is one of the major Q The policy implications for developing constraints to CA adoption in SSA. country governments are clear: both CA

Q AF systems neatly complement CA and AF should be actively supported systems in the provision of soil cover, through incentive programmes (e.g. animal feed, nutrients, household fuel, easier access to essential inputs), training and hillside protection against soil erosion programmes (for extension agents and References and wind erosion control through shelter farmers), and encouraging and nourishing Elevitch, C.R. (ed). 2004. The the formation of farmer self-help groups overstory book: cultivating belts. connections with trees. (such as FFS). These ideas are Q Carbon sequestration, a key weapon in the Second edition. Holualoa, encapsulated in the declaration following fight for climate change mitigation, is Hawaii. Permanent Agricultural the IV World Congress on Conservation vastly enhanced both in the soil (through Resources. 526p. Agriculture held in New Delhi, India in no-till) and biomass (principally in trees El-Swaify, S.A. 1999. Sustaining February 2009 (http://www.fao.org/ the global farm – strategic and shrubs). ag/ca/doc/NewDelhiDeclarationCA.pdf ) issues, principles and approaches. International Soil Q Adaptation to climate change is facilitated Conservation Organization by the increased water infiltration and (ISCO); and the Department of storage in soils under CA and AF systems. Agronomy and Soil Science, Improved soil structure as a result of no- University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii. 60p. till and increases micro-faunal activity Ingham, E. 2004. The soil improve infiltration whilst increased SOM foodweb: its role in ecosystem improves holding capacity. health. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed). 2004. The overstory book: Q Degraded land is best rehabilitated with AF cultivating connections with systems in conjunction with CA (which trees. Second edition. Holualoa, is better designed to perform under Hawaii. Permanent Agricultural good soil conditions). Soil protection and Resources. pp. 62-65.

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CA–South-South tech transfer

Brian G. Sims Conservation Brian Sims is an agricultural engineering consultant to the Food agriculture: and Agriculture Organization of the south-south United Nations (FAO) technology transfer from Brazil to East Africa The situation confronting In parallel with this grave situation we are witnessing the protestations of our planet as millions of rural inhabitants is we degrade our soils, fell our forests and more dire today than it has ever pump ever greater amounts of greenhouse been. The first UN Millennium gases into the atmosphere. Glaciers are melting at unprecedented rates, causing Development Goal pledged to problems for irrigated agriculture and eradicate extreme hunger and resulting in rises in sea level affecting vast areas of coastal farm lands. And we are now halve the proportion of people in danger of precipitating the uncontrollable suffering from chronic hunger, melting of the permafrost, when this gets all by 2015. Disgracefully, and under way huge quantities of methane will be unlocked with a heating potential over 20 despite many pledges, we are times that of CO2. nowhere near to achieving this As if this wasn’t enough we can, as we allocate goal, and in sub-Saharan Africa greater resources to biofuel production, see the impact of sharply escalating food prices the situation is getting worse (especially for the world’s staples of rice, with some 30% of its 770 wheat and maize). The result of this is that million population chronically there is today an urgent need to produce sustainably greater harvests from the world’s hungry today.

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agriculture. Conservation agriculture, which industry. The lack of suitable CA equipment comprises no-till, permanent soil cover and is a major constraint to scaling up CA around judicious rotations of main and cover crops the world, a constraint that has been (www.fao.org/ag/ca/), represents a firm first alleviated in Brazil by farmers creating a step on the road to achieving this goal. demand and the industrial sector, the state and R&D institutions working together to As a result of the crisis of soil degradation in provide functional solutions at affordable large areas of Brazil, farmers in that country prices. FAO is facilitating the transfer of the have responded by being the driving force fruits of this endeavour to East Africa and behind the evolution of a remarkable elsewhere through a programme which trains farmer field schools in the benefits of CA and A Brazilian Knapick no-till planter is explained to a group of East African the correct use of the technology. At the same entrepreneurs and policymakers. time the programme is working with private sector manufacturers and CA service providers to assist them in designing, manufacturing and making a business from the manufacture of affordable equipment and the provision of CA services via mechanization entrepreneurs.

The CA equipment comprises a range of technology powered by human muscles, draught animals and tractors. CA practices are based on the need to maintain the soil permanently covered with crop residues and cover crops and to sow the main crop through the surface mulch. Hand-held equipment includes the jab-planter, able to sow seed and apply fertilizer through sharp beaks. The Zamwipe is a wick-type herbicide applicator designed in Zambia for weed control between row crops and neatly complements other pedestrian-pulled sprayers. Animal powered A Brazilian draught animal power-boom sprayer. implements include no-till planters and sprayers with a range of tank capacities and boom widths. There is also the knife roller for controlling crop residues and cover crops prior to no-till planting. Tractor powered equipment is generally scaled up versions of the animal powered implements but one very promising recent development has been the design of equipment mounted on two-wheel (power tiller) tractors.

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SWG on Ethiopia

Papers presented at the TAA South-West Group meeting on Ethiopia – a review of some conservation activities from the 1980s to the present day, held at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester on 21st October 2009 Historical Stephen Sandford background to forest management in Ethiopia

The extent and rate of 1. The statement has been interpreted as applicable to the different parts of Ethiopia, deforestation in Ethiopia creating an impression of uniformity, rather than reflecting the average of widely It is claimed that “the dissimilar parts of Ethiopia.

land area covered by 2. There is considerable controversy over the forests has gone down source of the figure of 40% for the year 1900. Who made the estimate and when from 40 % at the turn of and how is unclear; and there must be the 19th/20th centuries doubts about the quality of the evidence on which it was based. to approximately 3 % at the present time” 3. While one can use the evidence from different travellers such as missionaries, (Ethiopia National diplomats, and private adventurers to get an overall picture, the route that they took Conservation Strategy, and their interests limited their 1990), but there are a observations. The “forest” that they recorded might have been anything from number of problems with full-canopy-cover of highland montane this statement which are forest to scattered shrubs and bush in the pastoral lowlands. They lacked instruments set out in five points permitting them easy measurement of the below: extent of forested land.

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4. It is not possible to estimate proportions of covered by forest. In Gabon, the proportion is land under different types of land-use from 84%, and in the seven (IGADD: Intergovern- information recording measurements mental Authority on Drought and Develop- stored in official archives or from ment) countries that border Ethiopia the certificates given to individuals and organisations. While formal units of range is between less than one in Djibouti to measurement seem to have been in use the 18% in Uganda. Ethiopia’s proportion is 12% allocations registered rarely or never and comes about 29th out of 45 mainland explicitly included forested land. countries in terms of order. 5. The statement implies that a decline in The amount of “original forest” that would natural forest in Ethiopia is bad. Current have been found 8,000 years ago if the climate obsession with climate change emphasises then was the same as it is now, suggest that forest coverage, which directly affects about 25% of Ethiopia (incl. Eritrea) was temperature and serves as a carbon store, is an important resource. But Ethiopia’s original “closed” forest (World Resources attitude to forest cover should be shaped, Institute, 2003), compared with the 3% for by its overriding need to relieve poverty. the whole country today. The relative degree What important benefits and costs do of deforestation of a country can be expressed forests bring? Are there more poor-friendly as the amount of land still forested as a ways of achieving the same benefits? The proportion of the original forest. The figure importance of cover in itself would be for Ethiopia is 17%, compared to 18% for increased if payment for this was adequate under an internationally enforced carbon Kenya and 6 % for the UK. trading scheme. We can also assess the different types of ground cover by individual regions of Ethio- The actual present extent pia and at the federal (whole-of-Ethiopia) level of forested land (FAO, 2005) (Fig 2). Defining the forest area as land with relatively continuous cover of trees, Comparisons of estimates of the extent of evergreen or semi-deciduous gives a figure for forest cover are bedevilled by differences in the forest cover for Ethiopia as a whole of 3%, definition of forest. The extent of forests in quoted at the start of this paper. Four of the 11 Ethiopia can be compared that of other regions account for 96% of the total forest countries (Fig 1). In this case, because of the area and these four (Amhara with 1 % cover, availability of data, we define forests as land Gambela with 14%, Oromiya and SNPR both with a tree canopy cover of more than 10 with 6%) together contain between 50% and percent and an area of more than half a hec- 60% of the total federal land area. Out of the tare. In Africa about 21 % of total land area is other seven regions two (Afar and Somali) are Fig 1 Extent of present forest cover in Africa, Ethiopia and its neighbours dry and mainly pastoral, and three are urban. Of the remaining two Beneshangul’s importance would be hugely enhanced by including high woodland with more than 20% but with less than continuous canopy cover in the definition. Tigray is drier and has supported a dense human population for longer than other regions and this is probably the cause of its restricted forest cover. Deforestation

Reliable estimates are available, for short-term deforestation rates (over the past 2-3 decades), based mainly on satellite imagery. A

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Fig 2 Type of cover by region

study (Gessesse Dessie and Johan Kleman, Melaku Bekele (1998) has given a useful 2007) on a 3,000 km2 block of land in the summary of the information available a south central Rift Valley calculated that decade ago. He indicates that already in the between 1972 and 2000, the proportion of ninth and tenth centuries AD the northern surveyed land covered by “high natural most provinces (Tigray and Eritrea) had lost forest” fell from 16% to 2.8%. Of the total area most of their forest. Wello, northern Shewa, “lost” to natural forest 15-20% was parts of Gondar and Gojjam were reforested/afforested in plantations. This rate experiencing serious wood shortage at the of deforestation can be compared with results beginning of the 17th century. During the from studies elsewhere in Ethiopia. Northern second half of the 18th century the larger part Ethiopia is generally regarded as heavily of the south-western forests were undergoing deforested, but some data exist for areas with great depletion as a result of human activities remaining pockets of forest. In a study of but they partially recovered following massive 11,000 ha in northeast Ethiopia from 1958 depopulation because of wars and slave trade to1986, forest cover declined from 7.8% to since the mid-19th century. 5.4% (Kebrom and Hedlund, 2000). A similar study (Gete and Hurni, 2001) in northwestern Afforestation Ethiopia (covering 27,103 ha for the period There are some studies indicating an increase 1957–1995) documented a drop in natural in natural forest and woodland. One example forest cover from 27.1% to 0.3%.” (Nyssen et al., 2009) is from a 40 km2 Over longer periods there are some rather catchment in the Wag area, where an increase unreliable estimates based mainly on notes in the area irrigable in the valley bottoms made by foreign travellers. However, there are greatly increased the demand for labour (Fig now some studies of very long-term changes 3). This, accompanied by measures to based on quantitative scientific data, drawn, regulate grazing by livestock, led to rapid for example from pollen data retrieved in core woodland (forest and shrub) regeneration in sampling from lake beds or from analysis of surrounding steep mountainous areas which the carbon content of soil samples at different had previously been used for rainfed depths. The results cannot be directly cultivation, and a corresponding reduction in translated into forest-cover terms. But they bare-land grassland and rainfed cultivation. confirm that forest cover has not followed a Another example comes from south-west constant downward direction but shows Ethiopia where the rapid growth of a small phases of increase as well as of decrease and Oromo political state had by the mid-19th that successful reforestation has taken place century led to a substantial reduction in forest in the past. cover. The collapse of that state led to the

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abandonment of the capital and its reversion reminding us that the decline in forest cover by the mid-20th century to its previous is not inevitable but can be modified and heavily forested condition (James McCann, reversed by factors subject to social control. 1997). These examples are useful in Fig 3 Land-use changes in a catchment of Wag Hemra Zone, Northern Ethiopia

Plantations

In contrast to this natural reforestation is the planting of large blocks of trees, exotic or indigenous. Since 1970 there has been considerable activity in creating plantations but uncertainty about their extent. Estimates ranging from 200,000 to 500,000 hectares of forest plantations, compared to the 13 million of natural (continuous canopy cover) forest and high woodland (with more than 20% canopy cover). These plantations have been categorised a follows:

% of total Category plantation area Main product or use Industrial 43 Sawn logs, transmission and telecom. poles Catchment protection 32 Protection Peri-urban plantations 16 Fuel and building poles Community woodlots 9 Fuel and building poles

100

The Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People’s Region (SNNPR) has the largest area of plantations, followed by Amhara, with Oromiya in third place. The causes and timing of Axum dynasty. The same happened with the invader Mohamed Gregn in the 16th century concern over deforestation (1520-1535).

Most modern writers place heavy emphasis on Political concern about deforestation has been the growth of human population as the prime expressed by Ethiopians for at least 600 years. cause of deforestation. However politics and As far back as the late 14thcentury Emperor social institutions have also played a very Dawit attempted to divide the country into important role. Queen “Yodit” ordered her seven “conservancies” each with a responsible army and the people of Tigray to burn all the conservator. In the mid-15th century forest cover between Tigray and Gondar as far Emperor Zeraayaecob started watershed as Lasta and Wagshum which she suspected reservations at Wofwasha and Jibat forest in could have been the hiding place for the Shewa, as well as afforestation of the soldiers of Dilnaad, the last Emperor of the Wochecha (Menagesha) and the Erer

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mountains near Addis Ababa both reserved as Tigray Region, amounting to about 10 % of crown land until the present day (Gebre- the region’s total area, found nearly 400 Markos Wolde-Selassie, 1998). churches, the large majority of them with forest patches. A selection showed that Some institutional aspects patches of forest attached to churches were, on average, about 2.8 hectares in size and One way to look at institutional issues in amounted to about 0.22% of the studied area. protecting and promoting natural forests is in That is a larger proportion than the 0.19% the location and management style of References occupied in Tigray by “forests” (defined as decision-making and implementing. These FAO (2005) Global Forest land with relatively continuous cover of trees, can be; Resources Assessment. Country and which does not include these church- Report for Ethiopia Q Centralised and top-down attached patches) Gebre-MarkosWolde-Selassie. Q Localised and top-down (1998) The forest resources of These church patches have been effectively Q Localised and bottom-up (participatory) Ethiopia: past and present. Walia protected except during the early stages of 19: 10-26. Centralised and top-down land reform under the Derg regime in the Gessesse Dessie and Kleman, J. second half of the 1970s. The Orthodox (2007) Pattern and Magnitude The emperors mentioned above were dyna- church collectively has been too strong for of Deforestation in the South Central Rift Valley Region of mic monarchs intent on conservation and central government to try the local power of Ethiopia. Mountain Research centralising power. The Emperor Menelik (late its rural parish churches. Yet the management and Development 27 (2): 19th century to early 20th) proclaimed that all system exercised by them is top-down control 162–168. forest trees on private or state land belonged by a local oligarchy of priests, not by a Gete and Hurni (2001) Cited in to the Government and anyone who used participating community. Gessesse Dessie and Johan them should pay royalty to the Government. Kleman (2007). The nature of the power that they seized and Localised and bottom-up Kebrom and Hedlund (2000) Cited in Gessesse Dessie and accumulated made these leaders believe that Johan Kleman (2007). There is little or no evidence of truly only top-down and centralized forest McCann, J. (1997) The Plow and participatory community control of forests in management would succeed. the Forest: Narratives of the traditional core area (Tigray and Amhara Deforestation in Ethiopia: 1840- Another aspect of Ethiopia’s imperial history regions and parts of Shewa province) of 1992. Environmental History was the centre’s need for troops and the Ethiopia although some people have cited 2 (2): 138-159. consequent fear of a powerful rural such community control in Dess’ea forest in Melaku Bekele (1998) The population able to resist recruitment. The Ethiopian forest from ancient Tigray (Yeraswork Admasse, 2001). Other most powerful and effective example of time to 1900: a brief account. efforts are: Walia 19: 3-9. community control of natural resources in Q FARM-Africa, SOS Sahel and CARE have Nyssen J., Getachew, S. and Ethiopia was the Borana system of pasture Taha, N. (2009). An upland been playing an innovative role in management in the south and far from the farming system under heart of Ethiopia. The Borana came under the participatory fores management (PFM) in transformation: Proximate control of Imperial Ethiopia a century ago and Ethiopia. causes of land use change in Bela-Welleh catchment (Wag, very little of that system now survives. Q In 2007 new legislation gives apparent Northern Ethiopian Highlands). government blessing and support to PFM. Soil & Tillage Research 103 (2): Localised and top-down 231-238. The key question is whether this is a genuine World Resources Institute In contrast to the absence of strong and deep-rooted commitment to PFM or (2003) Earth Trends: Forests, community-controlled institutions, has been whether it is a temporary adoption of a new Grasslands and Drylands. Ethiopia Country Profile. the success of local churches protecting the fashion which will be reversed towards a more Yeraswork Admasse (2001) patches of forest attached to them. There are traditional centralised system when local Forest management in Desse’a. communities have different ideas from the 20,000 to 40,000 Ethiopian Orthodox Brief No.18. Briefing Institutions churches mostly in the Tigray and Amhara experts of the forestry departments at regional for Natural Resource regions. A study, of selected blocks of land in and federal levels. Management, University of Sussex.

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KTT–Etheiopia

John Rosewell and Tigist Grieve Doing develop- For-ethiopia, Bristol, UK John Rosewell is an educationalist who ment: why small has extensive experience in teaching in the UK and in Kenya. He worked as a VSO can be beautiful, volunteer in Kenya in the 1970s. He is a long- serving Julian Trust trustee in Bristol and a some perspect- founding member and treasurer for For- ethiopia UK. ives from a Tigist Grieve is an international development practitioner with an Kitchen Table interest in rural development. She along with her husband Robert is the Trust founder of the For- ethiopia Trust, and “I’m sorry”, the old man Introduction currently serves as a said to me firmly, “we voluntary programme For-ethiopia is a small charity operating out of manager of For- cannot do as you ask. We Bristol, UK. We started meeting around a ethiopia UK. She is are poor farmers; we kitchen table in Tigist and Robert Grieve’s researching child cannot pay money home; there were four of us. Now we are eight education and and so we sit around the dining table! We wellbeing in rural towards this. You are an don’t want to get much bigger in terms of Ethiopia for her PhD at NGO – surely you can number of Trustees because we believe the the University of Bath. provide everything.” A kitchen table principle gives us maximum concentration on helping our chosen cause fair request? Perhaps. and minimum time on administration. The man was representative of the However we do want to grow bigger year by community of Addis Alem in Oromiya region year in terms of what we achieve. This is, of of Ethiopia, where most live below the course, dependent on public support and poverty line and cash is hard to come by. I, on financial donations. the other hand, although Ethiopian, A small trustee body without offices or paid represented a Western-funded NGO, and was staff eliminates major administrative suggesting that they contribute 10% of the overheads meaning nearly every pound cost of capping a spring to provide clean received goes direct to development. It also water. helps make us effective because all the

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members of the team have to share the Our Principles – Sustain : workload and pull their weight. Staying local and staying focussed also keeps us close to Renew : Empower our beneficiaries. In Ethiopia we are directing We practice participatory development by our efforts in the first instance at providing listening to the local people (our partners). sustainable development in one small area: Initial surveys of development needs of local Ejere District where we hope to make a people were carried out in the manner of difference. ‘handing over the stick’ (Chambers, 1983; For-ethiopia believes that small development 1997). We therefore only implement projects projects can change lives. They enhance the that they have chosen. This avoids conflict capacity of local communities by improving with local culture and traditions and provides health, increasing educational opportunity a sense of ‘ownership’ by the community. and creating employment. They bring To ensure sustainability of the projects and communities together to create a better build the important ‘sense of ownership’ we quality of life. Small can be beautiful. ask communities to contribute 10% towards Ejere district that surrounds the town of projects in cash as well as labour; that is what Addis Alem was chosen as a suitable place to the quote at the beginning of this article refers start our development work as it was the to. In my defence, my reason for asking for a birthplace of Tigist’s grandparents and financial contribution from the farmers mother. This meant that the local people were knowing that they have no, or very limited, at ease talking to Tigist and did not feel that access to cash has two main purposes. Firstly, ‘outsiders’ were interfering when she did when we finish the work, hand over the exploratory research in 2003. Through that, project and leave the area we want the we asked communities to identify key community to continue to benefit from it for problematic areas they wished us to work on the long term. Secondly, we believe that and as a result water, health and education sustainability is guaranteed through the were identified as the key sectors for us to empowerment process of asking communi- consider. ties to participate from the conception of

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project ideas, to taking part in the process of Empowering is about removing barriers. It making it happen and then using it while involves bringing in capital and know-how being its caretakers. There is an ancient and using appropriate technology. It releases saying in Ethiopia that ‘the foolish man learns new skills and energy, providing a springboard from himself while the wise man learns from to further improvements. It encourages hope others’. There are sadly ample development and starts fulfilling dreams. projects around the world that no longer Once we overcame the hurdle of ‘surely you deliver the intended benefit to communities can cover all the costs’ question through due to inappropriate technology or as a dialogue and meaningful engagement we culturally acceptable approach – we try to moved to a different level of relationship with learn to avoid the same mistakes. the communities. On the inauguration day Sustain, Renew and Empower are our the farmer’s representative said to us they watchwords to guide project selection and wanted to bless us in the way locals do. They implementation: made circles around the food and drink they had prepared near the colourfully decorated Making development sustainable requires water reservoir. After the blessing and the recognising that people are already active in Amen in their language he carried on to say making the most of their resources. It means ‘our next request to you is to please go and not imposing external ideas that conflict with help the farmers in the next village – they cultural and social integrity or undermine the have a greater drinking water problem’. We good practices that already exist. It involves were touched, as they could have easily asked listening to and learning from local people. us to work more for their own community as Making development renewable requires they still have problems that require external recognising when there is a willingness to assistance. The people from the neighbouring change, then seeking to encourage and help community also heard of the work we had others to become change agents. It means completed and they came saying ‘we know giving ownership of the new resources to the you ask for 10% contribution from us and we local community. It involves using the co- are ready to collect that’. This is our success operative spirit and existing social structures story that encourages us to continue ‘a for joint decision making. participatory development approach’, not ‘top down’ but ‘bottom up’. We will continue to do School furniture arriving ‘appropriate projects’ and in a small but sure way make a difference.

Achievements to date

We recently celebrated our fifth birthday as a UK registered charity. What have we achieved in the five years that we have been operating in the water, health and education sectors?

We have raised sufficient funds to dig five wells and cap four springs which has benefited a minimum of 6,000 people, in nine farmers’ association areas, with clean acces- sible water. We have also tried to improve sanitation by constructing toilet blocks at five schools benefiting approximately 4,000 pupils. We have provided basic maternity

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equipment and kerosene powered fridges for We were delighted when we received support vaccines for six health posts serving 25,000 from the Kitchen Table Charitable Trust in people. We have supplied nine primary 2007 as this organisation only supports schools with furniture and teaching materials charities that meet their strict requirements that have improved educational opportunities for getting nearly all the money given to those for 7,000 pupils as well as building a library in need. They too believe in our philosophy block at the only secondary school in the area that it is possible to be small and highly which serves 1,700 students. effective. We hope that financial support will increase as more hear of what we are doing Small yet visible: fitting in and want to be a part of it as we are receiving the bigger picture more and more requests for help than we are currently able to meet. To avoid duplication of projects and to ensure that we are in line with the countries poverty reduction plan we work very closely with government offices across sectors and local authorities. We are very pleased that the Ethiopian government’s evaluation and auditing procedures have won us approval each year and that the Oromiya regional government awarded us model status as an NGO.

But perhaps four examples from the people themselves serve to illustrate more clearly the effectiveness of the projects we have been involved with:

At Korme Spring, after the spring had been successfully capped supplying clean water to Above: spring capping. Below: water on tap, and References equipment delivery at health post. 573 people and a separate trough provided for Chambers, R. (1983). Rural 450 head of cattle, the farmers association Development: Putting the Last First. Longman Inc., USA. leader said ‘now we don’t have to drink with the animals’. A local head teacher credited Chambers, R. (1997). Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First improved resources as making a big Last. Intermediate Technology contribution to their best exam results ever; Publications, London. local health officials provided statistics Blackburn, J. and J. Holland predicting a 50% fall in water related diseases (1998). Who Changes? Institutionalizing participation and a local widow who has become a in development. Intermediate caretaker of her communities well shared her Technology Publications, pride in her new status ( see photo). London.

So approximately 44,000 service users have Holland, J. and J. Blackburn (1998). Whose Voice? been impacted by positive change through Participatory research and our work, all this with investment of just policy change. Intermediate £60,000 over those five years. We are very Technology Publications, grateful to those who have supported us with London. For-ethiopia is seeking voluntary donations and grants. Money has come from expertise in water for its 2011 many different individuals and organisations plan of water year, if you can including businesses, community groups, help please contact us at schools, churches, and grant making trusts. www.for-ethiopia.com

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recently, landed on the desk of consumer goods giant Procter & Gamble. Despite Newsflash this, Red Button’s founders, Amanda Jones and James Brown, admit that they are still best known for their 2007 appearance on BBC 2’s hit business show “The Dragons’ Den”. Although later interviews revealed that, off-air, the record-breaking deal was never problems, the founders, Amanda completed. Two years down the line Jones and James Brown, hope to progress towards the distribution of the mobilise the resources of product is taking place as planned and international aid agencies Red Button’s two directors have been away from ‘fire fighting’ commended widely for both the patent missions long enough to pending design and for the ‘philanthro- implement truly sustainable capitalist’ spirit that inspired it. infrastructures in the Part of their ambitious new development developing plan realises a UK-headquartered global world. design and manufacturing cooperative, It is inevitably a constructed to harness the extraordinary “why didn’t I think of that?” entrepreneurial and innovative spirit in moment when you first hear of their target markets. The co-op, Amanda their flagship product, a 3-in-1 explains, will “provide a platform for water transport, purification and drawing innovation out of isolated storage device designed to provide safe communities and sharing it with the Red drinking water for some of the 1.2 billion wider world. It will, in effect, allow a people currently without access to this multidirectional transfer of knowledge vital resource. The unit, nicknamed from the likes of innovators in rural “ROSS” by it’s inventors, uses a pump Ghana, design studios in London and Button powered only by the rotation of the manufacturers in Northern India.” transport wheels to pass water through a With all this talk of social good, series of internal filters, transforming collaboration and crowd-sourced design, harmful water to drinkable water, on-the- you could be forgiven for thinking Red Design go. By employing simple mechanical Button Design holds charitable or non- principles it avoids the need to utilise profit status. However, this is not the case more complex and expensive chemical, as James explains: “We’re a Social UV or electrical methods. When taken to Enterprise and from a design perspective Amanda any dubious water source, the user can running a successful business in the fill the unit with up to 50 litres of water humanitarian sector will stimulate the that is purified during the journey home, competition necessary to lead to the Jones returning to the community with reliable development of more effective sufficient safe water for a household’s product and service offerings.” A stance daily drinking, cleaning and food Red Button Design, founded in 2007 by that has earned Red Button Design a preparation requirement. two British students, is an internationally place as one of the case studies of best- award winning start-up seeking to Not surprisingly ROSS has attracted a practice in the first ever Social design, manufacture and supply products measure of support and attention, Investment Almanac launched last exclusively for the humanitarian market. notably from The Red Cross and the month by third sector minister Angela The Company derived it’s name from the World Health Organisation. The Smith. But whether you agree with their idea of an ‘emergency stop button’ and by innovation has also received column brave stance on the matter or not, it designing instantly effective interim inches in the likes of The Wall Street certainly hasn’t provided any significant solutions to some of the worlds biggest Journal and New Scientist and, more barriers to their continued success.

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Requests for the life-saving unit are across 24 plots, covering a total of nearly coverage and water quality, to examine mounting up and work is progressing 13 hectares, in the northern states of China’s progress since parties to the with NGOs throughout India and Sub- Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila Convention on Biological Diversity Saharan Africa to build the and Tamaulipas. However, more than agreed in 2002 to reduce biodiversity loss manufacturing and distribution networks 2,000 scientists have signed a petition significantly by 2010. The study also required to allow the innovation to reach calling for the trials to be blocked. indicates that China’s grasslands have it’s potential. Government officials say measures are in declined by 15,000 square kilometres per place to prevent gene flow from the crops year over the past 30 years, and previous With the right support Red Button to natural varieties. Plantations will be research found than 90 per cent of Design predict they could fulfill these small, planting will occur at different China’s grasslands are degraded. On the orders within 9 months and as many as times from natural varieties and farmers positive side, water quality in marine 250,000 people could be drinking safe will be asked about any negative effects of ecosystems has improved by more than water from the unit by 2012. James is GM maize on their crops. four per cent per year from 2001 to 2007. pragmatic about the company’s The area of China’s forests has increased successes to date: “We have come a long Nevertheless, there is concern among from 13 per cent to 18 per cent in 2003, way in a short time but as a young local scientists that the country does not and forest growing stock, the volume of company we are, absolutely, still looking have the capacity to undertake and trees in an area that have more than a for further support. Some of that needs monitor the situation adequately. One certain diameter at chest height, has to be financial and some needs to be the concern is over whether Genetic ID, the increased by over 40 per cent. Earlier this sharing of skills and experience. When it US company hired to train staff for two month, the State Forest Administration comes to building a network, anyone transgene-testing laboratories in Mexico of China published its plan to adapt to with enthusiasm can find a place to add City, has sensitive enough methods to climate change, proposing that China’s value.” Amanda agrees, “It really does detect transgenes. Local sources claim forest coverage should increase to 20 per take a village.” that Genetic ID failed to detect cent by 2010. transgenes in blind samples. If you are interested in finding out more Despite making progress in some areas, about Red Button Design please visit (Source: SciDev.Net) the report says that China needs a more www.redbuttondesign.co.uk integrated biodiversity strategy. “A significant reduction of biodiversity loss, Fall in rice strains or even a halt of it, can be achieved only GM maize could if biodiversity conservation is highlights China’s mainstreamed into national and sectoral contaminate natural strategies and action plans. The next biodiversity gap decade is a critical period for China,” the varieties authors wrote. The number of China’s rice varieties has (Source: SciDev.Net) Mexico has banned the planting of GM dramatically decreased, raising fears maize for 11 years but has recently given about the country’s food security and approval for experimental plantings, but biodiversity. An article in SciDev.Net by Saviour tree turns there are concerns that Mexico is unable Shanshan Li (26 November 2009) draws to safely carry out GM planting. Nature attention to a Chinese study published in scourge in Kenya 27 November 2009 reports claims by BioScience (Bioscience 59: 843). This prominent scientists that Mexico doesn’t claims that China had 46,000 rice Maina Waruru reports in Scidev.Net (24 have an adequate system to monitor or varieties in the 1950s but this plummeted November 2009) that Prosopis juliflora, a protect natural maize varieties from to just 1,000 in 2006. This is a result of tree introduced to Kenya to combat transgenes and critics say that the the extensive cultivation of a few desertification, is becoming a pest on experimental planting scheme has genetically improved modern varieties farmland in parts of Kenya. insufficient controls to prevent gene flow that are high-yielding and pest-resistant P. juliflora, known as the ‘devil tree’ in to native crops. In addition, such a monoculture system some areas, was introduced from Latin will lead to a vulnerable agro-ecosystem. In the past month, Monsanto and Dow America to semi-arid districts of Kenya by AgriSciences have received government The research used a variety of non-governmental organisations in the permission to plant transgenic maize environmental indicators, such as forest 1980s. It was selected because of its

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ability to survive in dry environments wetlands of the Iku-Katavi National Park and for its expansive root system, which in Tanzania was treated over two months Wild helps bind soil and prevent erosion. to the end of July and the campaign is continuing into Malawi and Now P. juliflora is the target of a planned Mozambique. Green MuscleTM has government control programme after fruits as previously been trialled in several research by Gabriel Muturi of the Kenya countries but this is the first time it has Forestry Research Institute, published in African been used on a large scale. April, found that up to 27 million hectares of land are at risk from the plant. The biopesticide was developed through The study, carried out in Turkana district the collaborative LUBILOSA (Lutte cash in northwest Kenya, also showed that a Biologique contre les Locustes et les local species of acacia tree, Acacia tortilis, Sauteriaux) programme involving CABI, crops is declining by over 40 per cent in some IITA and the Departement de Formation areas possibly because P. juliflora is en Protection des Végétaux, Naimey, This is an abstract of an article in New displacing it. Niger. After screening more than 160 Scientist 10th November 2009 by Charlie candidate organisms, CABI scientists Farmers in the Baringo district of Kenya’s Pye-Smith entitled ‘Chocolate berries! identified the fungus Metarrhizium Rift Valley province have sued the Gingerbread plums!’ that reviewed the anisopliae var acridum as the host- government for millions of Kenyan increasing role that wild fruit trees are specific locust pathogen that forms the shillings for loss of grazing fields and having in African development. active ingredient of Green MuscleTM. The arable land caused by the alien tree’s research required to identify a suitable Africa is home to some 3000 species of invasion. Some also claim to have lost organism and to formulate a product wild fruit tree, many of which are ripe for animals that died because they were suitable for use in the harsh environment domestication. Chocolate berries, unable to eat when their teeth fell out of Africa took more than a decade. The gingerbread plums, monkey oranges, after feeding on the shrub. product consists of spores of the fungus gumvines, tree grapes and a host of A spokesperson for the Kenya Forestry suspended in a mixture of mineral oils others could soon play a role in ensuring Service (KFS) says that a policy paper and has a shelf life of 18 months at 30°C dependable food supplies in areas now detailing where the tree can be planted, and up to five years under refrigeration. plagued by malnutrition. when and in what numbers is being Spores in direct sunlight last for eight Generations of farmers in Africa have worked on and soon the government will hours but can remain viable for several selected and eaten the tastiest varieties of be able to release the guidelines to the weeks in shaded conditions in plant African plum and bush mango, planted public. Meanwhile the KFS is training crevices. their seeds and traded the seedlings. farmers on how to live with the shrub, by Not only is Green MuscleTM environ- Many of these trees are now widely grown using its pods for fodder and stems for mentally benign and of no danger to and a few have been developed further. firewood timber and charcoal. The organisms other than locusts, its persist- Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), a southern increased use of P. juliflora for charcoal ence means that locusts numbers African tree in the cashew family with would save the over-exploited acacia continue to decline some time after edible nutty seeds has long been collected species from being used for this purpose. treatment even though infection with the and eaten by hunter-gatherers. This has (Source: SciDev.Net) biopesticide takes several days to kill the now been fully domesticated and the fruit locust. It is most effective when used is used to make juice, a liqueur called ‘Green MuscleTM’ proactively in breeding areas against the Amarula Cream and cosmetic oils. younger stages of the locust so as to pre- The initiative to develop the growth of wrestles locusts vent the build up of hopper bands and the indigenous fruit trees has its roots in the destructive migratory stages of the pest. mid-1990s, when researchers from the Green MuscleTM is now produced com- The biopesticde Green MuscleTM is being World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) mercially in Senegal and South Africa. used against the red locusts (Nomadracis conducted a series of surveys in West septemfasciata) in an aerial spraying (Source: New Agriculturist) Africa, southern Africa and the Sahel to programme organised by FAO and the establish which indigenous trees were International Locust Control most valued by local people. A fruit tree Organisation for Central and Southern domestication programme was launched Africa. An area of 10,000 ha across the in 1998. It began by focusing on a

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handful of species, including bush These may eventually find their way to BOOKSTACK mango (Irvingia gabonensis), an supermarket shelves near you. Governing Africa’s Forests in a indigenous African species unrelated to Q Chocolate berries (Vitex spp): Globalized World the Indian mango, African plum Scattered across tropical Africa, these Edited by Laura A. German,Alain Dacryodes edulisis – not a true plum but trees produce an abundance of Karsenty and Anne-Marie Tiani a savoury, avocado-like fruit sometimes blackish fruit with a chocolate called an afrocado – and a nut tree known flavour. Earthscan, London. 2009, 400pp, Hardback, ISBN 978 1 84407 7564, locally as njansan (Ricinodendron Q Aizen (Boscia senegalensis): A £65 heudelotii). Though common in the scrawny scrub in the hottest and forests and as wild trees on farms, they driest regions, its fruits, seeds, roots were almost unknown to science. One of and leaves are eaten by desert- the architects of the programme, Roger dwellers. The yellow, cherry-sized Leakey, a former director of research at berries are sweet and pulpy when the centre calls these fruit trees ripe, and harden into a sweet Many countries around the world are “Cinderella species”: their attributes may caramel-like substance when dried. engaged in decentralization processes, have gone unrecognised by science and Q Ebony fruit (Diospyros spp): Best and most African countries face serious big business, but the time has come for known for their valuable, jet-black problems with forest governance, from them to step into the limelight. wood, ebony trees also produce large, benefits sharing to illegality and sustainable forest management.This succulent persimmon-like fruit with a The programme has trained farmers in book summarizes experiences to date delicate sweet taste. horticultural techniques used to on the extent and nature of propagate or clone superior trees, such as Q Gingerbread plums (several genera of decentralization and its outcomes - most of which suggest an grafting, taking cuttings and marcotts the family Chrysobalanaceae): underperformance of governance (aerial cuttings). This has resulted in the Distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, the plums this tree produces reforms - and explores the viability of expansion of fruit tree nurseries, many of different governance instruments in the have the crunch of an apple and the which are independent businesses, context of weak governance and flavour of a strawberry. making significant profits and providing expanding commercial pressures over enough trees to transform the lives of Q Medlars (Vangueria spp): These trees forests. tens of thousands of rural families. grow well in arid areas and produce Findings are grouped into two thematic fruits that, when dried, have the areas: decentralization, livelihoods and Some projects are evolving into big busi- flavour and smell of dried apples. sustainable forest management; and ness. Project Novella is promoting the international trade, finance and forest Q Sugar plums (Uapaca spp): Found in domestication of Allanblackia, a group of sector governance reforms.The authors woodlands, this tree bears juicy fruit trees whose seeds contain oil perfect for examine diverse forces shaping the with a honey-like taste. making margarine. Some 10,000 farmers forest sector, including the theory and Q practice of decentralization, usurpation in Ghana and Tanzania already grow the Sweet detar (Detarium senegalense): of authority, corruption and illegality, trees. If all goes to plan, this will rise to A leguminous tree of savannahs, its pods contain a sweet-and-sour pulp inequitable patterns of benefits capture 200,000 farmers growing 25 million which can be eaten fresh or dried. and expansion of international trade in Allanblackia trees in a decade’s time, timber and carbon credits, and discuss earning them a total of $2 billion a year – related outcomes on livelihoods, forest half the annual value of West Africa’s condition and equity. Muscadine Grape (Vitex spp.) most important agricultural export, cocoa.

Last year, the US National Research Council published a study of the wild fruits of Africa. Twenty-four species that could improve nutrition and food supplies were selected and ten of these have undergone a degree of domesti- cation, including African plum, tamarind and marula. Of the 14 completely wild species seven were identified that have outstanding potential for domestication.

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In Part V, the Editors look at the future of Farmer First, especially in the current context of the reinstatement of Bookstack agriculture at the heart of international development. Extending Farmer First concepts to include consumers and Farmer First 1987 from top-down transfer of interests outside agriculture is needed to technology towards participatory extend research from ‘plough to plate’, as Revisited: Innovation technology development, such as Farmer well as giving farmers’ organisations more Field Schools, integrated pest concrete roles in governance systems of for Agricultural management and community-based international agricultural organisations. approaches to natural resource They propose that the original focus on Research and management.They also, rightly, raise the participatory methods should change to Development caution that farmer participation is involve professional behaviour, power, sometimes included as an add-on to politics, governance and organisational conventional working practices. style.The Editors note that Farmer First Part II deals with innovation systems, with actions have changed over 20 years from a range of papers describing the an essentially ‘diffuse group of dissident development of technologies, researchers’ to a highly potent and management and market systems born influential force’.To sustain this, they call out of farmer participation. I found for an active ‘community of practice’. Uphoff’s paper on System of Rice The book certainly has value as a Intensification (SRI) and Crane’s discussion chronicle of progress in participatory on involving pastoralists in research approaches in farming research & especially interesting. development.Thinking back to the mid- Part III covers the politics of demand and 1980s, I remember initial rumblings of organisational change, with papers greater participation by farmers and demonstrating the wide spread of rumours of new techniques of RRA and Edited by Ian Scoones and John concepts that originated in Farmer First.It PRA.Then, from its publication in 1987, Thompson. is good to see how such principles have Farmer First and its concepts spread Practical Action Publishing, Rugby. 2009, been internalised within the CGIAR rapidly. Reading some of the papers in 397 pp. paperback system under their Collective Action and Farmer First Revisited – emanating from all ISBN 978 1 85339 682 3, £12.95 Property Rights (CAPRi) programme parts of the globe – I was impressed by how far the original concept of involving This book reviews progress over the 20 (Watts & Horton). farmers in agricultural research and years since the original Farmer First Part IV, entitled New Professionalism, development has indeed penetrated our workshop was organised by IDS in 1987, Learning & Change, includes papers on work and become mainstreamed in all and the Beyond Farmer First workshop in networking, agricultural education, impact fields of rural development. 1992. It represents the outcome of the assessment and learning.Tripp’s paper on Farmer First Revisited workshop that was Low External Input Technology introduces For the academic, this book provides a arranged by IDS in 2007.The book is well the concept of ‘information-intensive’ valuable review and bibliography (300 presented is five Parts, comprising an technology. In their discussion of references). For the practitioner, dipping initial review section, followed by about innovation and change in Sub-Saharan into the individual papers, which are 60 brief (3-4 page) papers by workshop African Universities, Hagmann, Kibwika usually only 3-4 pages long, is an participants, grouped by broad themes and Ekwamu, describe action research enlightening experience. At times, that are preceded by a moderator’s aimed at making lecturers more aware of however, I did find the jargon and style a opening notes. the reality of livelihood and poverty bit daunting: eg.‘…. they may distract from wider lesson learning and reflexivity if used As explained by Robert Chambers in his issues, stressing the need to change as the sole metric for assessment’. Perhaps Foreword, Farmer First was about farmers’ mindsets. Development is seen to need we should add ‘plain English’ to the potential and performance, Beyond Farmer entrepreneurial minds but that, often, it is agenda for the next book in the series? First covered process and power, whereas bureaucratic minds that train them! Farmer First Revisited addresses people Rhoades notes that Andean communities Full proceedings of the Farmer First and professionalism. seek ‘enriching’ relations with researchers, Revisited workshop can be seen at: not ‘extractive’: they seek equitable In Part I, the Editors introduce the topics collaboration rather than the “somewhat http://www.future-agriculture. and include two keynote papers.The tired discourse of participation”. org/farmerfirst/index.html Editors note with pride the shift since Keith Virgo

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encompassing both the formal and impacts, and can thus ascertain who is Food Security informal seed sector. Markets also have responsible for them. Finally, they discuss major impacts on agricultural biodiversity, general and specific policies to promote by affecting farmers’ choice of crops and sustainable development in energy. New varieties to grow. coverage is included of today’s pressing This book provides a critical link between issues, including security, environmental the study of agricultural biodiversity and impact assessment and future climate the economics of market development change/renewable energy regimes.The across several low income nations. Seed authors also cover all major new Trade in Rural Markets presents a unique international agreements and set of case studies from Bolivia, India, technological developments. Energy, This new journal (Volume 1, 4 issues, Kenya, Mali and Mexico on agricultural Environment and Development is the 2009) is the initiative of a distinguished seed and product markets that describe result of many years of study and practical international group of scientists, three important market characteristics experience in policy formulation, sociologists and economists who hold a expected to affect farmers’ access to discussion and implementation in these deep concern for the challenge of global seeds and varieties: the range of varieties fields by the authors. food security, together with a vision of the on offer, the information provided about power of shared knowledge as a means them, and relative prices.The case studies of meeting that challenge.The journal has – all based around a common framework Forestry & Climate two aims: (1) to define the constraints – to aid comparability – also provide Change physical, biological, socio-economic and information on social, agricultural and Edited by Peter H. Freer-Smith, Mark S. J. political – that prevent around one billion economic factors which may be affecting Broadmeadow and Jim M. Lynch of the world’s population from accessing the market availability, information, and an appropriate diet i.e. one that is cost of crop genetic resources, and CAB International,Wallingford. 2009, 272 sufficiently nutritious to allow full ultimately the capacity to stimulate pp. paperback development of physical and mental agricultural development ISBN: 978-1-84593-596-2 (Paperback potential and (2) to address the means by £35.00) and 978-1-84593-294-7 which these constraints may be overcome. Contributions to the journal Energy, (Hardback £70) consist of a mixture of original refereed Environment and papers, review articles, case studies, commentaries and letters to the editor. Development These do not seek to duplicate the coverage of the many publications that Second Edition focus individually on the multiple José Goldemberg and Oswaldo Lucon disciplines encompassed by food security Earthscan, London. 2009, 480pp, but rather take a synthetic view of the Paperback, ISBN 978 1 84407 7496, science, sociology, economics and politics £24.95 Climate change is one of the greatest of food production, agricultural Hardback, ISBN 978 1 84407 7489, £85 challenges we face – both in terms of its development, access to food, and potential impact on our societies and the nutrition. Published by Springer earth, and the scale of international co- Netherlands. operation that is needed to confront it. Emerging as a component of the international dialogue on the environment Seed Trade in Rural and climate, the role of forests in Markets: Implications for In the first edition of this book Professor influencing earth systems will need to be Goldemberg pioneered the study of the assessed. Drawing together perspectives Crop Diversity and Agricultural relationship between energy, the from researchers and policymakers, this Development environment and development.With book explores how forests will interact contributions from Oswaldo Lucon, this with the physical and natural world, and second edition has been expanded and Edited by Leslie Lipper, C. Leigh with human society as the climate updated to cover how energy is related Anderson and Timothy J. Dalton changes. Also considered is how the to the major challenges of sustainability Earthscan, London. 2009. paperback, world’s forests can be managed to faced by the world today. 224pp, ISBN 978 1 84407 7854, £29.95 contribute to the mitigation of climate Hardback ISBN 978 1 84 407 7847, £85. The book starts by conceptualizing change and to maximize the full range of energy, and then relates it to human economic and non-market benefits. activities, to existing natural resources and Providing an examination of the science, a to development indicators. It then covers detailed consideration of the science the main environmental problems, their policy interface and the international causes and possible solutions. frameworks and conventions, this book is Disaggregating national populations by valuable reading for all those interested in Markets have been found to be an income and by how different income sustainable forest management, climate increasingly important source of the seeds groups consume energy, the authors change and the associated environmental of crops and varieties low income identify the differences between local, sciences. farmers need to improve their livelihoods, regional and global environmental

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researched post-harvest problems which though they would provide the new reduced loss of product and improved its solutions to many previously intractable Mailbox quality. Today, research in these areas is at problems through advances in such things best fragmentary and at worst non- as molecular biology and the understanding existent. of genomics. The NARS agenda would be determined by its stakeholders, clearly On the positive side however we have seen responding to today’s and future needs The Does Britain need an an increasing impact of the social, System would only work with the full economic and environmental dimensions Integrated participation of all parties, prepared to pool impacting on the agricultural research resources, define and confine themselves to Agricultural agenda and increased participation of the their specific roles and contribute to the private sector leading to a less top-down Research System? whole. and more bottom-up approach. We have seen the establishment of a UK Forum on The governance of an integrated NARS will It is now more than 14 years since I retired Agricultural Research for Development, require an over-arching body or council as a Senior Agricultural Research Adviser participating in the wider European and comprised of all the stakeholders, whose with what was then ODA (Overseas Deve- Global forums. And we now have an All first task would be to identify the needs and opment Administration) and is now DfID Party Parliamentary Group on food and define the responses required to meet them. (Department for International Develop- farming which is beginning to influence It would then identify or re-create institu- ment). During this time, and whilst work- government policies in these matters. The tions and associated human resources ing with the TAA, the UK Forum and the TAA itself, through its re-branding capable of tackling both old and new Centre for Underutilised Crops in South- activities, is also better poised to influence problems. The System would then, by ampton University, I have been keeping in policies at the higher levels. Not all is doom marshalling resources, ensure adequate touch with the massive changes which have and gloom. funding for the future. taken place in agricultural research in the UK, the Consultative Group on Interna- I believe that the answer to the question I would like to encourage the TAA and the tional Agricultural Research (CGIAR), GFAR posed in the heading of this letter is a UK Forum to debate this matter – preferably (the Global Forum on Agricultural resounding YES. The reason being that the using a consultation process with all Research), the European Union, some UK does not have an effective integrated stakeholders. This could be followed up by NGOs and many of the National system which responds to the needs of hosting a conference which would consider Agricultural Research Systems throughout growers, processors, traders and consum- issuing a resolution to be passed to the developing world. I do not think that ers, particularly in times of climate change, government and all other potential partners many of these changes have been for the the need to produce more and at the same who could be part of an integrated NARS. better. time to protect the increasingly fragile Roger Smith, Thame environments in which we all live. In the UK we have seen the change from an effective Agricultural Research Council to a The establishment of a National Agriculture Reality versus less effective, in terms of support for Research System, involving the participa- agriculture, BBSRC. We have seen the loss tion of all stakeholders, would in my view climate change of many world renowned Agricultural reverse many of the downturns mentioned Research Institutes in the UK, the loss of an above and build on the positive develop- I fully endorse the prescriptions in the effective extension service previously ments which have taken place. In particular editorial and in Alan Yates’ article (The provided by ADAS, a serious reduction in it would martial existing and hopefully new fundamental challenges for tropical agricul- scientific human resources, and numerous funding streams in the public and private ture) in the Summer 2009 issue of academic facilities for the training of the sectors and result in demand-led research Agriculture for Development. But I think we next generations of farmers and scientists. which would address the critical needs of need to go one step further. And that is to This erstwhile system was very effective in today’s Britain, produce needed outputs place and see climate change in the plant breeding and the improvement of and enable Britain to play her full part in perspective of overall tropical agricultural livestock and fisheries. It was effective in International Development as indeed it did development needs. At present, the two dealing with pests and diseases of plants in the past but does not do today. seem to have got badly out of kilter. and animals, and in dealing with the An integrated NARS would make the best I have recently been involved in reviewing competition from weeds in farming enter- use of financial and human resources and documents on climate change and food prises. Furthermore it developed more indeed increase these resources to match security in Bangladesh. This has revealed productive farming systems which im- the clear needs of today. It would be driven two major issues, of which the second is the proved economic production and looked not by the scientists dictating from the top main subject of this letter. But the first after plant and animal nutrition. It also

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issue needs to be aired first. That is the But other factors are affecting farmers now. One other aspect that came to light during almost unbelievable crudity of current Bangladesh’s population (now ca. 150 my recent involvement with Bangladesh is climate change models and the inputs fed million) is expanding by ca. 2 million/year, the scale of research and extension into them, with consequent doubts about thereby increasing national foodgrain interventions that are needed to address the value of the outputs. Four different demand by ca. 0.5 million tons/year current problems, let alone to deal with climate models for the Indian subcontinent (especially if poverty-alleviation goals are to uncertain future problems that might arise used in one study simulated the present be met). It is estimated that 1 per cent of with climate change. I think that this aspect climate only to within a range of between agricultural land is being lost to has also been lost sight of in the hysteria –8° and +13°C in the dry season and settlements, infrastructure, etc., each year that has distracted politicians, environ- between –10° and +4°C in the monsoon which, together with the need for increased mentalist and some agriculturalists from season, and they underestimated current food production, requires that crop yields attending to existing problems. The issue of July rainfall by between ca.150 and 350 be continuously increased. Soil salinity is reality versus climate change is one that I mm. The data inputs used in the model to reported to be increasing in some coastal think experienced members of the TAA predict the impacts of climate change on areas (although I think this is more likely could usefully help to clarify in order to get Bangladesh included averaging soil textures due to abstraction of water for irrigation meaningful assistance to poor farmers in and soil depth data derived from units on and other uses upstream in the Ganges- poor countries back on track – and soon. the FAO soil map of the world for 55 x 55 Brahmaputra-Meghna catchment area than Hugh Brammer, Hove km grid squares in India, assuming run-off to climate change or sea-level rise which get and river discharge for catchment areas in the blame). Arsenic contamination of soils India (because India would not release the and rice poses a threat to crop production Minimum tillage hydrological data), and tweaking an input- and human health which could be as output hydrological model which the serious as that recognised from drinking needs fertilisers and authors acknowledged was not designed for water in affected areas, but which to-date agro-chemicals use in catchments with bunded fields and has been virtually ignored by both govern- with seasonally flooded floodplains. With ment and by donors. And, regardless of The opening sentence of the editorial in the layer upon layer of such generalisations and climate change, measures need to be summer issue of Agriculture for Develop- assumptions – 40 pages of them, followed strengthened to help farmers cope with the ment accurately summarises the “problem by 12 pages of calibrations – the output of current frequency and intensity of floods, blighting the lives of small-scale farmers”. predicted impacts can only be statistically cyclones, drought, pest/disease attacks and This, the editorial states, is the lack of significant at near-zero level. the multitude of other economic and social resources to purchase the good seeds and problems they face in trying to sustain and fertiliser which have been responsible for But to my main issue. I am not a climate increase agricultural production (including increasing the productivity of the majority change denier, but I believe the current livestock and fish production). of the world’s farmers. For many African climate-change hysteria is seriously smallholders their most serious constraint distracting attention from the real and My experience with Bangladeshi farmers is the depletion of soil nutrients in their actual needs of developing tropical showed that, from their own and their farms as a result of the intensification of countries, including support to those inherited experience, they know more land use in recent decades. The editorial countries’ farmers. This is certainly true of about coping with environmental variability goes on to infer that by switching to Bangladesh, which I know best. Climate and change in their villages than academ- conservation agriculture the problem of change in that country is taking place ically trained extension agents (many of seriously nutrient depleted soils will be much more slowly than are other factors whom are from an urban background with- solved at little cost and with less labour affecting the farmers’ working environ- out personal farming experience). I accept than conventional methods of production. ments. If temperatures in the 21st century that there are techniques such as Integrated Unfortunately starving plants are starving increase, as predicted, by 2°C (or by 4°C in Pest Management that farmers do need to plants whether land preparation has been some scenarios), that is by only 1/50th (or be taught; and there are other techniques conventional or minimum tillage. Farmers 1/25th) of one degree per year. Sea level is such as more efficient use of fertilisers and with depleted soils need to replenish plant currently rising by less than 2mm/year; but irrigation water that they could usefully be nutrients before they can hope for any even if it increases to 3mm/yr over the next taught. I consider that the research and significant increase in productivity and this two decades, that would be by only about 2 extension activities focusing on these tech- will not be achieved simply by moving to a inches in the next 20 years. Those rates of niques are much more urgently required no-till system. change are unlikely to have significant than is the setting up of projects and pro- impacts on farmers’ crop yields or cropping grammes to teach farmers how to cope with It is surely significant that the major patterns within the next one or two climate change. My 12 years’ experience in practitioners of conservation agriculture in decades. Africa leads me to consider that this is North and South America use fertiliser, probably true for that continent, too. improved seeds and herbicides in order to

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achieve high levels of productivity. The I agree that farmers need projects in the 1970s and ‘80s and I am told recent initiatives to promote conservation fertilizers… that the bunds are still there, as reported by agriculture amongst small-holders in a friend in the recent Somaliland journal. and other agro-chemicals whether they Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi likewise Maintenance is a problem. They inevitably practise minimum tillage or conventional embody the use of fertiliser and improved erode and are equally inevitably damaged by seeds as essential requirements for techniques. In the Editorial emphasis grazing stock in the off-seasons, no matter increased productivity. Without these should have been placed on the word how carefully they are shepherded. inputs there would not only be low yields “subsidized”. Farmers should not have to Maintenance was done in our days by ox- but inadequate production of mulch for the rely on subsidized manufactured inputs drawn scaperboards lent by us to farmers, suppression of weeds. Even with essential that lead them into a false sense of but this is not being done any longer when inputs the amount of crop residues left in security and a belief that their farming is bunds have been built by the government the field after termites and livestock have profitable. However, maybe many African with bulldozers, because maintenance work had their share is often inadequate to governments will have to underwrite the would have to be paid for even if machinery control weeds under moist conditions (over cost of agricultural inputs if their farmers was still available after all this time. 750mm. of rain per growing season). It was are going to produce sufficient food to I do believe the experts and concerned for this reason that the World Congress on feed the people. Ministries of Agriculture should think a lot Conservation Agriculture in 2005 passed a (Editor) more about expanding agriculture into motion discouraging the promotion of CA areas until now deemed too dry for crop among small-holders in moist areas who production, as we had to in our days in could not gain access to herbicides. Those Preserving rainfall Somaliland in the 1950s, to feed the who have ignored that advice have found expanding population. What with that the need for repeated hoe weeding both for crops in drier threatened climate change and the discourages the spread of the technology areas of Africa possibility of reduced rainfall, and the vastly and negates the whole concept of increasing world population especially in minimum tillage. The latest issue of Conservation developing countries, this should be Agriculture, Issue 9, Sept 2009 (PACA, It is perfectly possible for small-holders to thought about very seriously. India) has made several very valid points restore the fertility of their soils with about improving developing country Andrew Seager, Whitchurch-on- organic methods on small portions of their agriculture, especially in Africa. One of the Thames, Reading farms, but to increase the productivity of points made was preventing water runoff by the large areas of depleted soils in Sub- preserving rainfall, i.e., not allowing any of Saharan Africa will require the use of the the 1000 mm, the amount falling at the fertilisers and improved seeds which feed place the writer had in mind, to run off. But the rest of the world. In addition the the points, especially in Africa – and I refer farmers who want to practice conservation to my time in what is now the Republic of agriculture in the potentially more Somaliland – is not so much to preserve the productive moist regions of the continent rainfall as the picture on page 2 of the will also need herbicides. The editorial Conservation Agriculture newsletter shows, asserts that the farmers, who were earlier but to augment it. The system my colleague described as having inadequate money to and I dreamt up over 50 years ago was to do purchase inputs, “do not need subsidised this by collecting runoff from the area fertiliser or agro-chemicals”. If this advice is surrounding the cultivated patch; the area to be followed then farmers will continue to from which it was to be collected depended produce starving plants even if they switch on the local rainfall. In areas where we to conservation agriculture. In conse- worked, rainfall was between 250 and 350 quence Africa’s food supply will increas- mm, and preventing its run off was by ingly have to depend on the produce of constructing contour bunds not more than farmers in Asia, Europe and America who 25 yards apart even in gentle slopes, but are helped by their governments to gain nearer at about 60 cm vertical intervals access to those inputs which enable them where it was steeper, with arms above the to achieve high levels of food production contour reaching to over half the distance and which are currently denied to the to the bund above it to retain as much of majority of African small-scale farmers. the water as possible. This was very Stephen Carr, Zomba, Malawi successful and it became two World Bank

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redesign of the consultant’s Directory, which has been affected by the delays in redesigning the main TAA website, is TAA Forum continuing. TAA Award Fund: The expanded TAAF Annual General New TAA Journal: The TAA Newsletter, programme continues to be very popular the Association’s flagship publication, with recent graduates to gain overseas Meeting held at the relaunched in March 2008 as a new development experience. The report from international journal called Agriculture the Chairman of the TAAF committee Royal Over-Seas for Development, has continued to be follows. League, Park Place, St well received by members. The Access to British Expertise: TAA’s Agri- Publications and Communication Business Group has membership of James’s Street, Committee has worked hard to broaden British Expertise (formerly BCCB) that is London on the range of material being covered, to available to all TAA members. TAA include topics that are increasingly members who have signed up to the Agri- Wednesday9th relevant to agriculture in the 21st Business network group have received Century, as well as commission more copies of the British Expertise News and December 2009-12-12 articles from overseas experts. members have access to meetings and New TAA Website (www.taa.org.uk): training opportunities organized by Chairman and During 2009, the TAA website was to be British Expertise. redesigned, but the webmaster UK Forum for Agricultural Research for General Secretary’s commissioned to redesign the website Development (UKFARD): Hosted by TAA, report was unable to complete the task. UKFARD provides a means to foster, Ex-Co has now commissioned another strengthen and optimize UK research, innovation and development services for In anticipation of the mid-term review of webmaster. The new website will have a agricultural development in developing the Business Plan: Strategic directions modern and user-friendly image with countries. Last year UKFARD worked for 2007-2010, ExCo worked with the comprehensive and easy to navigate successfully with corporate members of wider membership in drafting a re- content, which expands the range of the Association to establish an All Party branding proposal discussed at the last information made available; including Parliamentary Group (APPG) on AGM. The re-branding process including job and business opportunities, Agriculture and Food for Development proposals for new names, mission, aims consultancy companies, and funding and which focuses on the science and and opportunities has continued during resources available. practice of agriculture and its impact on 2009 so that the next Business Plan can Annual Memorial Lectures: The sustainable development and the be formulated next year based on the re- traditional Ralph Melville Memorial alleviation of poverty. The APPG inquiry branding decisions to be taken at this Lecture and the mid-year Hugh Bunting into the UK’s role in tackling the AGM. Ex-Co has been very grateful to a Memorial Lecture at University of challenge of Global Food Security up small group of TAA members who Reading University have continued to be until 2050 had five very successful contributed to the working group which promoted as high profile international evidence sessions with DFID, Defra and led the re-branding process. public events. The Lectures are being key high profile stakeholders. The report Regional Groups and Overseas Branches: recorded for wider dissemination to TAA is currently being finalised for launch. Regional groups in the UK have members and the public. The 2009 Hugh James Birch, the APPG Secretariat has continued to be strengthened, with each Bunting Memorial Lecture was delivered organised a successful calendar of events Group offering an exciting programme of by Professor Jules Pretty, University of throughout the year. meetings to their members and linking Essex on “Sustainable Agriculture and The Royal Agricultural Show: Building effectively with international research the Future of the World Food System”. on the success of the TAA stand at the and development agenda. We continue to The 2009 Melville Lecture will be 2008 Show, the “Royal Show stand” team encourage overseas Branches, particu- delivered by Professor Chris Garforth, ran a successful stand at this year’s last larly in India, and there is increased School of Agriculture, Policy and “Royal” Show with two sets of three new networking between members, including Development, University of Reading on coloured, laminated text panels about the those located overseas. This year Bruce “Where theory and practice meet: TAA. Around 110 visitors either signed Lauckner represented TAA at the 45th innovation, communication and our visitors’ book or left business cards. Annual Caribbean Food Crops Society extension among smallholder farmers.” Our Royal visitor this year was the Duke Meeting and has agreed to be the formal Directory of Consultants and Technical of Kent. Five enquiry forms were TAA representative in Caribbean. Advisors (www.taadirectory.org.uk): The

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completed. Four new members were restricted to TAA members, for the TAA the TAAF Committee follow. Membership recruited and 28 existing members Award of “Development Agriculturalist of is grateful for the hard work that they, all checked their entries in a membership the Year” and “Young Development other members of ExCo, and the list on the stand. Around 16 members Agriculturalist of the Year” for members of the Regional and Specialist were involved in setting up and running outstanding contributions to the science Sub-Committees have done during the the stand during the Show. We thank all or practice of tropical agriculture. It also year in the UK and overseas. those, particularly Henry Gunston, Mollie recommends nominations from amongst Changes to ExCo: During 2009, ExCo and Mike Long and Ted Wilmot, who TAA members for UK National Honours, was pleased to welcome Professor Chris once again worked diligently on the and for Honorary Membership of TAA Garforth as Chair of TAA. ExCo was sorry setting up and running of our stand at and/or a TAA Award of Merit. All to receive notices of resignation from the last Royal Agricultural Show. nominations for honours can be Francis Shaxson (Convenor of the Land submitted at anytime to the Panel Chair. Honours: The Honours Panel, Husbandry Group), and Judy Mann who established last year by ExCo, oversaw General Administration and Executive have requested to step down at the AGM. the process of recommending an Responsibilities: Reports from Treasurer, To both of them, we all owe a special debt individual or group of individuals, not membership Secretary and the Chair of of gratitude and appreciation.

Honorary Audited Accounts Treasurer’s report 2008-2009 Income 2009 2008 Difference % The 2009 accounts (July 2008-June Subscription £19,900 £21,053 -£1,153 -5% £3,000 2009), finalised by our external Award Fund £1,250 £1,750 140% Gatsby Foundation £15,000 £14,500 £500 3% accountants, Montpelier Professional CV Directory £423 £521 -£98 -19% (Galloway Limited were presented and Functions £1,391 £1,232 £159 13% approved at the AGM. Inland Revenue £1,442 £2,518 -£1,076 -43% Income Interest £722 £1,632 -£910 -56% Miscellaneous £559 £416 £143 34% Total £42,437 £43,122 -£685 -2% Subscription income received in 2009 Expenditure was 5% down on that received in 2008 Charitable despite the increase in fees for those less Membership list - £2,804 -£2,804 -100% than seventy years of age. Although we Newsletter/Magazine £12,970 £10,029 £2,941 29% have over 800 members, many of the CV Directory - £352 -£352 -100% under-70s still pay at historical rates, Shows, Functions and conferences 4748 £4719 £29 1% despite frequent reminders of the fee Royal show £2,345 £1,892 £453 24% Regional Subs/costs £424 £500 -£76 -15% increase. British Expertise £1,222 £1,472 -£250 -17% The Award Fund including the Gatsby Award fund grants and expenses £13,279 £13,675 -£396 -3% donation received more income than sub total £32,643 £33,551 -£908 -3% expected, thanks to an anonymous Governance donation of £3000. Insurance £578 £546 £32 6% Accounting services £529 £564 -£35 -6% Tax rebates from the Inland Revenue ExCo £631 £1,670 -£1,039 -62% were lower than in 2008, this being due Admin £186 £1,173 -£987 -84% to a substantial gift received in 2008 on UK Forum £56 £364 -£308 -85% which we were able to claim the tax paid sub total £1,980 £4,317 -£2,337 -54% by the donor. Unfortunately less than a Total £34,623 £37,868 -£3,245 -9% third of our members have signed “Gift Surplus/Deficit £7,814 £5,254 £2,560 49% Bank balance Aid” forms, which means we lose Current account -£91 £1,218 -£1,309 -107% potential income. Deposit account £32,491 £28,528 £3,963 14% Expenditure Movement in the year £7,814 £5,254 £2,560 49% Closing balance Current account £362 -£91 £453 -498% The Agriculture for Development journal Deposit account £39,582 £32,491 £7,091 22% is presently our major expenditure item, Other assets with costs rising by 29% during the year. Liabilities £400 -£400 £0 0% TAAF approved 12 awards valued at £13 Total funds available £39,814 £32,000 £7,814 24% 050, a similar amount to 2008.

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Governance/administration costs remain We only have email addresses for about cautious advertising programme in view low, less than 6% of total costs and 60% of members. It is hoped to increase of the uncertainty surrounding future considerably less than in 2008, thanks to the use of emails to remind members of funding. The quality of the applications Trustees and the Executive Committee upcoming events organised by the received was high, reflecting the not charging for many costs. association. continuing interest of many young graduates to embark on development Funds available It would be appreciated if all members work despite the uncertainty of long- who did not receive an email from the term career prospects. The current focus Surplus income over costs increased to membership secretary giving details of on global food security and climate £7,814 bringing our total reserves at the the AGM please send their email address change risks undoubtedly played a part in end of June to £39,582. However Gatsby to [email protected]. funding for TAAF has now ceased and this phenomenon. It is hoped that, with the rebranding TAA has commitments to TAAF going All the awardees currently in the field are exercise complete and the new website up forward of £12,296. working on topics of critical importance: and running early next year, a major food security, forest conservation, Looking forwards effort can be made the recruit new adaptation to climate change, and members. We expect a substantial deficit in 2010 renewable energy sources. Professional and consequent drop in our reserves, advice from TAA members experienced in largely due to commitments into 2011, TAAF Chairman’s these fields is offered to awardees to without new income sources. After 2011, report supplement the financial resources new sources for TAAF are urgently provided through the grants. required. At the same time TAA members Introduction Mentoring of awardees by TAAF are asked to ensure that Standing Orders committee members continues to be with their banks are updated to the new TAAF had a budget of £18,500 of new mutually beneficial. Many returned subscription levels, as well as paying any money for 2008/09 plus some funds held awardees have found jobs in development arrears. in reserve from previous years. 14 awards and several now serve on the TAAF were made costing £15,860. This report The rebranding of TAA – Agriculture for committee, and it is intended to continue summarises the activities of the Award Development, approved at the AGM this trend, both to keep TAAF in touch Fund and its awardees. needs membership support so that we with the needs of a new generation of meet future challenges development workers and also to 6-12 Month Awards encourage awardees to maintain their 2010 and 2011 will be important years to TAAF received 9 applications for long- interest in TAA and to contribute to its ensure the Association’s long-term term awards of 6-12 months duration in activities. sustainability. the financial year July 2008–June 2009. 5 6-8 week awards for MSc awards were made with a total students Membership expenditure of £7,160. Three awardees Secretary’s report who started their assignments in 2007/08 Nineteen high quality applications were were still in the field in late 2008. Details received from MSc students at 7 UK of the awards made in 2008/09 are given Current membership stands at just under universities who wanted to undertake in Annex 1. 900. Of these 560 or 55% are in arrears overseas field work for their dissertations with the payment of their subs. However The number of applications received was (a larger number of applications was further analysis shows that just over 300 greater than in previous years, even made, but many were filtered out by members are only £10 in arrears though TAAF adopted a somewhat Heads of Departments). Nine awards indicating that they have not updated Annex 1 their bank standing orders to take account of the increases voted for at the AGM 2007. Just over 250 members are in full arrears and it may be necessary to suspend some of them if they do not respond to letters requesting they bring their payments up to date. Letters are being sent to all members in arrears reminding them that their subs are still due.

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Annex 2 year for 3 years, another has given £500 per year for the last 3 years. Two TAA members have made generous personal donations of £3,000 each: it is hoped that other TAA members may decide to follow this example. However, it has proved difficult to find a single donor to replace GCF and allow TAAF to grow in line with demand. This reflects the problems faced by all voluntary bodies in the current financial climate and indicates the preference of many development donors to send money directly to countries of the south rather than invest in capacity building in the north. More attention is therefore now being focused on donors with an educational remit. were offered at a total cost of £8,700. All Once the TAA’s own website has been An approach to the Department for the applications were extremely well modernised it is hoped that the TAAF and Innovation, Universities and Skills (now prepared and focused on important TAA websites can be more closely subsumed under the Secretary of State topics (Annex 2, above). integrated, though a degree of separation for Business) did not bear fruit despite will still be necessary as the two serve The students have submitted their the seemingly logical argument that a rather different purposes. reports, which are on the whole of very year’s exposure and contribution to international development work by new high quality. Some will be expanded for Integration of TAA and TAAF publication in Agriculture for Develop- graduates must be preferable to a year (or more) of unemployment in UK. The ment. A recently adopted condition of TAAF awardees receive 1-2 years free search for new funding will continue but the TAAF awards is that the students membership of TAA with their awards, meanwhile TAAF will carry on using the present their work to the subsequent after which they are strongly encouraged funds available to it as cost-effectively as year’s cohort of MSc students at their to maintain their TAA membership and possible. It is hoped that the constraints university, combined where possible with contribute to the activities and to TAAF funding may ease as the UK a presentation by a TAAF committee management of the Association. Many economy recovers from recession. member on development opportunities are beginning to do this: events such as and the part that TAA and TAAF can play the Annual General Meeting, Melville and Conclusion in supporting access to these oppor- Bunting Memorial Lectures and regional tunities. These presentations are branch meetings of TAA have been well TAAF continues to meet a real need and expected to play an important part in attended by returned TAAF awardees. to have a positive impact on the awardees generating future applications for TAAF Former awardees serve on the TAA themselves, on the communities and awards. Membership, Publications and Finance projects with which they work, and in the Committees as well as on the TAAF longer term on bringing new blood into Website Improvement Committee. Only by rejuvenating TAA in the development profession, thus these ways and making it more enabling UK institutions to play a The TAAF website continues to prove responsive to the needs of younger continuing role in this critical field and to popular with users. It advertises awards, members can the future survival of the become more responsive to current events and job opportunities. Awardees Association be assured. development priorities. The challenge are encouraged to submit news from the facing TAAF, as always, is to generate the field for posting on the website. A Future Funding of TAAF funds needed to allow it to continue and database showing the awardees’ current expand its activities. It is hoped that, in jobs is in preparation. Management of the A large number of foundations, agri- difficult economic times, more TAA site is currently located at the University business firms, NGOs and grant-giving members may be willing to contribute of Wales, Bangor, with assistance from a agencies have been approached for the personally to the achievement of this member of the TAAF committee who has future funding of TAAF now that the core goal. now relocated to Colombia. The website funding provided by Gatsby Charitable can be viewed directly at Foundation (GCF) has come to an end. www.taafund.org, Some success has been realised: one agri- consulting firm has pledged £2,500 per or via the TAA site www.taa. org.uk.

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and Impact Assessment Programme at TAA recognizes International Livestock Research Insti- scientific tute in Kenya from 1996 until 2002. Based in Edinburgh, he is a Senior achievements Scientist and Consultant (ILRI) and Honorary Fellow, College of Science and At this year’s AGM, TAA recognized, for Engineering, University of Edinburgh. the first time, the contribution made by individuals to international agricultural He has just been appointed Research development. Theme Leader of Theme 1 (Diagnosing vulnerability and analysing opport- Jonathan Stern receiving his certificate from unities) of CCAFS, the CGIAR’s new TAA Chairman, Professor Chris Garforth challenge program on Climate Change, JONATHAN STERN, who recently re- Agriculture and Food Security, starting in turned from Costa Rica, where he was a early 2010. This latter appointment is as TAAF awardee, received a certificate as a split position with ILRI. Young Development Agriculturalist of the Year 2009. The citation reads “In Dr Philip Thornton recognition of your contribution to inter- national agricultural development and to DR PHILIP THORNTON was named Award of Merit certificates were greater understanding of issues of Development Agriculturalist of the Year presented to FRANCIS SHAXSON in poverty reduction and environmental 2009 “in recognition of his contribution recognition of his contribution over sustainability through your work as a to international agricultural development many years to Improving Land Husband- Professional Support Volunteer to through greater understanding of tropi- Asociación de Pequeños Productores de cal agricultural systems in informing ry and Conservation Agriculture, and to Talamanca, Costa Rica, May 2008 to July policies to address climate change, land IAN HILL in recognition of his support 2009.” use and poverty alleviation.” Dr Thornton for assisting with development of TAA's was Coordinator of the Systems Analysis new strategy.

Renewable Energy on the place of Association will enable TAAF to TAAF Jatropha in smallholder farming continue its work of supporting young systems. people to gain practical field experience Nine MSc students received of international agricultural develop- News ment. awards to enable them to undertake overseas fieldwork for their Antony Ellman TAAF made 5 long-term awards in this dissertations. Summary reports by 3 of year; 4 awardees are still in the field. the awardees are given below. Jonathan Stern: Lucrezia Tincani is studying the The TAAF committee with three Fair trade, forest management, poverty mitigating role of forest recent awardees held its annual ecotourism and sustainable develop- resources in Burkina Faso, and the meeting in London in November. ment training (May-Dec 2008) and compatibility of forest resource use Naysan Adlparvar returned from Economic analysis of cocoa supply with forest conservation. She is Afghanistan in time to attend the chain (Apr-Aug 2009). working in collaboration with the NGO meeting, Margaret Pasquini took part TREE AID. Her progress report appears by skype link from Colombia, and Between May and December 2008 and below. Daniella Hawkins participated by email from April to August 2009 the TAA Louise Glew is in Northern Kenya from Malawi where she is working with Award Fund enabled me to work with working on the impact of drought a microfinance institution. Asociación ANAI and the Small Producers’ Association of Talamanca on pastoral communities. Rowan TAAF continues to struggle to raise (APPTA for its initials in Spanish) in Godfrey is also in Kenya working on funds for its activities but has been Costa Rica. ANAI is a locally based integrated pest management in much helped by two generous personal environmental NGO, which for 30 years community vegetable gardens near donations of £3,000 each from two TAA has been developing the “Talamanca Thika. Simon Howard is in Laos members. This help from within our working with the Lao Institute for Initiative” which aims to provide

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environmental education and socio- with another consultant in generating Returning to the UK to take up a post economic development opportunities a new and much more detailed set of in climate change policy in the fast- to the indigenous peoples of the projections designed to enable the track civil service, I feel that I have Talamanca region. Their investigations association to manage its cash flow and learned an enormous amount, have into crop diversification opportunities ensure sufficient and timely pre- been well rewarded and have had the resulted in the founding of APPTA, a financing for the annual cocoa harvest. pleasure to see my contributions to farmers association run by the Bri Bri I gave appropriate training to the board development make an impact in a very people marketing fair trade organic of directors in understanding financial short space of time. I am fairly sure cocoa, bananas, and other tropical fruit concepts, the idea of projections and that I will return to the field, but in the on the national and international the important role of the board in meantime my new confidence, know- markets. monitoring the administration’s pro- ledge and skills should help me to gress in executing the strategic plan contribute to solving one of the major My studies and previous work experi- and projections. I was then called upon problems faced by the developing world ence had equipped me well to contr- by the association to design terms of while living in the UK. I am very ibute to the organizations in economic reference for and interview a new grateful to the TAA and the TAAF for and financial analysis but I found I was General Manager, a task which I keenly helping me to achieve all of these also presented with a range of opport- took on realizing that this would career ambitions. unities to learn about and work in the probably be the biggest lasting impact fields of agriculture and agribusiness, that I could make on the association. Lucrezia Tincani: ecotourism and biodiversity. Two months after finishing at APPTA, I Lucrezia Tincani’s project is “Capturing In my first six months at APPTA I am pleased with the impact that my the poverty-mitigation role of forest presented to the administration and work seems to have had. The new resources in rural Burkina Faso” board an economic analysis of each of general manager is working hard to (Sept 2009-Sept 2010). Progress report the association’s product lines and thus bring together his team, using the on collaborations with TREE AID was able to assist in decision making financial projections I created to targeted at improvements in quality Work with the Burkina office of TREE support his plan of action, to obtain and price, purchasing logistics, client AID has been going very well. Their prefinancing for the harvest and to relations, marketing and ultimately local staff have helped in selecting the negotiate the payment of debts with profitability for each product. The villages; my two assistants (1 woman long-term creditors. I feel that my culmination of this work was the in each site) have extensive knowledge work has paved the way for positive creation of a financial projection tool of the area. changes as to how APPTA does which was presented to the board and I have already learned a lot about how business, and hope to see the stakeholders. development organisations implement organization moving into a new more community-based conservation pro- In addition I acted as host for other self-reliant and successful era in the jects, hoping to meet the double- international visitors working with near future. APPTA and through this work was able benefit of poverty reduction and forest As a result of my work in APPTA, I was to design an agro-ecotourism initiative conservation. It is not an easy task and able to obtain consultancy work in the to benefit from the growing tourist I have learned a lot more about the region with the Centre for Tropical presence in the region. I also participa- trade-off involved. However my study Agricultural Research and Higher ted in workshops on cocoa grafting, directly contributes to meeting this Education (CATIE) and Chirripo genetics and tropical bird recognition. double dividend as my vulnerability Consultants, both based in Costa Rica. analysis will allow TREE AID to better With the first six months of work This work consisted of a profitability target the most vulnerable groups with complete, and having recognized many analysis for a farmers cooperative in their conservation training, and allow more opportunities to assist the Bocas del Toro, Panama, and Business them to reduce their poverty and learn association, I received a further four Plans for a sustainable forestry the value of protecting the trees. months of TAA funding to be matched enterprise and a cocoa growers´ I plan to deliver: by APPTA in order to ensure that the association in southern Belize. • Literature reviews on various aspects legacy of my work would continue after of vulnerability and forest products. my departure. This allowed me to work • A methodological manual, explaining

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TAAF News

the vulnerability analysis in detail. In May 2009, having established wrongly expected climate change to TREE AID will be able to apply this contacts with Gana Unnayan Kendra, a bring drier monsoons and colder method for the Monitoring and respected local-based NGO in North- winter temperatures. Evaluation other ongoing or future West Bangladesh, I embarked on a 7- This study highlights how attempts to projects. week trip to Bangladesh to study how raise awareness about climate change • Statistical analysis of data from this organisation was responding to the may not be the best strategy to surveyed TREE AID villages. challenge of adapting to climate promote local community adaptation • A final report, making concrete change at the community level. to climate change; it also shows how suggestions of how to improve Located on the banks and chars (silt organisations such as the one I studied access and use of forest resources for islands) of the Brahmaputra River, must have significant training and the poor and vulnerable groups of the amongst some of the most vulnerable understanding if they are to embark population, based on the results of communities in Bangladesh, I inter- effectively on climate change work. the vulnerability and barrier analyses. viewed local community represent- With an awareness of uncertainty and It will also explore links and potential atives, staff of the NGO, and some the dangers of promoting misin- synergies between strategies to regional experts. The results showed formation, this organisation can better provide food security/food safety net that all were hugely concerned about promote actions to cope with climate and income generation from tree climate change; but there was wide- threats and climate change. products as promoted by TREE AID’s spread misunderstanding of the issue, existing Village Tree Enterprise and a certain hype that turned ‘climate I wish to thank TAAF for allowing me to project. change’ into a narrative which was undertake this unique and fascinating arguably counter-productive to reduc- research opportunity; work that will Robbie Blake: ing community vulnerability to climate hopefully contribute to academic threats. For example, one trainer research and practice on community- Community-based adaptation to climate described the greenhouse effect as based adaptation, and to the work of change risk in Bangladesh “rich countries have built greenhouses the organisation who kindly hosted me. Robbie Blake recently completed an where they grow different plants. Matthew Richard: MSc course in Climate Change and Greenhouses therefore cause climate International Development at the change”; a community interviewee Can institutional decentralisation University of East Anglia. He was stated that “all the floods in Bangladesh facilitate the financial sustainability of supported by TAAF to undertake a field are due to the change of the climate, rural water supply projects in Kenya? study in Bangladesh as the basis of his rich countries are to blame”; many Matthew Richard, a student on the MSc MSc dissertation. course Water Science, Policy and Management at Oxford University Centre for the Environment, received a TAAF award in April 2009 to enable him to undertake research for his dissertation. Here he summarises the outcome of his research: The implementation of the Water Act (2002) in Kenya has radically changed the water sector institutional landscape through the process of institutional decentralisation. This process advo- cates the community management of rural water supply (RWS) projects in accordance to demand responsive approach principles. The devolution of Robbi Blake discussing power from government to com- climate change with a community group munity-based organisations (CBOs) is proving a challenge with many RWS

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TAAF News

projects neglected and falling into generous grant from TAFF. I disrepair. It is argued that financial thoroughly enjoyed my experience sustainability is a key constraint in Kenya. The research has provid- towards continued service provision ed me with valuable experience with CBOs failing to achieve cost- that I hope to apply to my future recovery for ongoing operation and career in the water and sanitation maintenance. sector. My research argues that inappropriate internal financial mechanisms and Maka Green water project ineffective external support are restrict- ing the financial sustainability of Table of PNO systems. This contention has evolved projects from research conducted in Kenya with surveyed analysis of water committee interviews from Piped Network Operator systems. The research has the potential to guide future policy towards effective design and implementation for RWS projects across sub-Saharan Africa. The experience of conducting research in Kenya was challenging yet rewarding. I worked with an enthusiastic, energetic, and diverse team of professionals who aided this research along with a

Katherine Hart: their value to the communities major influence of poaching behaviour surrounding Cahuita National Park, to due to reliance on illegal trade of sea Sea turtle use in communities identify the drivers of poaching in the turtle eggs as a source of income. surrounding Cahuita National Park, communities surrounding Cahuita Conversely, the key behavioural Costa Rica National Park, and to suggest drivers in Cahuita town are economic Katherine Hart, MSc in Tropical Coastal solutions to inform effective gain via the tourism industry and Management, University of Newcastle management plans. Members of 3 social influence, resulting in During 3 months working as a communities, Cahuita town, Hone compliance with regulations. research assistant for a sea turtle Creek and Playa Negra, surrounding Awareness of sea turtle conservation is conservation project in Costa Rica I Cahuita National Park on the recognised as a key factor driving became aware of the vast range of Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, were behaviour in all communities, issues that were influencing the interviewed regarding their influencing personal morals and success of the project. The occurrence perceptions of turtles and poaching of perceived legitimacy of regulations. of poaching of sea turtles and their their eggs. Factors identified as eggs is the main problem facing sea influencing human turtle populations in this area. The poaching behaviour include lack of effort to address the causes of economic drivers, perceived such problems was apparent, legitimacy, governance, coinciding with the assignment of personal morals, socio- ‘blame’ to local communities whose cultural norms, and perceptions and situations were rarely awareness. In communities considered. where income levels are variable, such as Hone The aims of my research project were Creek and Playa Negra, to assess perceptions of sea turtles and economic drivers are the

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TAAF News/Upcoming events

Matthew Richard’s Report

Burgeret Piped Network Operator staff

Multi-use System project team Upcoming events

2010

7 January: TAA South-West Annual General Meeting. Exeter Golf and Country Club,Topsham Road, Exeter Matthew with 8 January: Cambridge Conservation project enumerators Forum Annual Symposium. Murray Edwards College (New Hall), Household inter- view next to water Cambridge tanks fed by Maka Green water supply Francis Shaxson will give a project presentation on ‘Soil health and sustainable production systems: the case for Conservation Agriculture’. CCF website http://www.cambridgeconservation forum.org.uk/ 12 March: Climate Change and Water: water management, water and politics, Cannington Centre for land-based Studies, Bridgewater (TAA South-West) 29 April: Challenges associated with increased consumption of animal products: local aspirations – global opportunities. Institute of Training enumerators Aquaculture, University of Stirling before Multi- (TAA Scotland & North of use System England) project launch 13 May: Agricultural development in Kenya. Bicton Agricultural College, Devon (TAA South-West) 12 May: Visit to Cornerways Nursery, Wissington, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk with the largest tomato producing glasshouse in the UK covering 11 hectares (TAA East Anglia)

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committees

TAA Executive Committee Regional Group Convenors

Scotland/Borders OFFICE HOLDERS John Gowing, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1 Park Terrace, President: Andrew Bennett, Flat D, 65 Warwick Square, London Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU. SW1V 2AL. Tel: 020 7834 3093. Tel: 0191 222 8488; email: [email protected] email: [email protected] South-West Chairman: Chris Garforth, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 237, George Taylor-Hunt, 19 Abbotsridge Drive, Ogwell, Newton Reading, RG6 6AR. Tel: 0118 378 8134; Abbott, Devon TQ12 6YS. Tel/Fax: 01626 362 782; email: [email protected] email: [email protected] General Secretary: Elizabeth Warham, TAA, PO Box 3, Penicuik, Bill Reed, 7 Woodlands Mead, Marnhull, Sturminster Newton, Midlothian EH26 0RX. Tel: Mobile 0711 524 641, Dorset DT10 1JW. Tel/Fax: 01258 820245; email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Treasurer/Subscriptions: Jim Ellis-Jones, 4 Silbury Court, Silsoe, London/South-East Beds MK45 4RU. Tel: 01525 861090; Matt Sullivan, 135 Beresford Road, London N8 0AG, email: [email protected] Tel: 0208 3401314; email: [email protected] Membership Secretary/Change of Address: John Davis, 3 Sandy Mead Road, Bournemouth, Dorset BH8 9JY. East Anglia Tel: 01202 397085, email: [email protected] Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 Newsletter Editors: 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: [email protected] Garry Robertson, 16 Lyndhurst Drive, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 5QN. Tel: 01582 715223, email [email protected] Specialist Group Convenors Agribusiness Jim Waller, 4 Wood End Hill, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 3EZ. Tel: 01582 763973, email: [email protected] Jim Turnbull, 32 Oakley Road, Chinnor, Oxon OX39 4HB Tel: 01844 352385; Fax: 01844 354991; Directory of members for consultation/employment: email: [email protected] Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk Land Husbandry CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413, email: [email protected] Amir Kassam, 88 Gunnersbury Avenue, Ealing, London W5 4HA. Award Fund Chairman/Enquiries: Antony Ellman, 15 Vine Road, Tel: 020 8993 3426; Fax: 020 8993 3632; Barnes, London SW13 0NE. Tel: 0208 878 5882, Fax: email: [email protected] 02088786588; email: [email protected] Environmental Conservation Committee Members: Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413; Hugh Bagnall-Oakeley, Tel: 0208 948 1895, email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Overseas Branch Coordinator/Organiser TAA India; Web site: http://www.taaindia.org Sanjeev Vasudev email: [email protected] email: [email protected]

PUBLISHED BY THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ASSOCIATION (TAA) ISSN 1759-0604 (Print) • ISSN 1759-0612 (Online) PO Box 3, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0RX • Web site: http://www.taa.org.uk

DESIGN, LAYOUT AND PRESS-READY FILES PRINTING TAA is a registered charity, Tina Bone, AssocSBA, Artist Acorn Press No. 800663, that aims to advance Tel: (01223) 262962 Tel: (01223) 834301 education, research and practice in [email protected] [email protected] tropical agriculture. www.tinabonedtp.co.uk www.acornprintsolutions.com

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